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ERROR CORRECTION

CINTHYA MARIA VILLALOBOS RODRIGUEZ

Error correction

Student:

Cinthya Maria Villalobos Rodriguez

Date:

I -2014

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Abstract ………………………………………………………………. Page 4


II. Introduction ……………………………………………………………Page 5
III. Definitions ……………………………………………………………… Page 6
IV. ERRORS CORRECTION ………………………………………..….. Page 7

4.a Error correction …………………………………………………………Page 8

4.a.1 Concept and general information…………………………………Page 8

4.a.1.1 Differences between errors and mistakes……………………...Page 8

4.a.1.2 Reasons to use error correction………………………………..Page 9

4.a.2 Types of errors…………………………………………………….Page 10

4.a.3 Classification of error correction………………………………..Page 11

4.a.3.1 Teacher´s correction…………………………………………Page 11

4.a.3.2 Self-correction………………………………………………Page 12

4.a.3.3 Peer correction………………………………………………Page 13

4.a.4 Skills error correction techniques………………………………...Page 14

4.a.4.1 Oral error correction ……………………………………….Page 16

4.a.4.2 Written error correction…………………………………….Page 18

4.a.5 Strategies to give feedback……………………………………….Page 20

4.a.5.1 Strategies to give feedback on content…………………….Page 20

4.a.5.2 Strategies to give feedback on form………………………Page 20

4.a.6 Implication of error correction ………………………………….Page 21

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4.a.7 Error analysis …………………………………………………...Page 21

V. CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………Page 23

VI. REFERENCES ………………………………………………………….. Page 24

VII PLANNING ……………………………………………………………. Page 28

7.1 Monthly …………………………………………………………….…….Page 33

7.2 Daily ………………………………………………………………….…..Page

VIII. APPENDIXES …………………………………………………….… Page

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I. Abstract

This research tries to present information about studies and reports which intent to
identify main aspects to know what error correction is about and how important it is to use
in the teaching-learning process. Also it is going to present concrete reasons to use this
technique and the different classification of error correction.

This research presents some efficient methods to perform the error correction and
how resiliency is involved. This paper also deals with the information about how to
implement the theories of oral and written correction of errors in the classroom. The project
is going to show how an error correction method can be developed and how it can use for
the learners to provide a reasonable level of competence in the students.

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II. Introduction

Providing feedback and correcting errors to learners on their performance is an


important aspect of teaching. The role of error correction has changed through the
Communicative Language Teaching in EFL.

Everything starts in 1950s in which language teaching was concerned about two
essential elements; the error prevention and error correction. The first approach interested
in error correction was the audio-lingual approach, because when the teacher detected
errors must be corrected right away, for audio-lingual method the errors are not part of the
habit formation scheme, for that reason teachers should not permit errors. As Brooks says
“like sin, error is to be avoided and its influence overcomes, but its present is to be
expected” (1960 p. 58). In other words the errors learners commit cannot be avoided,
especially when it is about a second language learning. Later, interlanguage studies provide
new opinions about the interpretation of learner’s errors that the main proponent was
Selinker in 1972. Selinker (1972) observes a learner`s interlanguage and assumes that there
is a “latent psychological structure in the brain of the teacher, which activates when he
attempts to learn a second language”.

Presently, English as a foreign language classroom guidance today is that error


correction is no longer viewed negatively, as Wieczorek states “there is still some
orientation towards errors correction as main source of feedback to students” (1991, p 498).
Even proponents of task-based in which it is focused on meaning rather than form, it
suggests to integrate error correction (Prabhy,1998,p.278).

