Ahmed Shokey

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‫ﺘﺎﺭﻴﺦ ﺍﻝﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪٣‬‬
٤
STUDIES ON THE THERMOREGULATION
OF LOCAL CHICKENS
By
Ahmed Shawkey Mohamed Naiem
B.Sc. Agric. Sciences. High Institute of Agric.
Co-operation. ١٩٨٧.
High Diploma (Poultry Technology
Al-Azhar University ١٩٩٣
OF
Master of Science
In
Agricultural Science
Animal Production
(Poultry Physiology)
Department of Animal Production

Faculty of Agriculture
Al-Azhar University
١٤٢٦ AH
٢٠٠٥ AD
٥
STUDIES ON THE THERMOREGULATION OF
LOCAL CHICKENS
By
Ahmed Shaw
Shawkey Mohamed Nai
Naiem
OF
Master of Science
In
Animal Production
Al-Azhar University
١٤٢٦ AH
٢٠٠٥ AD
Supervision Committee:
١. Prof. Dr. Medhat Hussein Khalil
Animal Physiology Department of Animal Production Faculty
of Agriculture Al-Azhar University
٢. Prof. Dr. Hesham Hussein Khalifa
Animal Physiology Department of Animal Production Faculty
of Agriculture Al-Azhar University
٣. Prof. Hisham Mohammed Salih Shoukry
Poultry Physiology Department of Animal Production
Faculty of Agriculture Al-Azhar University
٦
STUDIES ON THE THERMOREGULATION OF
LOCAL CHICKENS
By
Ahmed Shaw
Shawkey Mohamed Nai
Naiem
OF
Master of Science
In
Animal Production
Al-Azhar University
١٤٢٦ AH
٢٠٠٥ AD
Approved By:
١. Prof. Dr. Abdel-Hady Amer ………………………………………………………
Prof. of Poultry Nutrition, Department of Animal production,
Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University.
٢. Prof. Dr. Hesham Hussein Khalifa ……….………………………………
Prof. of Animal Physiology Department of Animal Production
Faculty of Agriculture Al-Azhar University.
٣. Prof. Dr. Mona Abdel-Tawab El-Khashab
……………………………..
٧
Prof. of Animal Physiology Department of Animal Production
Faculty of Agriculture Cairo - Elfayum University.
٨
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my sincere appreciation and

personal gratitude to Dr. Medhat Hussein Khalil,
Professor of Animal Physiology Department of
Animal Production Faculty of Agriculture Al-Azhar
University, for his dear services during the time of the
study and dear thanks for keeping track of the thesis,
encouragement and his permanent advice. Also I'd
like to thank him for helping in writing and revising
this thesis.
My deep thanks and gratefulness to Dr. Hesham

Hussein Khalifa, Professor of Animal Physiology
Department of Animal Production Faculty of
Agriculture Al-Azhar University, for the practical part
for this research and for his permanent seek for
providing farms and collecting data needed for this
research and my dear thanks for his sincere advice and
giving solutions for obstacles that faced us during
carrying out my scientific material and for this thesis.
My greatest personal indebtedness to Dr.
Hisham Mohammed Salih Shoukry, Professor of
Poultry Physiology Department of Animal Production
Faculty of Agriculture Al-Azhar University, for
suggesting a plan of this study and keeping track of its
steps, facilating difficulties and obstacles and
continuous encouragement during all stages of this
study with giving advice all the time.
I wish to extend thanks to the staff members of
the faculty and graduate students of the Department of
٩
poultry production for their help and co-operation. At
the same time, it doesn't come over my head to thank
Dr. Abdel Hady A. Amr, Profesor of Poultry
Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University
- that attended the discussion as a supervisor - for his
good notices and dear guidance.
Also, I want to thank the farms that gave us
permission to carry out our experiments (Holland –
Saffa and Animal research farm. Al-Azhar University)
and Animal Health Research Institute for their grateful
help.
Finally I'd like to thank my glorious family
(father, mother, brothers and my dear wife) for their
progressive encouragement and for their honest help.
Thank is to be for Allah who gives me these
people.
