Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Cátedra de Inglés
Diccionario de Gramática
Funcional Inglesa
2009
En estas páginas pretendemos presentarles una guía y apoyo en la
iniciación de la lectura y comprensión de textos escritos en inglés.
Para acceder a la lectura de textos académicos en idioma inglés
proponemos un enfoque global, selectivo y transaccional. Los
conocimientos que posee cada estudiante son fundamentales para abordar
la lectura de estos textos. Estos conocimientos no se circunscriben a lo
que los estudiantes sepan sobre la lengua extranjera sino que también
abarcan los conocimientos que todo adulto va construyendo durante su
vida como así también los temas que recorren o que preocupan a las
ciencias sociales y humanas. Todo este bagaje que el estudiante aporta en
la situación de lectura lo va a ayudar y también va a compensar la falta de
conocimientos avanzados en la lengua extranjera porque ya es un
experimentado lector en su lengua materna.
Además de lo que mencionamos en el párrafo anterior también
tenemos que tener en cuenta aspectos personales del lector. Uno de ellos
es la motivación, esperamos que el estudiante se proponga alcanzar la
meta aunque esto implique esfuerzo de su parte. El segundo aspecto es la
autoconfianza que todo ser humano debe tener para enfrentar un desafío
nuevo.
Como ya hemos dicho en otros documentos elaborados por la
Cátedra de Inglés, consideramos a la lectura como un fenómeno complejo
en el que distinguimos tres vértices: el lector, la situación de lectura y el
texto. En el Documento Inicial nos concentramos en el lector y la
situación de lectura en la que están insertos nuestros estudiantes: la
lectura de textos académicos escritos en inglés realizada por lectores que
poseen escasos conocimientos de la lengua extranjera. En este documento
focalizamos el análisis de otro aspecto: el texto. Para desarrollar los
temas que nos interesan partiremos, como en la lectura, del paratexto para
ir bajando paulatinamente a las unidades menores y sus formas que nos
resultan de interés para guiar nuestra lectura.
1
Por paratexto nos referimos a todo aquello que rodea al texto principal y puede
ser verbal, gráfico o icónico: títulos, subtítulos, abstracts, notas, índices, cuadros,
ilustraciones, epígrafes, gráficos, referencias bibliográficas, fotografías, etc.
Aunque nuestros conocimientos de inglés sean muy elementales, vamos a
poder comprender la información aportada por estos datos bibliográficos
debido al uso de cognados.
- Aesthetic Literacy
(Alfabetización estética)
Singular Plural
function Functions
library Libraries
theory Theories
bus Buses
shelf Shelves
Singular Plural
analysis Analyses
stimulus Stimuli
medium Media
criterion Criteria
oasis Oases
crisis Crises
datum Data
phenomenon Phenomena
Verbos regulares
Ejemplos:
Ejemplos:
The general theory of relativity deals with space and time and how they
are curved or warped on a large scale by the matter and energy in the
universe. Quantum mechanics, on the other hand, deals with very small
scales.
Hawking, Stephen. Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays. New
York: Bantam Books, 1993.
La teoría general de relatividad se ocupa del espacio y del tiempo y de
cómo son curvadas o deformadas a gran escala por la materia y la
energía del universo. La mecánica cuántica, por otro lado, se ocupa de
escalas muy pequeñas.
1. Separables
2. No Separables
Ice turns into water when ¡t melts. (El hielo se convierte en agua cuando
se derrite).
And the monster became bigger and bigger and BIGGER and thirstier
and thirstier and THIRSTIER and stronger and stronger and STRONGER
(Y el monstruo se volvió más y más grande y con más y más sed y más
y más fuerte.)
VERBOS ESPECIALES
a. THERE + TO BE = haber
d. TO BE LIKELY TO = probabilidad
The poor woman is likely to be entering the hospital for the first time.
(La mujer pobre probablemente esté ingresando al hospital por primera
vez.)