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III. Definitions

It is important to know essential words to understand the document and to relate it to


the context of each explanation. The concepts above were taken from wikipedia
encyclopedia from internet:

a. Error correction:

- Mistake: An error or fault from defective judgment, deficient knowledge, or


careless.
- Error: Something incorrectly done through ignorance.
- Correction:The act of correcting, or making that right which was wrong; change for
the better; amendment;rectification, as of an erroneous statement.
- Assessment: The act of assessing, the evaluation of a student's achievement on a
course.
- Slip: A mistake or oversight.
- Attempt: To make an effort by trying to covey meaning.
- Incompetence: The quality or state of being incompetent.
- Feedback: The return of a portion of the output of a process or system to the input,
especially when used to maintain performance or to control a system or process.
- Failure: The condition or fact of not achieving the desired end or ends.
- Sorts: A group of persons or things of the same general character; a kind.
- Blunder: A usually serious mistake typically caused by ignorance or confusion.
- Fault: A character weakness, especially a minor one. A mistake; an error.
- Peer: A person who has equal standing with another or others, as in rank, class, or
age.
- Acknowledge: To admit the existence, reality, or truth of.
- Praise: is the act of making positive statements about a person, object or idea, either
in public or privately.
- Unsystematic: lacking systematic arrangement or method or organization.

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IV. ERROR CORRECTION

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4.a ERROR CORRECTION

4.a.1 Concept and general information

4.a.1.1 Difference between errors and mistakes

Generally the word “error” and “mistake” are considered to be synonymous, but
Penny Ur (2002) made a difference between these terms. Errors are consistent and based
on “mis-learned” generalizations. On the other hand, mistakes are occasional, inconsistent
slip. Language teachers perceive that both mistake and error done spontaneously by the
student. Again, according to Brown (2000) a mistake refers to a performance error, which
is made by language learners while producing a known structure incorrectly and comes out
a slip of tongue. He also referred to it as an “unsystematic guess”. Mistakes can be self-
corrected by native or non-native speakers but errors cannot be done so because the
mistakes do not occur from insufficiency or incompetence, whereas, errors occur for
incompetence in the language.

Corder, says about error correction, “errors result from lack of knowledge, while
mistakes are performance phenomena, such as writing it's for its” (Corder 1967, p 35).

In other words we can see the difference between an error and a mistake:

 Error: It occurs when the students have not learned a specific subject of matter and
she/he produces an error. E.g: The students produce an error when he tries to says
sentences without apply the appropriate tense because he does not know it yet.
 Mistake: It is when the student knows the correct way to say something but even do
they do it wrongly. E.g. the student knows third person rule but even do he does not
use the rule to write sentences.

Corder (1967) “A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or
a slip, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. An error, a noticeable
deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the

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learner. Mistakes are what researchers have referred to as performance errors, while the
errors are a result of one’s systematic competence”

Another difference about an error and a mistake is that according to James (1998 p 79)
“An error cannot be self-corrected, while mistakes can be self-corrected if the deviation is
pointed out to the speaker”. It is essential to know that errors are produce because the
students are not aware of the error because of the lack of knowledge they have, for that
reason they cannot correct themselves, the mistakes are produced for a miss care of the
student and they can correct themselves because they have the knowledge to do it.

4.a.1.2 Reasons to use error correction

According to Harmer (1998), correction helps students to clarify their understanding


of the meaning and construction the language. “Teacher should be concerned how to
correct students as one way may be appropriate for one but may not be appropriate for
another. Sometimes students can correct themselves as the error is just a slip”. Again,
students sometimes need help of the teacher. He also refers that during this time teachers
can ask to correct another student. If the other students help out to solve the error, the
student who made the mistake may not feel humiliated. Sometimes students prefer a gently
correction from the teacher. Harmer (1998) also suggests that it is important to praise
students for their success and to correct them for their failure. In this way teacher’s positive
attitude can dramatically change student’s performance irrespective of their level and types
of errors.

One part of the learning process is to make errors because it is evidently attached to
the human being way of learning. According to Lennon (1991) an error is "a linguistic form
or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of
production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers' native speakers’
counterparts". The correction may come from the student, a peer or the teacher as the paper
explains about the classification of mistakes. It is quite obvious that errors are integral parts

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of language learning and error correction has a significant role in improving learners
writing accuracy.

