1.

0 Computations on the Ellipsoid

The first or direct problem of geodesy is defined as follows:

Given: α1, φ1, λ1 and s12; find α2, φ2, λ2

In a plane coordinate system, a line of length s and azimuth α, will have a northing component of
s. cos α and an easting component of s.sin α.

s.sin α

s.cos α α s

Now, if we think of s.cos α as a distance along a meridian, then dividing by an appropriate

radius, M, will give a difference of latitude. Similarly, if we think of the distance s.sin α as being
along the parallel of latitude φ, then by dividing by Ncos φ will give a difference in longitude.

The formulae:
𝑠.cos 𝛼 𝑠.𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
and are radian values; to give seconds of arc, they are expressed in the conventional
𝑀 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
forms:
𝑠.cos 𝛼 𝑠.𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
; ; where N and M are radii of curvature in the prime vertical and meridian
𝑀.𝑠𝑖𝑛1" 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 sin 1"
respectively.

At ordinary geodetic distances, these simple formulae give very close estimates of the
differences of latitude and longitude; its in the refinements required to provide the accuracy of
0.001” that the various available formulae differ.

1.1 Clark’s formulae

First consider the problem on a sphere of radius R. the length, s, of AB has an angle value of s/R.
BM is the perpendicular from B onto the meridian of A. Let the spherical excess of triangle
ABM

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be ϵ; then for computing ϵ it is sufficient to take the sides of the triangle as s.cos α and s.sin α, its
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area as 21 𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 and therefore, the spherical excess as 2𝑅2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 (radians) or
1
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼.ρ˝ (seconds of arc).
2𝑅 2

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Where ρ˝ =sin 1" = 206264.8”.

Since the angle at M is 90˚, it is easy to see that the angle at ABM must be 90˚ - α + ϵ. The
difference of longitude between A and B being denoted by ω. Let BK be drawn so as to have
also the angle value ω, then the triangle BPK is peculiar in that, by the sine formulae, the sine of
each of its angles is equal to the sine of the opposite side, that is, each angle is equal either to the
opposite side or its supplement; in this case obviously it is the angle BKM that is equal to (90 –
φB). Then denoting the spherical excess of triangle BMK by η, it follows that the third angle
MBK must be φB + η. Again, for calculating η, taking MB as s.sinα and angle at B as φB, the
length of MK is approximately s.sinα tan φB. thus the spherical excess η is :
𝑠2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑𝐵
𝜌" = ϵ.tanα.tan φB
2𝑅 2

It is now necessary to calculate some lengths more precisely, and this is where Legendre’s
Theorem comes in. The linear length of AB is s, so to get the accurate linear lengths of AM and
BM, we use the sine formulas on the triangle A’B’M’.

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Thus by Legendre’s Theorem:
𝑠 𝑠
𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴′ 𝑀′ = . sin(90 − 𝛼 + 2⁄3 𝜖) = . cos(𝛼 − 2⁄3 𝜖)
sin(90−1⁄3𝜖) 𝑐𝑜𝑠1⁄3𝜖

But we know that in practice ϵ will be only a few seconds of arc so that cos1/3ϵ can be taken as
equal to 1. Hence we have to all needed accuracy

AM = s. cos (α – 2/3 ϵ).

By similar working, we find BM = s. sin (α – 1/3 ϵ).

We now proceed to the Legendre triangle B’M’K’ to get the linear lengths of BK and MK. By
the sine formula:

𝐵𝑀 1
𝑠.sin(𝛼− ⁄3𝜂)
BK = B’K’ = 𝐵𝐾 = sin(90− 𝜑 1
− 1⁄ 𝜂) . sin(90 − ⁄3 𝜂) = = cos(𝜑 + 1⁄ 𝜂) = ω. R
𝐵 3 𝐵 3

But the linear length of BK is ω.R, so we have:

𝑠. sin(𝛼 − 1⁄3 𝜖)
𝜔= 𝜌"
𝑅 cos(𝜑𝐵 + 1⁄3 𝜂)
This is the precise formula for difference of longitude.

It is found convenient to calculate the length of MK from BK. By Legendre and sine formula

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 𝑀𝐾 𝜔𝑅
=
sin(𝜑𝐵 + 2⁄3 𝜂) sin(90 − 1⁄3 𝜂)

This implies

MK = 𝑀𝐾 = 𝜔𝑅 sin(𝜑𝐵 + 2⁄3 𝜂).

Now consider the two right-angled triangles PMB and KMB. Their circular parts for writing
down their formulae by Napier’s Rule are:

(i) Sin (middle part) = product of cosines of opposite parts

(ii) Sin (middle part) = product of tangents of adjacent parts

FIGURE

FIGURE

FIGURE

Three elements are common to both sets and in the same relative positions except for being
written opposite ways around. Hence the other corresponding elements must be equal, and so we
get:
𝑀𝑃
(i) = 90 − (𝜑𝐵 + 𝜂)
𝑅

𝑀𝐾
(ii) 90 − 𝑃𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅
𝑀𝑃
is the co-latitude of point M and so from (i), the latitude of M is (φB + η). But the latitude of
𝑅
M is also:

𝐴𝑀 𝑠
𝜑𝐴 + = 𝜑𝐴 + cos(𝛼 − 2⁄3 𝜖)
𝑅 𝑅

Therefore:

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 𝑠
𝜑𝐵 = 𝜑𝐴 + cos(𝛼 − 2⁄3 𝜖) − 𝜂
𝑅

This is the precise formula for latitude of B. It may be noted that η is the difference of latitude of
B and M.

Consider the angles at point B. from (ii) we see that angle PBM is 90 – MK/R.

With 𝑀𝐾 = 𝜔𝑅 sin(𝜑𝐵 + 2⁄3 𝜂)

𝑀𝐾
𝑃𝐵𝑀 = 90 − = 90 − 𝜔sin(𝜑𝐵 + 2⁄3 𝜂
𝑅

The angle ABM is 90 – α + ϵ, so to make up 180˚ the angle  as shown must be:

180 − [90 − 𝜔 sin(𝜑𝐵 + 2⁄3 𝜂) + 90 − 𝛼 + 𝜖]

𝛽 = 𝛼 + 𝜔 sin(𝜑𝐵 + 2⁄3 𝜂) − 𝜖 = 𝛼2

And the reverse bearing is gotten by adding 180˚.