Ejemplo:
PRONOMBRES
Personales Modificador
Sujeto Objeto Posesivo Posesivo Reflexivos
Primera P. I me mine my Myself
Singular
Segunda P. you you yours your Yourself
Singular
Tercera P. he him his his himself
Singular she her hers her herself
it it its its itself
Primera P. we us ours our ourselves
Plural
Segunda P. you you yours your yourselves
Plural
Tercera P. they them theirs their themselves
Plural
Demostrativos
Singular Plural
This (este) These
That (ese/aquel) Those
Otros
Ejemplo:
Introduction
COMPARATIVOS DE INCREMENTO
COMPARATIVOS POSITIVOS
Ejemplo:
COMPARATIVOS NEGATIVOS
COMPARATIVOS DE IGUALDAD
SEMEJANZA Y CONTRASTE
Ejemplos:
Edwards, Betty: Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. Los Ángeles: J.P.
Tarcher, Inc, 1979.
Ejemplo:
PREFIJOS Y SUFIJOS
PREFIJOS
Negativos (oposición)
Ejemplo:
Gotlieb, Alma: "Where Have All the Babies Gone? Toward an Anthropology of
Infants (and their Caretakers)" in Anthropology Quarterly, may 2002.
Tiempo y orden
pre- prerequisite
post- postgraduate
ex- exterritorial, ex-wife
re- (nuevamente) rebuild, review
fore- (antes) foretell
Numerales
uni-, mono- unilateral
bi- bilingual, bicycle
tri- tripartite
multi-poly- multinational, polytheism
Otros
be- befriend
bene- beneficial
circum- circumvent
co- co-pilot
com-, con-, col-, (con) commit, confound,
contra- contradict, contraband
counter- (en oposición a) counterclockwise, counter-revolution
retro- retrorocket
semi- semicircle
sub- subhuman, suburb, sublease
super- sur- supervisor, superimpose, surmount
Indicadores de sustantivos
Indicadores de verbos
Indicadores de modificadores
Indicadores de adverbios
ARTICULADORES
Ejemplos:
Edwards, Betty: Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. Los Ángeles: J. P.
Tarcher, Inc, 1979.
Ejemplos:
CONECTORES
Ejemplo
Even while the Revolution was turning the media into mass media, it
was also giving media conductors a new set of responsibilities.
Ethics is concerned with the values we should live by. It is not centrally
concerned with “values” in some vague…sense, such as whether I prefer
my hair long or short or whether I prefer blue to green; rather, it is
centrally concerned with the values that I (and you) should live by, with
those values that we are, for various reasons, rationally obliged to respect.
La ética se relaciona con los valores según los cuales debemos vivir. No
le incumben los “valores” en un sentido vago, como por ejemplo si
prefiero el cabello corto o largo o si prefiero el azul en lugar del verde,
sino que se interesa por aquellos valores con los que deberíamos vivir,
con aquellos valores que, por diversos motivos, estamos racionalmente
obligados a respetar.
Ejemplo 2:
The general theory of relativity deals with space and time and how they
are curved or warped on a large scale by the matter and energy in the
universe. Quantum mechanics, on the other hand, deals with very small
scales.
Hawking, Stephen. Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays. New
York: Bantam Books, 1993.
Ejemplo 3
Among the consequences of modern society and its technologies are men
on the moon- but also stockpiled nuclear bombs. Supermarkets are
bursting with picture-perfect fruit and vegetables, many of which have
been grown on the other side of the globe – yet starvation, malnutrition,
and technically easily curable diseases are devastating entire populations,
entire races. Some people in the West walk around with others’ hearts,
lungs, and kidneys in their bodies – but passing them on the street, and
elsewhere around the world, are millions of people without access to the
most basic sanitation, nutrition or health care….. To modern Western
science is attributed responsibility for much of the good in the world, but
if it is responsible for the good parts, why isn’t it also responsible for the
bad parts?
Without question, they are spectacular….. . Yet, few of the world’s most
famous artefacts have been more over-dramatized or less well understood
than the so-called Nazca lines, the last of which was constructed about
1.000 years ago.