Ahmed Shauky Mohamed Naem
١٠
١١
١٢
١٣
١٤
١٥
CONTENTS
Page
١- INTRODUCTION ١
٢- REVIEW OF LITERATURE ٣
٢-١ Heat Production ٣
٢-١-١ Effect of Ambient Temperature ٤
٢-١-١-١ Effect of High Ambient Temperature ٤
or Heat Stress
٢-١-١-٢Effect of Low Ambient Temperature ٨
or Cold Stress
٢-١-٢ Effect of Age ٩
٢-١-٣ Effect of Feeding ١٢
٢-١-٤ Effect of Egg Production ١٢
٢-١-٥ Other Factors Effecting Heat Production ١٢
٢-١-٥-١ Diurnal Variation ١٢
٢-١-٥-٢ Growth Rate ١٣
٢-١-٥-٣ Muscle Activity and Specific ١٣
Dynamic Action of Food
٢-١-٥-٤ Bread or Strain ١٤
٢-١-٥-٥ Gut Microflora ١٤
٢-٥-١-٦ Melatonin ١٤
٢-١-٥-٧ Hypothermic Incubation ١٤
٢-٢ Heat Loss ١٥
٢-٢-١ Effect of Ambient Temperature ١٥
٢-٢-٢ Effect of Air Velocity ١٨
٢-٢-٣ Effect of Age ١٩
٢-٢-٤ Mechanisms of Heat Loss Regulation ١٩
٢-٣ Thermoregulation and Thermoneutral Zone ٢١
٢-٣-١ Thermoneutral Zone ٢١
٢-٣-٢ Thermoregulatory Mechanisms ٢٣
٢-٣-٣ Thermoregulatory Mechanisms Under ٢٦
Heat Stress
٢-٣-٤ Thermoregulatory Mechanism Under Cold ٢٨
١٦
Stress
٢-٣-٥ Effect of Age on Thermoregulation ٢٦
٢-٣-٦ Effect of Acclimation on Thermoregulation ٣٢
٢-٣-٧ Effect of Feed Intake on Thermoregulation ٣٣
٢-٤ Respiration Rate ٣٤
٢-٤-١ Effect of Painting on Water Consumption ٣٥
٢-٥ Body Temperature ٣٦
٢-٦ Acclimation ٤٠
٢-٦-١ Acclimation to Heat Stress ٤٠
٢-٦-٢ Acclimation to Cold Stress ٤٢
٣- MATERIALS AND METHODS ٤٤
٣-١ Animals ٤٤
٣-١-١ Rearing of the Experimental Birds ٤٤
٣-٢ Controlling the Ambient Temperature ٤٥
٣-٣ Experimental Procedures ٤٥
٣-٣-١ Determination of thermoregulation ٤٥
Development
٣-٣-٢ Evaporative Heat Loss Determination ٤٦
٣-٣-٣ Heat Production Determination ٤٧
٣-٣-٤ Body Temperature and Respiration Rate ٤٨
Determination
٣-٤ Statistical Analysis ٤٨
٤- RESULT AND DISSCUSION ٤٩
٤-١ Determination of Thermoregulation Development ٤٩
٤-٢ Effect of Ambient Temperature on Heat ٥٥
Production (HP)
٤-٣ Effect of Ambient Temperature on Total ٥٩
Evaporative Heat Loss (THL)
٤-٤ Effect of Ambient Temperature on Respiration ٦٧
Rate (RR)
٤-٥ Effect of Ambient Temperature on Cloacal ٧٥
Temperature (Tc)
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ٨٢
Results Indicated ٨٢
REFERENCES ٨٦
١٧
‫ﺍﻝﻤﻠﺨﺹ ﺍﻝﻌﺭﺒﻲ‬
‫‪١٨‬‬
LIST OF TABLE
No. Title Page
١ Effect of cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour) on ٥٠
mean cloacal temperature (°C) of Fayoumi
chicks at different ages
٢ Effect of cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour) on ٥١
mean survival time (min.) of Fayoumi chicks
at different ages.