4.a.2 Types of errors

Researchers in the field of applied linguistics usually distinguish between two types
of errors: performance errors and competence errors. Performance errors are those errors
made by learners when they are tired or hurried. Normally, this type of error is not serious
and can be overcome with little effort by the learner. Competence errors, on the other hand,
are more serious than performance errors since competence errors reflect inadequate
learning. In this connection, it is important to note that researchers (cf. Gefen 1979)
distinguish between mistakes which are slips in performance and errors which reflect
inadequate competence.
Other researchers (cf. Burt and Kiparsky 1974) distinguish between local and global
errors. “Local errors do not hinder communication and understanding the meaning of an
utterance. Global errors, on the other hand, are more serious than local errors because
global errors interfere with communication and disrupt the meaning of utterances. Local
errors involve noun and verb inflections, and the use of articles, prepositions, and
auxiliaries. Global errors, for example, involve wrong word order in a sentence; language
learning errors involve all language components: the phonological, the morphological, the
lexical, and the syntactic.” . In other words, local errors do not distort the meaning of a
sentences but global error are the opposite.
Another classification according to some terms taken from the interactive encyclopedia
are:

1.1 Slips
1.2 Errors
1.3 Mistakes
1.4 Fault
1.5 Blunder

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1. Slip - an accidental and trivial mistake in speaking.


2. Error - a systematic deviation made by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of
the target language.
3. Mistake - If one says something incorrect and then corrects himself, that's a mistake, not
an error.
4. Blunder - a mistake made through stupidity, ignorance, or carelessness.
5. Fault - a mistake made on the basis of bad judgment or ignorance or inattention.
As it is visible, an important difference between the previous terminology about the
types of errors because in general, teachers point out that the student made a mistake but
not always are mistakes, can be errors for lack of knowledge, a slip if is an accidental
mistake or if they are attempt to create communication and they made a mistake or even
can be a global or local error.

4.a.3 Classification of error correction

According to many researches there are three main types of error correction which are;
teacher´s correction, self-correction and peer correction:

4.a.3.1 Teacher´s correction:

Tedick and Gortari research on “error correction and implications for teaching”
presents a list of factors teachers need to take into account when the teacher is going to
correct an error. They offer four general suggestions for teachers based on the classroom
experiences which are:
 Consider the context. Before you plan systematic error correction practices
for your classrooms, you need to consider the context in which student
language use and errors occur. As immersion teachers are well aware,
students in the early stages of cognitive development and language
acquisition need to be encouraged to produce language that communicates
meaning; error correction techniques that require student reflection on
language structures or vocabulary are not appropriate for learners in those

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early stages. The types of corrective feedback techniques that elicit student-
generated repairs are clearly more appropriate for the more cognitively
mature and L2 proficient learners.
 Become aware of your current practices. Immersion teachers can benefit by
taking time to find out how they currently address student errors. Ask a
colleague or classroom aide to observe you while focusing specifically on
your feedback techniques. Or, should a colleague or aide not be available,
audio record a number of your lessons and reflect on the recording.
 Practice a variety of feedback techniques. Good teachers understand that one
size does not fit all. Individual learners may well differ in terms of the
particular error correction technique most appropriate for their unique
language development needs. Choosing to learn and use a few different
types of feedback that seem to produce student-generated repairs increases
your chance of reaching more students.
 Focus on the learner. It’s important to let the learner self-correct. Remember
that your students may well be more capable than you think. As teachers we
often feel an urge to rush in with the correct response before students have
had enough time to process the information. If we allow time and provide
appropriate cues for the learner to self-repair, more often than not the student
will come through. The least effective technique for correcting a student’s
incorrect language use is to simply give them the answer.
“Ordinary correction, teacher corrects student’s error using different codes and way to do
it” (Budden, 2001). It is the main way to correct student’s errors, the traditional way in
which the teacher points out.

