KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

NAME: OTIM RONALD LIVINGSTON

REG. NO: 16/U/5240/CTD/PD

COURSE: BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING

YEAR OF STUDY: TWO

PLACE OF TRAINING: NATIONAL WATER AND SEWERAGE

CORPORATION LIRA AREA.
TRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) is an autonomous public corporation 100%
owned by the government of Uganda. The central government of Uganda represented by both the
Ministry of Water and Ministry of Finance maintains a performance contract with NWSC.

The National water and sewerage corporation was established by Decree No.34 of 1972,
following an earlier study on the need for improvement of water and sanitation services in the
major urban centers of Uganda.

The corporation was initially responsible for three key towns of Kampala, Entebbe and Jinja.

Through the intervention of international development association (DIA) and other donor
agencies, the corporation embarked on major rehabilitation and expansion of its water supply and
sewerage systems. Consequently as of June 1995, the corporation was operating in nine towns
namely Kampala, Jinja/Njeru, Entebbe, Tororo, Mbale ,Masaka, Mbarara, Gulu and Lira.

Lira area was taken over by NWSC in 1991. The water network covers most parts of the
municipality and some portion just outside the municipality such as Adekokwok, Dara,
Odokomit and Akitenino, Akia, Bala road.

The population in Lira town area is about 109000 and the population served is about 67900.

Sewerage

Sewerage treatment takes place at the Eastern and western lagoons located at the municipality.

These are waste stabilization ponds with the western lagoon receiving most of the flows.

Western lagoon receive 10500m3/month 80% while the eastern lagoons receive 2500m3/month
20%.

The area has a sewerage network of 14km with about 304 customers connected to the sewerage
services.
Water treatment plant

The water treatment plant is located forty three kilometers at Kachung water works,

The intake is further two kilometers from the water works/treatment at lake Kwania making it
forty five kilometers from lira town.

Water is treated at water treatment plant in Kachung and then pumped to Agwata booster, then it
is pumped to the main reservoir at Adwila, from there it is then made to flow by gravity to Ireda
tank and finally distributed to the customers.

Location

It is located along Maruzi road, P.O.Box 243, Lira

Mission

To provide efficient and cost effective water and sewerage services, applying innovative
managerial solutions to the delight of the customers.

Vision

To be the leading customer centered water utility in the world.

Goal

“To improve operational efficiency by reducing water losses, improving staff productivity,
strengthening customer care, ensuring 24hours water quality supply, reducing suppressed
account”.

Quality policy

National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) is committed and shall endeavor to provide
quality water and sewerage services to her esteemed customers and other stakeholders in an
efficient and cost effective manner, ensuring utmost customer delight and continuous services
improvement in an environmentally friendly manner.
1.2 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE OF LIRA NWSC
NWSC Lira is headed by the Area Manager from whom the final decisions are taken.

There are four main officers under the area manager.

The area engineer who is in charge of water processes and under engineer are the distribution
overseers who is associated with the plumbing section and plant superintendent who under him is
the laboratory technician.

The account officer is in charge of issuing money for various purposes aided by the commercial
officer and under him is the billing officer and marketing assistant(MA) inclusive of the
territorial leaders.
1.3 PURPOSE/REASONS FOR THE REPORT
The purpose of the internship summary report is to;

Documents the skills and experience gained during the training.

Document the outcomes of various activities done duringduring the training.

Act as future references for other students.

Inspire other students to develop innovative project in the practical field

Promote the fund to other Kyambogo university students.

Gives opportunities to assess the success and to respond on the social, cultural or community
impact of the activity being done.

Account for the use of the grant money to our key funder incase of good project, the alumni
association annual fund.

1.4 FUNCTION OF THE REPORT WILL SERVE

This report form is designed to serve/foster an understanding of what happen at every stage of
water treatment processes of NWSC in Kachung lira brunch and analyzing what each chemical
does at a specific stage of the treatment.

This report will also serve to understand different laboratory tests, procedures in analyzing the
water quality which conform to the standard of World Health Organization.

In addition to that, this report is also designed to foster an understanding on water distribution
systems which include; laying of the mains pipes, new connection, leakage repair, connection
and disconnections

The report will serve the reader to understand on how to treat and manage wastewater and what
each chemical does during the treatment.
1.5 PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION.
The purpose of this investigation is to communicate about the processes of water treatment,
analyzing of water quality, water distribution system and wastewater treatment that were
undertaken with the clear evidence and positive responds from the customers about the services
of NWSC to provide them, facts and conclusions that I made in my final report.

1.6 NATURE OF PROBLEMS

In due course of industrial training, several nature of problems were encountered and includes;

Limitation of equipment for the field work like leakage repair, new connection which limits the
performance of the work.

