Defect Detective:
Common Green Sand Flaws
Green sand quality control, including good critical visual inspection, helps avoid
scrapped castings. AFS INSTITUTE (SCHAUMBURG, ILLINOIS)
Q uality control begins
with prevention. Met-
alcasters can control
five areas of green sand mold mak-
ing in order to prevent mold defects:
• The selection of type of sand and
clay and the amount of moisture
needed to make the mold.
• Consistent mulling, using the
right sequence of raw materials,
and selecting the right tempera-
ture of the sand.
• The cleanliness and condition of
horizontal and vertical patterns,
as well as core placement.
Fig. 1. Shown are nine common types of green sand defects.
24 | MODERN CASTI NG July 2018
• Selection of scrap metal and
determining what can be reused
and what must be discarded.
• Testing for quality ensures the
part meets the requirement of
the buyer. While castings can be
tested many ways, two one of the
major casting quality tests used
after the casting is made is visual
inspection.
Nine types of defects can be visu-
ally identified on a casting: cracks,
holes, rough surfaces, tear-up/drop,
friable edges, excess parting spray,
missing components, loose sand
and sand contamination (Fig. 1).
Usually, the causes of defects include
shrinkage, gas porosity, sand expan-
sion, sand adherence, and weak sand
strengths.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a depression in the
cured metal due to uneven solidifica-
tion. A shrinkage cavity is a void left
in cast metals as a result of solidifica-
tion shrinkage and the progressive
freezing of metal toward the center.
Excessive moisture (high com-
pactability) in green sand molds can
result in mold wall movement. This
can cause dimensional variation and
an increased chance of shrink defects.
Elevated gas content in the metal can
magnify the size of the shrink.
Gas Porosity
The two types of gas porosity
defects are entrapped and soluble.
Entrapped Gas
When molten metal is poured
into the mold, it heats up the green
sand. If the sand is too moist, it
creates steam, causing air to become
entrapped in the mold. Metal cannot
displace air in the mold. Air can also
be a by-product of some sand addi-
tives when they are heated.
Without venting this entrapped air,
blowholes can be produced. Keeping the
sprue full while pouring helps to prevent
air from being trapped in the metal.
Soluble Gas
Gas-related defects can also be
caused by soluble gasses in metals.
• Aluminum alloys will dissolve
hydrogen.
 Table 1. Green Sand Molding Defect Chart
Defect Sand or Mulling Moisture Metal Additive Mold Sand Pattern Molding Gating &
Prepared Compaction and Core Equipment Venting
Green Sand
Shrinkage Increase Insufficient Green sand Improper Mold wall Poor ram or Low Improper
bentonite mulling moisture metal movement squeeze compaction gating
content too high chemistry
Veining Increase Green Insufficient
bentonite sand free seacoal
content moisture addition,
too high add cellulose
Gas defects High nitrogen Green sand Reduce Hard Improper
(blows and content in sand, moisture organic molds gating; lack
pinholes) core butts too high additions of enough
mold or core
vents
Burn-on Increase Insufficient Excessive Pouring Lower Poor ram or Check Improper
and burn-in bentonite mulling moisture tempera- organic squeeze squeeze pres- gating
content ture too additive, sures
high low density
Metal Increase High free Low Improper
penetration bentonite moisture compaction venting
content content
Crush, shift, Pattern Improper
and tear-up core print, equipment
cores & maintenance
parting
surface do
not match
properly
Stickers Hot prepared Insufficient Green sand Hot sand, Improper
and drops sand mulling moisture cold equipment
too high or pattern, or usage or
too low backdraft maintenance
Sand Bentonite con- Insufficient Green sand Poor ram or Improper
erosion and tent too high mulling moisture squeeze gating
inclusions or too low; too low
hot prepared
green sand
Hot tears Lower sodium Hard Decrease Casting Check
bentonite molds mold design squeeze pres-
content, compaction issues sures
increase
calcium bentonite
Broken Low hot Green sand Poor ram or Pattern Check squeeze
molds, strength, moisture squeeze may flex pressures,
runout increase too high or under check
bentonite too low loading bottom boards
content for flatness
Swells, Increase ben- Insufficient High free Low mold Poor ram or Check
mold cavity tonite content mulling moisture hardness squeeze squeeze
dilation content pressures
Expansion Increase Insufficient Green Pouring Insufficient Poor ram or Check
defects (rattails, bentonite mulling sand free rate too seacoal squeeze squeeze
veining, content moisture slow addition pressures
scabs, spalling) too high
Friable Hot prepared Insufficient Green sand Increase
edges green sand; mulling moisture cereal
clay content too low additions
too low