4.a.3.2 Self-correction:

In the process of language learning, learners sometimes notice some of their errors
by themselves, through the strategy of monitoring, and they can also correct some of their
errors when other people, such as teachers or peers, give them proper cues or hints about

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them. It assumes that learners are able to apply the rules they have learned in order to
correct their own errors.
According to the article “Learner self-correction in EFL written compositions” by
Taka-Yoshi Makino “It can be understood that self-correction gives students an opportunity
to correction consider and activate their linguistic competence, so that they can be active
participants in written compositions rather than passive recipients of feedback. It is clear
from the study how much students can self-correct with the help of teacher cues, and that
more detailed cues lead to a higher ratio of self-correction. This technique of error
correction has two advantages: one is that teacher cues give students a chance to reflect on
their writing and to pay more attention to the structural forms they have written; the other is
that students can activate their linguistic competence in correcting their own errors. They
also improve their linguistic creativity through self-correction. Therefore, we can reach the
conclusion that self-correction is highly effective with grammatical (especially,
morphological) errors.”
“The first port of call when correcting can be the students themselves. Students can
often correct themselves when they realize they’ve made a mistake. Sometimes the mistake
is simply a ‘slip’ and they are aware of the correct version” (Budden, 2001). Provide the
students the opportunity and time to correct themselves. “Often by just raising your
eyebrows or repeating the mistake students will know what you mean and back track to
correct the error themselves. Some teachers create all sorts of hand signals to indicate the
type of error” (Budden, 2001).

4.a.3.3 Peer-correction:

Advocated by a large group of researchers, peer correction definitely has its


benefits. But before it is practiced in class, the teacher has to reconsider it keeping the
determining factors (the context, the learners etc.) in mind. A technique proven to be
effective in a particular setting with a particular group of learners might not be good
enough in a different setting with a different bunch of learners. Echoing Jeremy Harmer
(2004) it can be said that “the teacher might ask students for their opinions about which

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technique of correction they are comfortable with. If students are not ready for peer
feedback, then the teacher should not force it on them.”
“Peer correction often helps to create a positive class atmosphere as students realize
you are not the only source of error correction and they can learn a lot from one another.”
(Budden, 2001) Students can also correct each other the errors they produce.

Corder (1973) and Allwright (1975) suggest that the “teacher should be primarily
responsible for correcting learner´s error… it has been suggested that both self correction
and peer correction should be encouraged to complement the teacher´s role in error
correction” There are many ways correct an error those could be: teacher´s correction is the
main way to correct student’s errors, the traditional way in which the teacher points out the
mistake, self-correction provides the students the opportunity and time to correct
themselves and peer-correction in which students can also correct each other the errors they
produce.

4.a.4 skills error correction techniques

According to the research “Error correction techniques for English teachers” says about
general issues in error correction was changing attitudes toward mistakes and correction:
Traditional attitudes
 Mistakes are a revelation of students’ ignorance, laziness and lack of
commitment.
 Mistakes should be highly avoided.
 A good lesson should be mistake-free.

The Communicative Approach


 Mistakes show that students are experimenting with the language, trying to
formulate sentences and responses for themselves.
 Mistakes are an inevitable part of the learning process.

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 A good lesson is one full of student mistakes and students correcting


themselves and each other.

Which errors to correct


Comprehensibility: Teacher should correct errors that cause misunderstanding or lack of
intelligibility.

Frequency: Errors that are constantly made by an individual student or the entire class
should be given priority.

Pedagogical focus: Errors in form that students have recently learned in class should be
corrected.

Individual student concerns: Teacher correction varies according to students’ proficiency


levels, needs and personal preferences.

Types of correction in language classroom


Concerning Who
 Self-correction: students correct themselves
 Peer correction: students correct each other
 Teacher correction: teacher corrects students
Concerning How
 Direct correction: Teacher stops the student, points out mistake, gets student to self-
correct or be corrected by another student.
 Indirect correction: Teacher takes notes of mistakes and deals with correction at a
later time.

Teacher correction and student performance

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Teacher correction can either have a positive or negative effect on students’


language performance.

Positive (desired) effects


 Students become fully aware of their area of problems and work toward solving it.
 Students are more open and tolerant of their own mistakes and those of their
classmates.
 Students are willing to try out new language items and consider teacher correction
as useful guided helps.

Negative (undesired) effects


 Students are afraid of being criticized and play it safe by stop trying to produce the
language.
 Students become critical of their own mistakes and those of their friends.
 Students feel frustrated and insecure during class periods

4.a.4.1 Oral error correction

 Place more emphasis on correction during drill (accuracy-focused activities)


than during communication activities (fluency-focused activities).