Long working hours. Some other days, we worked overnight especially during clearing the sewer
blockages.

Unnecessary leakages along the pipes.

Shortages of food especially in the treatment plant where no market to buy food.

Poor communication especially in the treatment plant since there is no network.

Hard ground during clearing the sewer blockages.

Customer’s complaints over shortages of water in other parts of the area.

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REPORT

This internship report will provide the faculty with a document which qualifies me as the student
for the credit.

It also provides the faculty with in-depth information about the profession they are preparing
students to participate in.

This report increases student’s responsibility by requiring the students interm to gather
information and plan the report throughout the experience.
It helps student to receive credit from the university, graded credit determined by the technical
writing faculty, there needs to be documented in addition to the site supervisor’s evaluation as a
basis for that graded credit.

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Total chlorine: the total amount of chlorine in water. It contains both free available and combine
chlorine.

Combined chlorine: it is free available chlorine that does the hard work of killing bacteria and
oxidizing contaminants.

Free chlorine: Refers to both hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite (OCl-) ion or bleach
and is commonly added to water system for disinfection.

Backwashing: Reversing the flow of water back through the filter media to remove entrapped
solids.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The amount of oxygen (measured in mg/L) that is
required for the decomposition of organic matter by single cell organisms under test conditions.

Breakpoint chlorination: Addition of chlorine to water until there is enough chlorine presence
for disinfection of water.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The amount of oxygen (measured in mg/L) that is
consumed in the oxidation of organic and oxidasable inorganic matter under test condition.

Contact time: The length of time a substance is in contact with a liquid, before it is removed by
filtration or the occurrence of a chemical change.

Effluent: The outlet or outflow of any system that deals with water flows for an oxidation pond
for biological water purification.

Ejector: A device used to inject a chemical into wastewater during water treatment.

E.coli: Coliform bacteria that is often associate with human and animal wastes and is found in
the intestine court.

Facultative bacteria: Bacteria that can live under anaerobic or aerobic conditions.
Filtrate: A liquid that has passed through the filter medium.

Filter medium: The permeable material that separates solids from liquids passing through it.

Lagoon: A shallow pond where sunlight, bacteria action and oxygen work to purify wastewater.

Municipal discharged: Discharge of effluent from wastewater treatment plants, which receive
wastewater from households, commercial establishment and industries in the coastal drainage
basin.

Municipal sewage: Liquid wastes originating from community.

Raw sewage: Untreated wastewater and its contents.

Raw water: Intake water before any treatment or use.

Sewage: Waste fluid in a sewer system.

Sewerage: The entire systems of sewage collection, treatment and disposal.

Sewage sludge: Sludge produced in a public sewer.

Wastewater: The spent or used water from a home, community, farm or industry that contains
dissolved or suspended matter.

PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride): A plastic pipe made by forcing plastic through a die.

1.9 METHODS AND MATERIALS USED IN THE INVESTIGATION

In due course of my industrial training, I used two methods of investigation;

Observing a sample of users as they go about their tasks with the current systems and asking
them the question. In the treatment plant, there are a number of activities done which involves
the use of the following materials; valves of different types during pumpage and backwashing,
different lab. equipments and chemicals during the analysis of water quality.

Analyzing existing documents to understand what data is created and how it is manipulated by
the system. Some information has been documented and it was these informations I used during
my internship.
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
Water treatment processes refers to the technical activities that are carried out to ensure that raw
water is at acceptable quality for consumption.

The water treatment process may vary slightly at different locations depending on the technology
of the plant and water it needs to process but the basic principles are largely the same.

Here is a step by step guide describing what happens at each stage of the treatment process and
explain how pollutants are removed to keep our water ways clean.

The summary of the water production processes in Kachung are in the flow chart below.

2.1 SCREENING
This process takes place at the intake stage.

This involves removal of larger floating particles such as big rocks, fish, dead human beings, big
woods before entering into the window of the intake.

The system has two screen namely coarse and fine screens.

The coarse screen removes relatively bigger particles while the fine screen removes smaller
particles.

The raw water is abstracted by the operation of low lift centrifugal type of pump which is rated at
80kw and has capacity of 215m3/h

The number of pumps to be used at any one point depends on the demand and storage tank
gauge.
Reasons for screening

To prevent some particles in the raw water such as dead animals, big woods, snakes, big rocks,
large fish from entering into the scum to be sucked by the pump at the intake stage.

2.11 OPERATION OF LOW LIFT PUMP AT THE INTAKE

Select the pump to be used in the day.
Check using voltage selector switch to confirm if all the three phases have power
If not start generator

If all the three phases have power proceeds to 3.