Con seguridad, Kart Popper propone que los científicos sigan un número
de preceptos del método científico que son apropiados para las
investigaciones de la naturaleza. Sin embargo, también propone que los
científicos sociales sigan un número de reglas que no se requieren y no
tienen un equivalente directo en las ciencias naturales.
Ejemplo:
Whether this transformation began with the emergence of the first non-
Western country, Japan, as a -real economic power (that is, around 1960)
or with the first computer (that is, with information becoming central) is
debatable.
Ejemplo:
So, Alvin Y. & Hikam, Muhammad: “Class in the Writings of Wallerstein and
Thompson: Toward a Class Struggle Analysis”. Sociological Perspectives, 32:4,
1989.
Para entender esta realidad siempre cambiante, Wallerstein sugiere un
estudio de las totalidades (los todos) provisionales a largo plazo y en
escala mayor en los cuales los conceptos tienen significado.
Ejemplo 1:
Ejemplo 2
Blanco, Rosa G. “Towards Schools for All with the Involvement of All.” The
Major Project of Education, Bulletin 48, April 1999.
La rigidez de los sistemas formales tradicionales, de los esquemas de
acreditación, la imposición de modelos enfrentados con la realidad local,
la chatura de las propuestas curriculares son productos de la
segregación y la exclusión. Por lo tanto, una de las mayores
preocupaciones de la UNESCO es la transformación de los sistemas
educativos del mundo, de manera que puedan convertirse en
instrumentos de integración social posibilitando la participación de todo
ciudadano en la vida pública.
Ejemplo 1:
Blanco, Rosa G. “Towards Schools for All with the Involvement of All.” The
Major Project of Education, Bulletin 48, April 1999.
Ejemplo 2
Wood, Nancy V. College Reading and Study Skills. New York: Halt, Rinehart
and Winston. 1982.
Ejemplo 3
Since many peace park projects are often being promoted by such
(environmental) organizations, the legitimacy of these groups is essential
for meeting the goals of conflict resolution.
11- Comparativos:
Ejemplo:
….. Argentine trade unionism in alliance with Peronism has given the
Argentine working class a legitimized, non-communist political option,
namely a potentially militant populist alternative that dramatically
improved living conditions under capitalism.
14. Enfáticos:
the former ... the latter (el que se menciona en primer lugar y el
que se menciona en segundo lugar).
before….. after (antes…después)
not only….but also (no solamente….. sino también)
not only ….but rather
now…then
If…..then
Whether…..or (not)
Either….or
Ejemplo:
Coombs, Phillip H. The World Crisis in Education – The View from the
Eighties. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Since causal
Blanco, Rosa G. “Towards Schools for All with the Involvement of All.” The
Major Project of Education, Bulletin 48, April 1999.
Throughout the 20th century, the archaeologists of Mexico and Peru have
selected different analytical categories to organize their understanding
and discussion of the past. They have given special emphasis to two
categories out of an ensemble of concepts used in Latin America since
the Enlightenment. These categories are “civilization” and “culture”.
APPROACH enfoque
ACHIEVEMENT logro
ASSUMPTIONS supuestos
ASSERT afirmar
CONVEY transmitir, expresar
FEATURES rasgos
FRAMEWORK marco teórico
ISSUE problemática
RESEARCH investigación
SOURCES fuentes
Ejemplo 1:
The critical issue is not getting schools to do better what they have
always done but transforming the very nature of teaching and learning in
schools and the nature of school organization themselves.
El problema crítico no es lograr que las escuelas mejoren lo que siempre han
hecho sino transformar la naturaleza de la enseñanza y el aprendizaje en las
escuelas y la naturaleza de su organización.
Ejemplo 2:
The key issue confronting all European countries today is how to create
sustainable economic improvement in global markets while not
sacrificing the basic cohesion of their societies or the institutions that
guarantee liberty.
La construcción the key issue pone en foco el problema que tienen que
enfrentar las naciones europeas.