 Do not interrupt the students too quickly. Research has shown that if “the
teacher waited three to five seconds to intervene after asking a question
(instead of the typical one second), student responses increased
dramatically”.
 Avoid confusion in giving correction: asking for ambiguous word choices,
giving inexplicit directions, using vague correction techniques that lead to
error repetition.

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 Make correction in a positive manner. Correct gently and with respect. This
is especially important with oral work, since it is almost always in front of
others. (Source: Error correction techniques for the FL classroom, Waltz J. )

Oral Correction techniques


 Finger correction: Use each finger of your left hand to represent the word. Holding
your palm towards you, your little finger represents the first word of the sentence.
Point to the word with your right hand. Move from left to right (backwards) so that
the student read the other way around, from left to right. This technique is often
used for the following mistakes: missing contraction, missing word, or too many
words.

 Recast/ Paraphrasing: Model the incorrect sentence without proper substitution but
without calling attention to the correction.
e.g.: S: I go to school yesterday.
T: I WENT to school yesterday.

 Modeling (Teacher-to-Student): Repeat a good model for students to copy. This


technique is useful for pronunciation mistakes.

 Question mark/ Intonation: Use a question mark, in your voice and/or in your face.
e.g.: S: I go yesterday.
T: turns face to the side a bit and frowns: go?
S: Oh. Yes. I went yesterday

 Alternative: Give the students an alternative: tell them the correct answer and the
wrong answer, put a question mark into your voice and get them to choose the right
one.
e.g.: S: He go to the market everyday.

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T: He go or he goes?
S: He goes.

 Student-to-Student correction: If these above techniques do not work, use other


students in the class who can provide the answer correctly to help the student who
has made the mistake. Point at a good student and then point at the student who
needs help and say “Help him/her”.

 Indirect correction (during pair work and group work): Go around from group to
group, with a notebook and pencil. Listen to the group for a while and write down
one or two discernible and BIG mistakes that they make. At the end of the class or
at the beginning of the next class write the mistakes on the board or read them out to
the class. Get the student to correct the mistakes.

4.a.4.2 Written error correction

The issue as to whether error feedback helps L2 student writers improve the accuracy and
overall quality of their writing is controversial.
Some researcher says that feedback on error to L2 students is discouraging and generally
fails to produce any improvements in their subsequent writing (Robb, Ross & Shortreed
1986; Kepner 1991; Sheppard 1992; Polio, Fleck & Leder 1998; Fazio 2001).
On the other hand, other researchers affirm corrective feedback was effective when
combined with classroom discussions (Master 1995). Similarly, Fathman & Whalley
(1990) stated there are “positive effects for rewriting from feedback on both grammar and
content”.
As controversy continues as to whether feedback on error helps L2 student writers to
improve the accuracy and overall quality of their writing, as English language teachers,
what is your standpoint on this matter? To what extent do you think your correction
benefits your students’ writing performance? Your ideas and opinions are essential to
making this a fruitful discussion.

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Written Correction techniques

Basically, there are two kinds of techniques that teachers can use to correct students’
written work: direct and indirect feedback.

Direct feedback: It is given when the teacher provides the correct form for the student
writer; if the student revises the text, s/he needs only to transcribe the correction into the
final version.

Indirect feedback: It occurs when the teacher indicates in some way that an error exists but
does not provide the correction, thus letting the writer know that there is a problem but
leaving it to the student to solve it.

Second language acquisition theorists and ESL writing specialists alike argue that indirect
feedback is preferable for most student writers because it engages them in “guided learning
and problem solving” (Lalande, 1982), leading to reflection about linguistic forms that may
foster long-term acquisition (James and Reid).

Error correction researchers who have examined the effects of these two contrasting types
of feedback have reported that indirect feedback helps students to make progress in
accuracy over time more than direct feedback does (Ferris et al., 2000; Ferris & Helt, 2000
and Lalande) or at least equally as well (Frantzen and Robb).