• Cast iron alloys will dissolve
hydrogen and nitrogen.
• Copper-based alloys will dissolve
hydrogen and oxygen.
• Steel alloys will dissolve hydrogen,
nitrogen, and oxygen.
The problem is molten metal
can hold a greater amount of gas in
solution than solid metal can. This
means large amounts of gas that may
dissolve in the liquid metal during
melting, pouring, and mold filling
will be expelled from the metal as it
solidifies. During solidification, the
dissolved gases will precipitate into
tiny bubbles of gas, forming pin-
holes in the casting.
Sand Expansion
Expansion defects originate, in
part, from the expansion of the sand
grains when heated by the metal
entering the mold. These defects can
cause a positive or negative on the
casting surface. Surface defects are
purely cosmetic and typically do not
alter the properties of a casting.
The hot metal also produces
steam in the sand. When the steam
reaches the sand where the tempera-
ture is less than the boiling point, it
will condense, making the sand wet
and weaker.
The three types of sand expan-
sion defects are rattails, buckles,
and scabs.

July 2018 MODERN CAST ING | 25

 REMEDIES FOR SAND EXPANSION DEFECTS S
• Make an addition of cellulose or cereal to the sand to
provide a place for expansion to occur.
• Lower the moisture content of the molding sand, which
increases the overall mold strength.
• Lower the pouring temperature of the metal, which
reduces the amount of sand expansion.
• Lower the temperature of the molding sand from the return
sand system to increase the strength properties of the sand.
• Increase the sand’s clay content of the sand for better
hot strength properties.
• Decrease the amount of fines in the sand. Fines tend to
soak up water, increasing the overall mold moisture.
• Avoid over-ramming. This pushes moisture closer to the
mold surface, increasing the probability for defects.
• Improve the sand mulling practice to create a more
homogenous sand mixture with a better
developed bond.
• Fill the mold faster by increasing the flow rate of the
gating system to leave less time for the heat to act on
the sand without pressure from the metal.
• Improve the sand distribution to stagger the expansion
and create a linear expansion curve.

Rattails are surface defects. They’re

an irregular line on the casting result-
ing from thermal deformation of a
REMEDIES FOR LOW HOT STRENGTH
sand mold during filling with molten
metal. Rattails are common on flat • Increase sodium bentonite levels in the mold to provide better hot strength
surfaces, and look like a rat walked properties.
• Introduce better mulling practices to allow for better and more consistent
across the surface dragging its tail.
distribution of clays, sand, and other additives throughout the mold.
Buckles are an indentation on a cast-
• Reduce the combustibles in the sand mix because they increase the mold
ing, resulting from expansion of the sand.
moisture content and gas-producing ability, but usually do not strengthen
A scab is a rough thin layer of metal
the mold.
partially separated from the body of the
casting by a thin layer of sand.