Turn on the isolator switch on the starter panel for the selected pump.
Check if the delivery valve is closed
If opened, close it.

If closed, proceed to 5.

Check if there is enough grease in the selected pump.

If not, add ½ kg of grease in the selected pump.

If enough, proceed to 6.

Press start button on the starter panel for the selected pump to start the grease pump first.
Wait for one minute and start the main pump.
Open the delivery valve 7 to 8 turns.
Then you have to monitor the operation of the pump and record the operation of the pimp
and record any defects and anomalies.
When done with the operation for the day, press the stop button to stop the pump.
Close the delivery valve of the pump in use.
Records the operation for the day.

2.2 AERATION
This refers to the shaking up of the raw water and exposing it to air as it falls and splits on the
plates of the aeration cascade.
2.21 Significance of aerating water
Eliminating smell.
Oxidizing soluble iron and magnesium salts
Eradicating the maximum/quality of carbon dioxide.
The smell comes as a result of dead plants and animals, plant leaves, fish presence in water, dead
frogs, grass and others.

The raw water then enters into a parallel constructed concrete pipes and then flow into the
clarifier.

The aeration cascade is maintained clean by proper cleaning using brush by scrabing the plates
while using portable water to ensure its effectiveness.

Surface of the aeration cascade

2.3 CLARIFICATION
Under this stage, it consists of removing all
kind of particles, sediments, oil, natural
organic matter and colour from the water to
make it clear.

Clarification is highly effective at

reducing turbidity and removing
colour, solids and colloidal material from water and wastewater when used together with
chemical feed, sludge treatment and filtration of clarified elements.
It involves distinctive
processes as discussed
below.

Coagulation

During the process of

coagulation, the solution of
aluminium sulphate is
added to water to destabilize colloidal and finely divided materials and cause them to begin
aggregating.

Flash mixer

After coagulation, chemicals are introduced and water is mixed quickly and forcefully by the
flash mixer so that the soluble Alum is evenly distributed throughout the water. This step is very
important to create the conditions for efficient, effective water treatment. Flush mixing must last
for at least 30seconds or else the chemical will not be properly distributed but typically last for
less than 60 seconds.

Flocculation

After mixing, flocculation begins through a slower gentler mixing that brings the fine particle
proceed during the coagulation step into contact with each other.

It normally goes on for 30-40 minutes in the flocculation basin/sedimentation basin that may
have multiple compartments.

With continuous mixing, there will be increasing formation of large clumps of matter without
being broken.

Floc

At the end of flocculation process, most of the turbidity and particulate matter in water should be
formed into a material called floc.

Floc consists of relatively large clumps of impurities and bacteria bound together in cluster.
Clarification

This is the last step in the process whereby floc and other suspended materials is allowed to settle
to the bottom.

The clarification process makes the water clear at the surface(supernatant water)

Due to this settlement of sediments and flocs, a process known as sludge extraction has to be
done.

2.31 Sludge Extraction

Disludging is the process of clearing and removing of the sludge that forms and settles at the
bottom of the clarifier. This is done to obtain clearer water at the surface of the clarifier.

Steps involved in disludging

Here we started by opening the drain valves to allow flocs and other materials flow out of the
clarifier.

Allowed water to drain for some interval of time while observing.

Closed the drain valve

However the clarifier may become dirty and therefore proper cleaning must be done to keep it
effective.

2.32 Cleaning of the clarifier

The clarifier should be washed after interval of time like a period of two weeks.

Tools

Brush Portable water

Pipe connected to high pressure tap Drain valve

Procedures.

Closed the inlet and the outlet valves

 Opened the drain valves to drain off dirty water to lower level.

Scrabing the walls of the clarifier using brush while washing it with portable water.

Closed the drain valves

Finally we opened the outlet and inlet valves.

mate the amount of total, permanent and temporary hardness in the collected sample of water. A standard
solution of 0.02M EDTA is provided.

3.7.2: Principle.

Hardness in water is due to the presence of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium. It is unfit for
drinking, bathing, washing and it also forms scales in boilers. Hence it is necessary to estimate the
amount of hardness producing substances present in the water sample. Once it is estimated, the amount of
chemicals required for the treatment of water can be calculated.

The estimation of hardness is based on complexometric titration. Hardness of water is determined by

titrating with a standard solution of ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) which is a complexing
agent. Since EDTA is insoluble in water, the disodium salt of EDTA is taken for this experiment. EDTA
can form four or six coordination bonds with a metal ion.

One of the factors that establishes the quality of a water supply is its degree of hardness.