Suggestions for correcting students’ written errors

1. First, identify and record the error types that each learner produces frequently. Then,
student reads his written work to search out and correct all high-frequency errors.
2. Use different color inks for distinguishing more important errors from less important
ones.

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3. Underlining a word and providing a verbal tip such as “use subjunctive”, crossing out
superfluous words and supplying correct form or structure.

4.a.5 Strategies to give feedback

According to Jack C. Richards and Charles Lockhart (1997) provide some strategies of
giving feedback on content and feedback on form.

4.a.5.1 Strategies to give feedback on content:

 Acknowledging the correct answer: teacher acknowledges by saying by saying


‘Good’, ‘Yes’ or ‘alright’.
 Indicating an incorrect answer: teachers indicate the incorrect answer by saying
‘No, that’s not quite right’ or ‘Mmmm’.
 Praising: give complements for right answer by saying ‘yes, an excellent answer’.
 Expanding or modifying a student’s answer: the teacher can provide more
information or rephrasing the answer to an incomplete or vague answer.
 Repeating: teacher can repeat the same answer.
 Summarizing: the teacher can summarize what a student or group of student has
answered.
 Criticizing: the teacher can criticize a student’s response.

4.a.5.2 Strategies to give feedback on form:

 Asking the student to repeat what he or she said.


 Pointing out the error and asking the student to self- correct.
 Commenting on an error and explaining why it is wrong, without having the student
correct form.
 Asking another student to correct the error.
 Using a gesture to indicate that an error has been made.

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4.a.6 Implications of error correction

Kwok, Hong Lok in his paper “correction project for an English composition class”
presents two areas that are involved.

Firstly, self-correction is useful for the student and convenient for the teacher. “A
larger number of errors are performance errors caused by the constraints of the composing
process and they can be corrected by the students themselves after the writing is completed.
Thus, allowing a period of time to pass before giving the students the marked errors can
widen the awareness of the students towards the errors. For competent learners, a hint in the
form of an underlining is often sufficient assistance. Further help with a correction symbol
is useful but only for 'easier' areas of grammar (e.g . verb agreement or spelling) . With
'difficult' areas such as choice of lexical items or prepositions, giving the students more
teaching or exposure to the language would be a better solution”. In practical terms, it
means having a system to keep track of the errors, give the students the correct form of an
error should then be used as the last resort and only used for difficult errors which resist
correction.

Secondly, the usefulness of kernel ideas can be extended. “For an essay of any
kind, it will be very helpful if a group or even just one native-speaker of the language can
write a list of kernel ideas or a model for a comparison with non-native speakers' responses
on the same topic” This will provide a way of assessing the quantity of information
produced by a non-native writer and will also make the learner aware of the linguistic and
cultural differences as revealed in the native-speaker's text.

4.a.7 Error analysis

In the late 1960s and early 1970s emphasis was shifted from contrastive analysis to
error analysis (EA). One of the major proponents of error analysis was Stephen Pit Corder.
Error analysis was established as an alternative to contrastive analysis. Both
methods explain sources of error, but in different ways. CA sees errors as results of L1
interference only. EA, on the other hand, “accepts many sources of errors such as

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intralingual interference, overgeneralization, misteaching and the role of the variables of


age, attitude, aptitude, motivation etc.” (Shastri, 2010, p. 25).
It is important to stress that EA not only explored sources of error, but also many
other aspects of error and language learning. As Yang (2010) states, error Analysis is the
process of determining the incidence, nature, causes and consequences of unsuccessful
language.
Error analysts frequently came up with various error typologies. The most widely
spread division was between errors (systematic) and mistakes (accidental). From that, error
typologies were derived. To illustrate the point, Larsen-Freeman and Long
(1991), in their summary of intralingual errors (those that are not traceable to L1
interference), identified four types: overgeneralization, simplification, communication-
based errors, and induced errors. S. P. Corder (1984) offers a similar typology, although
with slight changes. Each of these categories is always clearly defined and distinguished
from the others, which makes it easy to categorize all errors. Finally, it is necessary to
mention that the transition from CA to prevailing error analysis was not as linear as it might
seem.
Error analysis was at its peak in the 1970s and 1980s; after that, however, its
influence began to fade. Since then, “researchers working more on matters related to error
gravity, and causes of error, in particular, transfer or cross-linguistic influence. In this
sense, it has never totally disappeared from the language learning scenario, continuing to be
a more widespread practice than it is duly given credit for” (James,
1998, p. 18). Continually, it has given way to the communicative approach, which keeps
prevailing still today and is a largely dominant practice overall.