Ejemplo 3:
Biographicity means that we can redesign again and again, from scratch,
the contours of our life within the specific contexts in which we spend it,
and that we experience these contexts as shapeable and designable. In our
biographies, we do not posses all conceivable opportunities, but within
the framework of the limits we are structurally set we still have
considerable scope open to us. The main issue is to decipher the “surplus
meanings” of our biographical knowledge, and that in turns means to
perceive the potentiality of our unlived lives.
Albeit, Peter. “The ‘Biographical Question’ as a Challenge to Adult Education”.
International Review of Education, 1994.
En este ejemplo, como en los anteriores, la construcción The main issue
focaliza la atención del lector y presenta el problema a estudiar.
En estos ejemplos vemos que la palabra issue es precedida por
unidades que la califican y destacan: key, main, critical. Otra palabra que
suele utilizarse con issue es core.
Ejemplo 1:
Blanco, Rosa G. “Towards Schools for All with the Involvement of All.” The
Major Project of Education, Bulletin 48, April 1999.
Ejemplo 2:
This article considers but one of the alternative approaches to
traditional social science theory and research. Grounded theory has
been selected for three reasons: first, I am persuaded that all of the
alternative approaches it responds more directly and effectively to the
theoretical and methodological issues now being raised, without falling
prey to the excesses (such as solipsism) of some of the other
approaches. Second, Grounded theory, which employs the constant
comparative method, does not perpetuate the mindless dualism (such as
quantitative versus qualitative research) that have militated against the
careful examination of theory and method in higher education. It offers
instead an approach to research that can serve as a bridge for
reconciling mainstream research with many of the legitimate questions
being raised by proponents of alternative approaches. Third, while there
is little published research in higher education using any of the
alternative methodologies, there is at least some research using
grounded theory. Several journal articles using grounded theory have
recently been published, and at least three dissertations and a handful of
unpublished studies have employed this approach.
The remainder of this article is divided into four sections. The
first section explicates grounded theory as an approach to research and
presents key features of the strategy. In the second section, the
approach is amplified through a discussion of how grounded theory was
applied to higher education in a study of academic change. The third
section discusses the potential uses of grounded theory as a research
strategy in higher education. The last section identifies the mayor
strengths of the approach and concludes that careful examination of
grounded theory can help to reanimate and illuminate debate over the
purposes and techniques of research in higher education.
The reduction of the ozone layer has brought about growing concern
among developed nations, which are responsible for the output of 90
percent of CFC products.
Cultural Imperialism
American media products have been seen by some as direct and
explicit efforts to subjugate the world. Schiller (1969) contends that
American television programming, equipment, and advertising were part
of a general effort of the American industrial complex to subject the
world to American culture and military control. Wells (1972) constructs
a similar argument regarding American Television in Latin America.
Day (1975) disagrees with the concept of the dominant culture. Using
New Zealand as an example, he discusses cultural imperialism as
imposed by the United States and the United Kingdom. The danger is not
that New Zealand culture has been “swallowed up” (see Lomax, 1977),
but that it promotes foreign places and cultures as superior to local
offerings in leisure activity.
…………………………………………………………………………….
Other scholars have echoed this concern. Thompson postulates that the
enduring popularity of country music in Japan has to do with this
mystical country western image of cowboy boots and Marlboro
cigarettes.
Although Masmoundi (1977), Day (1975) and Petras (1993) agree
on the deliberate nature of cultural imperialism, Petras focuses less on
cultural erosion and more on the political impact that erosion will have on
a particular nation.
Another important aspect to cultural imperialism is economics.
Tunstall (1977) argues, for example, that because African countries
cannot afford to produce significant amounts of cultural products, these
countries import products at low prices from mayor transnational
corporations. Even developed nations may suffer from the same
phenomenon. Tunstall (1977) states that despite government subsidies,
Sweden cannot supply its large demand for a variety of cultural products.
So, as with Third World countries, its media consumption is satisfied
through imports of American and British film, music, television series,
and more.