Hardness is defined as calcium and magnesium ion content. Since most analyses do not distinguish
between Ca2+ and Mg2+, and since most hardness is caused by carbonate mineral deposits, hardness is
usually reported as parts per million (ppm) of calcium carbonate (by weight). A water supply with a
hardness of 100 ppm contains the equivalent of 100 g of CaCO3 in 1 million g of water or 0.1 g in 1 L of
water (or 1000 g of water since the density of water is about 1 g/mL).

3.7.3: Water Hardness Calcium carbonate (ppm) designation

0-43 Soft

43-150 Slightly Hard

150-300 Moderately Hard

0-43 Soft

300-450 Hard

450 Very Hard

Water hardness is usually noticed because of difficulty in lathering soap and the formation of a scum in
the bathtub. Ca2+ and Mg2+ form insoluble salts with soaps causing precipitation of the soap scum.
Another effect of hard water is “boiler scale”. When hard water comes into contact with dissolved
carbonates, a precipitate of insoluble calcium carbonate forms. This “scale” can build up on the inside of
water pipes to such a degree that the pipes become almost completely blocked.

Water hardness can be readily determined by titration with the chelating agent (Greek χηλή,

chelè, meaning claw) EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid). This reagent is a weak acid that

can lose four H (in bold) on complete neutralization.

The four acid oxygen sites and the two nitrogen atoms have unshared electron pairs, which can form
bonds to a metal ion forming a complex ion or coordination compound. The complex is quite stable,
and the conditions of its formation can ordinarily be controlled so that it is selective for a particular metal
ion.

1. Total hardness

Total hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium
ions.

The total hardness of water is estimated by titrating the water sample against EDTA using Eriochrome
Black-T (EBT) indicator. Initially EBT forms a weak EBTCa2+/Mg2+ wine red colored complex with
Ca2+/Mg2+ ions present in the hard water.

On addition of EDTA solution, Ca2+/Mg2+ ions preferably forms a stable EDTACa2+/Mg2+ complex
with EDTA leaving the free EBT indicator in solution which is steel blue in color in the presence of
ammonia buffer (mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonium hydroxide, pH 10).
 Eriochrome Black-T + Ca2+/Mg2+ Eriochrome Black-T-Ca2+/Mg2+

(Red wine)

Eriochrome Black-T-Ca2+/Mg2+ +EDTA EDTA-Ca2+/Mg2+ + Eriochrome Black-T

(Red wine) (still blue)

2. Temporary hardness

Temporary hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium ions. It can be
easily removed by boiling.

When water is boiled, temporary hardness producing substances (bicarbonates) are precipitated as
insoluble carbonates or hydroxides. This precipitate can be removed by filtration. (The filtrate is used in
the next step)

3. Permanent hardness

Permanent hardness is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium ions.
This type of hardness cannot be removed by boiling.

The filtrate obtained from the above step contains permanent hardness producing substances and is
estimated against EDTA using EBT indicator.

3.7.4: Procedure.

The burette is filled with standard EDTA solution to the zero level, following usual precautions.

3.7.4.1: Estimation of Total Hardness

20 ml of the given water sample is pipetted out into a clean conical flask. 5 ml Ammonia buffer and 2
drops of EBT indicator are added and titrated against EDTA from the burette. The end point is the
change of color from wine red to steel blue.

The titration is repeated to get concordant titre value.

Run 1 2 3

Final burette reading (ml) 3.00 4.60 6.10

Run 1 2 3

Initial burette reading (ml) 1.50 3.10 4.60

Volume of EDTA used (ml) 1.50 1.50 1.50

Table of results of raw water

3.7.5: Calculation.

1 ml of 0.01 M EDTA ≡ 1 mg of CaCO3

V1 ml of EDTA ≡ V1 mg of CaCO3

Calculation of total hardness

Volume of EDTA solution consumed = 1.5ml

Volume of hard water taken = 20 ml

3.7.6: Interpretation of results.

Low values of the hardness test indicates low concentrations of the Mg 2+ and Ca2+ in the water. This is
most likely due to the use of the river source which has a slight hardness.

When the water in the contact tank includes both bore hole sources and river treated water, the total
hardness of the final water always increases. This is an indication that the borehole water has a much
higher hardness than the river treated water.
This makes the water more important for consumption since the body is enrinched with minerals though it
makes the water to difficultly lather with soap when used for washing clothes and other home functions.

3.8: DETERMINATION OF COLOR USING A SPECTROPHOTOMETER.

Color in water may be attributed to humus, peat, plankton, vegetation and natural metallic ions such as
iron and manganese, or industrial waste. Color is removed to make the water suitable for domestic and
industrial use. This color is removed in the treatment process before it is supplied to the water ways.

Color is determined by a meter that has been calibrated with colored standards of known platinum cobalt
concentration. True color, the color of water in which the turbidity has been removed, is measured.