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V. Conclusions

In the whole learning and teaching process which teachers have to deal every day, it

is important to know that it involves a variety of factors. Besides the quantity of elements

related to the process, teachers have to take into account one of the main aspects which is

error correction.

To correct student´s errors it is important to analyze the lack of knowledge the

students have in order to understand their learning process. Students errors can be corrected

by themselves or using the help of the teacher or even be corrected by their partners. To

apply correct use of error correction it is important to understand the types of errors and the

appropriate time to do it.

It has been pointed out that teachers’ positive approach to error as to something

showing learners’ willingness to experiment and be creative with language is crucial for the

learners’ natural development of interlanguage and openness towards communication. It

has been pointed out that it is necessary to distinguish between error and mistake due to

their differing nature, which consequently influences decisions on correction: while

teachers should consider correction of errors, it is not the case with mistakes, which are

only momentary lapses of memory or tongue.

The following planning will show how to apply the way teachers have to correct

errors in the teaching learning process.

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VI. References

Brooks, N. (1960). Language and language learning. (2nd Ed.). New York: Harcourt,

Brace & World Inc.

Brown, H Douglas 2000 Principles of language learning and teaching. New York

Longman.

Burt, m., & Kiparsky, c. 1978. Global and local mistakes, in j. Schumann & n. Stenson

(eds.). New frontiers in second language learning.

Rowley. Massachusetts: Newbury house publishing, inc.

Corder (1967), The significance of learners’ errors. International review of Applied

Linguistics, 5, 161-170

Corder, S. P. (1973). Introducing applied linguistics. Harmondsworth, Great Britain:

Penguin.

Corder, s. p. (1981).error analysis and interlanguage. oxford: oup.

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Gefen, R. 1979. The analysis of pupils' errors. English teachers' journal,

22,16·24.

James (1993 ) Errors in language learning and use: Exploring error analysis. Harlow, UK:

Addison Wesley Longman

James, c. (1998). errors in language learning and use – exploring error analysis.

Edinburgh: Harlow.

J. Harmer: the practice of English language teaching, 7th ed. London: Pearson

Longman.(2007)

Harmer, Jeremy, 1998. How to teach English. Addison Wesley Longman limited.

Kwok, Hong Lok

Why and when do we correct learner errors?

An error correction project for an English composition class

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Larsen-Freeman, d. & Long, M.H. (1991). The linguistic environment for language

acquisition. in d. Larsen-Freeman & M.H. Long (eds.), an introduction to

second language acquisition research. Harlow, Essex: Longman.

Lennon, P.. 1991. "Error: some problems of definition and identification", in

AppliedLinguistic, vol. 12, num. 2, Oxford, pp. 180-195.

Prabhu, N. S. (1989). Three models in second language pedagogy. Journal of English and

Foreign Languages, 3, 1-13.

Richards, Jack C, Lockhart, Charles 1997. Second Language Classroom, Unite Kingdom:

Cambridge University.

Richard Jack C, Lockhart, Charles 1997. Reflective Teaching in Second Language

classrooms, United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Shastri, p. d. (2010). communicative approach to the teaching of English as a second

language. Mumbai: Himalaya publishing house.

Taka-Yoshi Makino

Learner self-correction in EFL

Written compositions

Hokkaido university of education, hokkaido,japan.


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Tedick and de Gortari • “research on error correction and implications for teaching” •

may 1998

Wieczorek, J. A. (1991). Error evaluation, interlanguage analysis, and the preterit in the

Spanish L2 classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 47(3), 497-511.

Yang, W. (may 2010). a tentative analysis of errors in language learning and use.

journal of language teaching and research, 1 (3), 266-268.

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VII. PLANNING

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VIII. APPENDIX

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