Colista, Celia & Leshner, Glenn: “Travelling Music: Following the Path of
Music Through the Global Market”. Critical Studies in Mass Communication.
15:2, 1998.
En el fragmento anterior se destacaron en negrita los verbos utilizados
para las opiniones de diversos autores. Como pueden observar algunos
poseen connotación positiva y otros negativa.
NEGATIVOS
Ejemplos:
Coordinantes
UN- IM- IN- IL - IR- NON - MAL- DE- DIS- DYS- ANTI -
CONTRA- MIS- COUNTER- UNDER
Sufijos negativos (Ver sección Morfología)
LESS
Fleshless figure (figura sin carne)
endLess adjustments (ajustes interminables)
Algunos ejemplos:
Otros
DENY (negar)
DELAY (retrasar)
DOUBT (dudar)
FAIL (no lograr realizar algo)
LACK (faltar)
LOSS (pérdida)
LITTLE QUESTION (poca duda)
NEGLECT (no tener en cuenta, descuidar)
PROHIBIT (prohibir)
RING HOLLOW (suena hueco)
REJECT (rechazar)
WITHOUT (sin)
Ejemplo 1
Abstract
In much anthropological literature infants are frequently neglected as
outside the scope of both the concepts of culture and disciplinary
methods. This article proposes six reasons for this exclusion of infants
from anthropological discussion. These include the fieldworker’s own
memories and parental status, the problematic question of agency in
infants and their presumed dependence on others, their routine
attachment to women, their seeming inability to communicate, their
inconvenient propensity to leak from a variety of orifices, and their
apparently low quotient of rationality. Yet, investigation of how infants
are conceived beyond the industrialized West can lead us to envision
them far differently from how they are conceived in the West (including
by anthropologists). Confronting such comparative data suggests the
desirability of considering infants as both relevant and beneficial to the
anthropological endeavor (Babies / infants, childhood / youth, structure /
agency, social theory, West Africa).
Gotlieb, Alma: "Where Have All the Babies Gone? Toward an Anthropology of
Infants (and their Caretakers)" in Anthropology Quarterly, mayo de 2002.
Ejemplo 2:
The literacy critic Terry Eagleton noted that “the object of historical
knowledge is some complex conjunction of past and present, rather than
some autonomous region of antiquity quite unmodified by the
contemporary” (1986:271). Archaeologists in both countries with the
notable exception of Valcárcel, placed their object of inquiry – ancient
societies – in the period preceding the arrival of the Spaniards. This
effectively disconnected the pre-Colombian past from the present and
denied the pre- Colombian history had any direct effect on or immediate
relevance for the present. I am not certain that this was their intent.
Conclusion
The inability to understand information technology in various
settings and applications impacts the information literacy learner on
several levels. First and foremost, students may not be prepared to begin
an information literacy course or program – without comfort and
competence, information technology can be a barrier to learning,
Second, with only cursory skills (following “recipes”), they can get
frustrated, waste time, and end up with hastily produced results for their
information needs. Third, they may be unable to discern between
technology literacy and information literacy, mistakenly thinking that
mastering a particular interface is all they need to do to achieve long-term
success. Combining analysis, task knowledge, mental models, and
analogy can be useful in developing a program.
Ejemplo 1
This might be its most enduring contribution and its greatest strength.
Esto podría convertirse en su contribución más perdurable y su mayor
fortaleza.
Ejemplo 2
Ejemplo 1
Ejemplo 2:
Only cultural acts can explore and reveal these vital truths.
Solamente los actos culturales pueden explorar v revelar estas verdades
vitales.
Ejemplo 1
Ejemplo 2
2- Obligación
3- Recomendación / Sugerencia
Ejemplo 1
Ejemplo 2
4- Promesa
He shall write to you soon. (promesa)
Te escribirá pronto.
5- Invitación
Ejemplo 1
Gotlieb, Alma: "Where Have All the Babies Gone? Toward an Anthropology of
Infants (and their Caretakers)". Anthropological Quarterly, mayo de 2002.