3.8.1: The spectrophotometer.

Spectrophotometry is a method is a method used to measure how much a substance absorbs light by
measuring the intensity of light as a beam passes through the sample solution. The basic principle is that
each compound absorbs or transmits light over a certain range of wavelength. This method can also be
used to determine the amount of a known chemical substance. It is one of the most useful methods of
quantitative analysis in various fields such as chemistry, physics, biochemistry, material and chemical
engineering and clinical applications.

A spectrophotometer is an instrument that measures the amount of photons absorbed after passing it
through a sample solution. The concentration of a chemical substance can be measured by determining
the intensity of light detected, it can be classified in to two types depending on the range of wave length
of light source as UV-visible spectrophotometer and IR spectrophotometer.

In UV-spectrophotometry, the absorption or transmission of a certain substance can be determined by the

observed color. For instance, a solution sample which absorbs light over all visible ranges appears black
in theory. On the other hand, if all visible wavelengths are transmitted, the solution sample appears white.
3.8.1.1: The structure of a spectrophotometer.

It basically consists of a light source, a collimator, a monochromator, a wavelength selector, cuvette for
sample solution, a photoelectric detector, and a digital display or a meter.

In general, it consists of two devices, a spectrometer and a photometer.

A spectrometer produces a light of given wavelength, first a collimator transmits a straight beam of light
(photons) that passes through a monochromator (prism) to split it in to several component wavelengths
(spectrum). Then a wavelength selector (slit) transmits only a desired wavelength.

In the photometer after the desired wavelength passes through the sample solution in the cuvette, the
photometer detects the amount of photons that is absorbed by the sample and then sends a signal to a
galvanometer or a digital display as illustrated below.

The figure showing a spectrophotometer.

3.8.2: Sample handling and preservation.

Samples were collected in clean glassware.

Color was determined as soon as possible to avoid chemical and biological changes that may interfere
with the color during the process of storage.

Turbidity will also interfere with color and therefore it is advisable to filter before determining color.

3.8.3: Materials, apparatus and equipment.

Distilled water

0290 tubes

Beaker

Measuring cylinder

Tissue paper

Spectro 2 spectrophotometer.
 3.8.4: Procedure.

Universal sample holder was used.

The spectrophotometer was turned on by pressing the ON button.

Scroll to and select PROGRAMMED TESTS.

Scroll to and select ALL TESTS.

Scroll to and select 28 Color from the menu.

0290 tubes were rinsed with color free water (deionized water). It was then filled to the 10ml mark
with the color free water.

The tube was then inserted in to the chamber, lid closed and SCAN BLANK selected.

The tube was then removed from the spectrophotometer and emptied.

The tube was then rinsed with sample water, filled to the 10ml mark with the water sample.

The tube was inserted with the sample water in to the chamber, lid closed and SCAN SAMPLE
selected. Result recorded in the units of color (Pt-Co)

The OFF button was pressed and held to turn off the spectrophotometer.

3.8.5: Results:

Sample Color(Pt-Co)

Raw water 87
Sample Color(Pt-Co)

Clarified water 30

Filtered water 28

Final water 18

Table showing results of color determination as per 11/June/2019.

3.8.6: Interpretation of results:

However much free of pathogens a given water supply can be, color is of psychological intervention that
water is dirt.

National standards of water quality require that portable water has a color of less than 15 which cannot be
noticed with the eyes.

This can be achieved by making sure that the right dosage of alum is pumped in to the flocullator and the
filtration tanks (sand filters) be clean for efficient color removal.

The results of color can be used to calculate the plant efficiency in terms of color as shown below.

=57%

=95.5%

=95.1%
Cases of final water having more color than filtered water normal start to occur when the contact tank is
becoming dirty. This actually calls for cleaning of the contact tank.

Under ideal conditions, the color of final water is always the same as the color of filtered water.

3.8.7: Conclusion:

The color of final water at NWSC Arua branch is always in the range of national standards of water color,
that is to say below 15.

3.9: DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY USING A SPECTROPHOTOMETER:

3.9.1: Scope

Turbidity is a measure of water clarity and it is independent of color. It is caused by undissolved and
suspended solids that are present in water. Mud, slit, algae, and microorganisms can all cause turbidity. It
is a gross measurement of water quality.

Turbidity is the expression of the optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather
than been transmitted in straight lines through the sample.

The more light scattered is an indication of high turbidity. This is because the particles that are suspended
in the water have variable size, shape and refractive index. Turbidity causes reduction to the penetration
of light through water columns.

3.9.2: Interferences:

Floating debris and rapid settling particles will cause artificially low results, air bubbles, vibrations, hand
dirt, broken or scratched sample tubes can cause high readings.