26 | MODERN CASTI NG July 2018

 REMEDIES FOR SAND ADHERENCE DEFECTS
Sand Adherence
Adhering sand defects are com- • Reduce the moisture content of the sand because the moisture fills the space
mon in all alloys cast in green sand between the sand grains. When the moisture evaporates after being hit by molten
molds and are characterized by a metal, it then leaves open space for the metal to penetrate.
rough casting surface or by sand • Improve mold compaction to increase density and leave less room for the
sticking to the casting surface. These metal to penetrate.
defects can cause surface and sub- • Reduce metal pouring speed because higher velocities create more pressure,
surface defects. Two of the most com- allowing the metal to penetrate more easily.
mon ways these defects are produced • Improve the casting design and avoid metal reentrant angles. Sharp internal cor-
are mechanical penetration and ners create hot spots, which are areas where penetration is more likely occur.
chemical reaction. • Reduce the metallostatic head pressure because the higher the pressure, the
In mechanical penetration, the easier metal can penetrate the mold wall. Shorten the sprue.
• Use a mold coating as a preventative barrier against the metal at the mold interface.
metal penetrates into the green sand
• Check metal chemistry and temperature, especially in cast iron, to ensure proper fluidity.
mold because of the metallostatic
• Improve the mold filling with better gating to reduce velocities and avoid hot spots.
pressure of the molten metal. It usu-
• Increase carbon additives (seacoal) in the mold to create the reducing atmosphere
ally is seen when the sprue height
in the mold that produces better surface finish.
is too large. The greater the height • Add a finer sand to the mix if the GFN is too coarse for better mold compaction.
of the metal in the mold from the
top of the pouring cup to the bot-
tom of the casting, the greater the
pressure exerted on the liquid. High on defect. A burn-in defect usually Tear-ups/drops, stickers, and
metal pressures force molten metal requires a grinding operation to inclusions are defects caused by low
between the sand grains where the remove it, if it can be removed at all. green compressive strength.
metal solidifies, holding sand on the Hot strength is the ability of the
casting surface. Weak Sand Strengths green sand to hold the constructed
During a sand adhering chemical Two types of sand strength defects mold under high temperatures.
reaction, a reaction between the liq- occur in green sand molds: lack of green Low hot strength is a common
uid metal (iron) and the sand (sili- strength and too little hot strength. cause of defects for cast iron and steel
con) molding material occurs. These Green strength represents the metalcasting facilities where higher
reactions may produce products that ability of the green sand to hold the metal temperatures are required. The
act as glue, adhering the molding constructed mold. A lack of green defects that occur due to this problem
sand to the casting. These reactions strength can be caused by poor are erosion and run outs.
occur only in ferrous alloys. There sand composition, not enough clay, Erosion is the wearing away of
are two types of chemical reactions: improper clay proportions, too much the mold as the liquid metal fills the
burn-on and burn-in. or too little water, improper sand mold cavity. Without sufficient hot
The difference between the two is mixture, and lack of mulling time. strength, high metal velocity washes
the cooling rate. Burn-on cools slowly If sand does not have sufficient the mold material away, leaving an
and forms crystals. Burn-in cools fast green strength, the mold may tear up erosion scab.
and forms a glass-like and possibly when the pattern is stripped. Loose A run-out defect is a defect
pock-marked surface. sand also may result, leading to inclu- caused by incomplete filling of the
Shot blasting will take off a burn- sions in the casting. mold cavity due to draining or leak-
ing. While a majority of run outs
occur due to a lack of mold weight
REMEDIES FOR GAS POROSITY DEFECTS being placed in the mold prior to
pouring, a run out also can occur
• Reduce the combustible level of the sand because combustibles create gas during pouring. with low hot strength.
• Reduce the moisture content of the sand because moisture means more steam. Table 1 provides a helpful chart
• Increase the sand permeability to allow the gases to escape through the mold. to connect the type of defect with the
• With entrapped gases, increase the metal pouring temperature to increase area of the green sand molding process
metal fluid life, which provides entrapped gases more time to escape the mold that might have been a factor in caus-
and/or metal. ing the defect.
• With soluble gases, reduce the pouring temperature to reduce the chance for gases
to be dissolved in the metal. This article is based off the AFS Institue
• Vent molds and cores to provide the gases a highway to escape through. e-Learning module, “Introduction to Green Sand
• Reduce the binder level of cores to reduce the gas producing materials in the mold. Defects.” Alan Jacobson, Grede St. Cloud, Ed
Marczyszak, Burndy Foundry, and Jerry Thiel,
• Fill the mold quickly, but quietly to avoid turbulence and entrained oxides. Also, the University of Northern Iowa, contributed to the
quicker a mold fills, the less time allowed for gases to form. development of the module. Go to www.afsinc.
• Use a mold or core coating to prevent gases from escaping into the molten metal. org/e-learning for more information about this
and other e-Learning modules.

July 2018 MODERN CAST ING | 27