Therefore appropriate clean bottles should be used with high degree care with the aid of soft tissue papers
to make sure cases of error are eliminated in the results.

Stay light interferences should always be checked out before measurement.

3.9.3: Sample collection and preservation:

The sample was always gently and thoroughly mixed before an aliquot was collected to make sure the
results collected reflect to the true quality of the water. The samples were always kept closed to make sure
no dust or other particulate matter enter in to it.

Determination of turbidity was carried out as shown as possible before the microbial activity in the water
changes its property of light scattering as time went.

3.9.4: Method of determination is absorptiometry.

The turbidity of water is determined photoelectrically using the palintest photometer or

spectrophotometer. In many samples both color and turbidity will be present. In order to separate the
effect of turbidity and color, the sample is compared against a filter portion of the same water.

The palintest method has been calibrated against the widely recognized formazin turbidity solutions.
Turbidity is expressed in terms of Formazin Turbidity Units (FTU). These units are broadly equivalent to
Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU) and Nephlometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

Radiations are passed through the solution under test and the amount of radiation absorbed is measured
and it is an indication of how much the turbidity of the sample is.

From Beer’s law, amount of radiation absorbed is directly proportional to the concentration of the species
present in the sample provided the sample thickness is kept uniform.

The higher the absorbance, the higher the concentration of the test species and vice versa.

3.9.5: Apparatus and materials:

Sample tubes (0290)

Distilled water

Tissue paper

Spectrophotometer

Measuring cylinder and beaker

3.9.6: Procedure:

Universal sample holders were used.

 The spectrophotometer was switched on by pressing and holding the ON button.

PROGRAMME TESTS was selected by scrolling to it and pressing the ENTER button.

ALL TESTS was then selected the same way as program tests.

From the menu, 98 turbidity was selected.

A clean tube (0290) was rinsed with distilled water and filled to the 10ml mark with the distilled
water.

The tube was inserted in to the chamber, lid closed and SCAN BLANK selected.

A second clean tube (0290) was rinsed with the sample water. Filled to the 10ml mark line with the
sample and caped.

It was wiped with tissue paper to remove excess water and finger prints, shaken vigorously to
resuspend particulate matter, all bubbles were removed before measurement.

The tube was then inserted in to the chamber, lid closed and SCAN SAMPLE selected. The result was
then recorded.

The spectrophotometer was then switched off by pressing and holding the OFF button.

3.9.7: Results.

Sample Turbidity(NTU)

Raw water 8

Clarified water 7

Filtered water 3

Final water 3

Table of results for turbidity as per 16/July/2019

3.9.8: Interpretation of results.

High values of turbidity measurements show that the total amount of suspended particulate matter in the
sample is high. In water treatment, turbidity is reduced by dosing 10% alum solution to the raw water at a
rate predetermined in a jar test.

The presence of colloidal particles in the water tends to increase the impurity content of the water and
national standards allow that the total turbidity of potable water be less than 5(NTU).

3.10: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL IRON USING FERROZINE METHOD.

3.10.1: Scope.

Iron exists in water as iron (II) ions and iron (III) irons. It is at most times present in drinking, surface and
saline waters, domestic and industrial wastes. The amount of iron present in a substance can be
determined by a spectrophotometer using the ferrozine reagent.

Ferric iron is reduced to ferrous iron and subsequently forms a purple colored complex with ferrozine for
a quantitative measure of total iron.

3.10.2: Sample handling and preservation.

The sample container was always cleaned with acid and rinsed with distilled water. Addition of acid to
adjust the pH to around 2-3 prevents the deposition of iron on the container walls. Sample analysis was
always carried out as soon as possible after collection since ferrous iron undergoes oxidation reaction to
ferric iron.
3.10.3: Interferences.

Strong oxidizing agents, cyanide, nitrate, and phosphates, chromium, zinc in concentrations exceeding
10times that of iron. Cobalt and copper in excess of 5mg/L, and nickel in excess of 2mg/L. bismuth,
cadmium, mercury and silver precipitate ferrozine.

3.10.4: Requirements.

Ferrozine reagent

Sample cells

Tissue paper

Distilled water

The spectrophotometer

3.10.5: Procedure.

The spectrophotometer was switched on.

--It was allowed to boot, and then PROGRAMME TESTS was selected.

It was then scrolled to ALL TESTS and it was also selected.

53 Iron Phen was then selected from the menu.

A clean tube was rinsed with the sample water and then filled to the 10ml mark with the sample.

The tube was then inserted in to the chamber, lid closed and scan blank selected.
 The tube was then removed from the spectro. The cap of the tube was then removed and six drops of
the ferrozine were dropped in to it. The cap closed back and the tube was then inverted 4 times to mix
reagents. Waited for five minutes for maximum color development.

After five minutes, the tube was swirled and inserted back in to the chamber of the spectrophotometer,
lid closed and SCAN SAMPLE selected.

Result was then recorded as ppm Ferrous Iron.

The equipment was then switched off.

3.11: THE FLOCCULATION /JAR TEST.

3.11.1: Scope.

The jar test is an essential simulation test carried out to determine the amount of chemical (alum) required
to dose in the right amount of raw water of a particular quality. As a simulation test, the whole set up
should depict what takes place at the actual treatment stages from the dosing point, to clarification,
sedimentation and finally to filtration.

Prior to the flocculation test on the raw water sample, parameters such as turbidity, color, pH, TTS,
hardness and alkalinity are determined and noted down. These results will be compared with those
determined after the experiment.

The dose that gives the best results are considered and used to calculate the right dosage for the plant
operation as a whole.

3.11.2: Test requirements.

Floc tester

Alum dosing solution, 1%

Raw water from the abstraction point, about 15 liters

Stirring jars

1000ml measuring cylinder, beakers

100ml volumetric flasks

Distilled water

3.11.3: Preparation of the dosing solution.

A 1% solution of the coagulant alum was used for this experiment.

1g of the dry aluminum sulphate was weighed and dissolved with distilled water in a 100ml volumetric
flask and filled to the mark with distilled water. The flask was closed with the cap and inverted four times
to thoroughly mix.

From theory, 1% alum solution = 1g of alum in 100ml of distilled water

= 1000mg in 100ml or 10mg in 1000ml of distilled water

1ml of 1% alum solution = 10mg per litre.

3.11.4: Procedure.
 The turbidity, color, E.C, and pH of the raw water were determined using a spectrophotometer and pH
and E.C meter.

In each of the four stirring jars was measured 1000ml of the raw water to be treated.

The jars were labeled from 1 to 4 with a marker to identify them.

To each of the jars was added 7ml, 8ml, 9ml and 10ml respective alum solution. (volume range
depends majorly on the turbidity of the raw water).

The stirring rods of the floc tester were inserted in to the test solutions and the machine started with its
stirring rods rotating at 250rpm for 45 seconds.

The revolutions were then reduced to 120rpm for 10minutes, 60rpm for 15minutes and 30rpm for
20minutes and the machine was then turned off.

The rate of floc formation, floc size, sedimentation order, and scum formation were observed and
recorded.

The set up was then allowed to stand as the flocs settle.

The test solutions were then decanted to obtain supernatant and then tested for color, turbidity and pH
as the results are recorded.

The test solutions were then filtered to obtain the filtrate and tested for residual aluminium, color,
turbidity, and pH and results also recorded.

3.11.5: Results.

Raw water parameters

Ph 7.44

Color (Pt-Co) 70

Turbidity 9
 Equipment and media that were known to be sterilized were used only.

All parts of apparatus were handled with care to make sure no contamination were allowed.

The sterile petri-dish were left open for as short as possible.

The work area was cleared and cleaned after the analysis.

3.13.3: Sampling and preservation.

Samples were collected in sterile, glass stoppered clear bottles. The sampling points were selected at
locations that produce representative examination results. Samples that were not analyzed immediately
were refrigerated and no preservatives were added to the samples.

3.13.4:Equipment/apparatus.

Filtration unit, vacuum pump

Membrane filters

Autoclave

Incubator, oven

Petri-dishes, petri-dish carrier

Graduated, transfer pipettes

Sterilizing burner, forceps

Disinfectant, alcohol
Measuring cylinder

Weighing balance

Water still

Hot plate

Magnifying glass

Thermometer

Digital counter.
3.13.5: Procedure.

Laurels sulphate broth preparation:

38.1g of anhydrous broth powder were weighed and dissolved in 500ml of distilled water.

100ml volumes were dispensed in screw capped bottles.

It was then sterilized in an autoclave for 15minutes at 1210C.

The media was then removed after sterilization and stored in a cool dry place.

Sample analysis:

Membrane pads were placed in to the petri-dishes using aseptic methods.

2.5ml of the sulphate broth were poured on the pads in the petri-dishes. ( no air bubbles were allowed
on the pads).

The membrane filters were placed on the filtration unit assembled on a vacuum pump using forceps
and aseptic methods. (Sterilized grid facing upwards).

100ml of the sample was then filtered through the filtration unit.

The filter membrane were then removed with sterile forceps and placed grid face up on the pads that
are soaked in excess medium in the petri-dish, no air bubbles were allowed between the medium and
the membrane filter.

The petri-dish lid was then placed uppermost on to the petri-dish carrier.

The carrier was then placed in an incubation chamber set at around 440C and allowed to run for
18hours for feacal coliform analysis.

Then the petri-dishes were removed and allowed to cool for a few minutes (10minutes).

The lids were then removed and a magnifying lens was then used to count all the yellow, shinny,
convex colonies.

3.13.6: Results.
Colony counts are expressed as CFU (Colony Forming Units) per sample. Counts are then converted to
numbers/100ml and expressed as coliforms/100ml. where sample dilutions are made, the coliforms/100ml
are multiplied by the dilution factor.

3.13.7: Conclusions.

Samples that are considered to be potable water are recommended to be safe only if the coliforms/100ml
is zero. In cases when the coliforms/100ml is not zero, the water is contaminated and disinfection
methods need to be applied to improve its quality.

STABILIZATION PONDS
Waste stabilization pond(WSP) and constructed wetland(CW) have proven to be effective
alternative for wastewater treatment and the construction of flow energy consuming ecosystem
that use natural process in contrast to complex high maintenance treatment system.

Wastewater treatment is closely related to the standard and/or expectations set for the effluent
quality.

Wastewater treatment processes are designed to achieve improvements in the quality of the
wastewater.

Advantages of Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) and constructed wetland (CW)

Simplicity
Low cost
Low maintenance
Low energy consumption
Sustainability
Constituents of wastewater

Water, feaces, food residues, toilet paper, urine, stones, plastic polythene among others.
5.1 AERATION
The wastewater entering the treatment plant is high in carbonaceous material and organic
nitrogen, a large portion of which has been converted to ammonia on its way to the treatment
plant.

It is at this aeration stage where this ammonia gas and sulphur is removed by exposing the
surface of the wastewater to air before entering into the anaerobic pond.

Under this stage, removal of silts also take place.

Waste stabilization ponds(WSPs) are large man made basins in which greywater, blackwater or
faecal sludge can be treated to an effluent of relatively high quality and apt for the reuse in
agriculture (eg irrigation) or aquaculture (eg macrophyte or fishpond)

They are semi-centralised after wastewater has been collected from toilets.

For most effective treatment, WSPs should be linked in series of three of more with effluent
being transferred from the anaerobic pond to the facultative pond and finally to the aerobic pond.

5.2 ANAEROBIC POND

It is the primary treatment stage and reduces the organic load in the wastewater. The entire depth
of this fairly deep man-made lake is anaerobic. Solids and BOD removal occurs by
sedimentation and through subsequent anaerobic digestion inside the accumulated sludge.

Anaerobic bacteria convert organic carbon into methane and through this process remove up to
60% of the BOD

5.3 FACULTATIVE POND

In a series of WSPs, the effluent from the anaerobic pond is transferred to the facultative pond
where further BOD is removed. The top layer of the pond receives oxygen from natural
diffusion, wind mixing and are algae- driven photosynthesis. The lower layer is deprived of
oxygen and becomes anoxic or anaerobic. Settle-able solidsaccumulate and are digested on the
bottom of the pond. The aerobic and anaerobic organisms work together to achieve BOD
reductions of up to 75%.
Anaerobic and facultative ponds are designed for BOD removal while aerobic ponds are
designed for pathogen removal.

Scamming is done here to remove suspended particles in order to prevent the competition
between bacteria and total suspended solids.

5.4 AN AEROBIC POND

It is commonly referred to as maturation pond, polishing or finishing pond because it is usually
the last step in a series of ponds and provide the final level of the treatment. It is the shallowest
of the ponds ensuring that sunlight penetrates the full depth for photosynthesis to occur.

Photosynthesis algae release oxygen into the water and at the same time consume carbon dioxide
produced by the respiration of bacteria. Because photosynthesis is driven by sunlight, the
dissolved oxygen levels are highest during the day and drop off at night. Dissolved oxygen is
also provided by natural wind mixing.

5.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF LAGOONS

Anaerobic ponds are built to a depth of 2 to 5m and have a relative short detention time of 1 to 7
days.

Facultative ponds should be constructed to a depth of 1 to 2.5m and have a retention time
between 5 to 30 days.

Aerobic ponds are usually between 0.5 to 1.5m deep with a detention time of 15 to 20 days.

Note

To prevent leaching into ground water, the ponds should have a liner. The liner can be made from
clay, asphalt, compacted earth or any other impervious material

To protect the pond from run off and erosion, a protective berm should be constructed around the
pond using the excavated materials.

5.6 MAINTENANCE OF LAGOONS

There should be permanent vegetation cover on the lagoon dike to prevent erosion of the dike.

Grass should be removed or cut on regular basis during the growing season.
Shades should be emptied periodically to prevent clogging of the outlets.