٣ Effect of cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour) on ٥١
mortality rate (%) of Fayoumi chicks at
different ages
٤ Effect of ambient temperature on mean heat ٥٧
production (kcal/hr.W٠٧٥) of Fayoumi
female chicks (٢٢ weeks old) acclimatized to
moderate (٢٩-٣٢ °C) and severe (٣٥ – ٤٠
°C) environmental temperatures
٥ Effect of ambient temperature on mean ٦٢
evaporative heat loss (kcal/hr.W٠٧٥) of
Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢ weeks old)
acclimatized to moderate (٢٩-٣٢ °C) and
severe (٣٥ – ٤٠ °C) environmental
temperatures
٦ Percentage heat production lost by ٦٥
evaporation (percentage of heat loss/heat
production) in Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢
weeks old) acclimatized to moderate (٢٩-٣٢
°C) and severe (٣٥ – ٤٠ °C) environmental
temperatures
٧ Least square means of respiration rate of ٦٩
acclimatized to moderate ambient
temperature (winter hatch) before and after
exposure to different ambient temperatures
١٩
٨ Least square means respiration rate of ٧٠
acclimatized to severe ambient temperature
(summer hatch) before and after exposure to
different ambient temperatures
٩ Effect of ambient temperature on mean ٧١
respiration rate of Fayoumi female chicks
(٢٢ weeks old) acclimatized to moderate
(٢٩-٣٢ °C) and severe (٣٥ – ٤٠ °C)
environmental temperatures
١٠ Least square means of cloacal temperature ٧٦
(°C) of Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢ weeks
old) acclimatized to moderate ambient
temperature (winter hatch) before and after
١١ Least square means of cloacal temperature ٧٧
(°C) of Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢ weeks
old) acclimatized to severe ambient
temperature (summer hatch) before and after
١٢ Effect of ambient temperature on mean ٧٨
cloacal temperature (°C) of Fayoumi female
chicks (٢٢ weeks old) acclimatized to
moderate (٢٩-٣٢ °C) and severe (٣٥–٤٠ °C)
environmental temperatures
٢٠
LIST OF FIGURES
No. Title Page
١ Mean cloacal temperature (°C) of Fayoumi
chicks at different ages before and after ٥٢
exposure to cold stress (١٠°C for ١ hour).
٢ Mean survival time (min.) after cold exposure ٥٣
(١٠ °C for ١ hour) of Fayoumi chicks at
different ages.
٣ Percentage of mortality rate of Fayoumi ٥٤
chicks after cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour)
at different ages.
٤ Mean heat production (kcal/hr.W٠٧٥) of ٢٢ ٥٨
weeks old female Fayoumi chicks
acclimatized to moderate and severe
environmental temperatures after exposure to
٥ Mean evaporative heat loss (Joules) of ٦٣
Fayoumi chicks acclimatized to moderate and
severe environmental temperatures after
٦ Mean percentage of heat production lost by ٦٦
evaporation of ٢٢ weeks old female Fayoumi
chicks acclimatized to moderate and severe
٧ Mean respiration rate of moderate ٧٢
acclimatized birds before and after exposure
to different ambient temperatures
٨ Mean respiration rate of severe acclimatized ٧٣
birds before and after exposure to different
ambient temperatures
٩ Mean respiration rate of Fayoumi chicks ٧٤
٢١
١٠ Mean cloacal temperature of moderate ٧٩
١١ Mean cloacal temperature of severe ٨٠
١٢ Mean cloacal temperature of Fayoumi chicks ٨١
٢٢
١- INTRODUCTION
Adult birds are homeothermic and provided with
physiological mechanisms by which they can maintain their
deep body temperature constant within the thermoneutral
zone. Under heat stress body temperature increases and the
respiratory rate may also rise. The evaporation of water from
the bird remains low as long as the respiratory rate is only
moderate and panting does not occur. With high respiration
rate (panting) a marked increase in evaporation occurs. This
may indicate therefore, that the cloacal temperature is getting
dangerously high. When the cloacal temperature reaches
٤٥°٠, the hen shows marked distress is followed by inability
to stand and complete collapse with pale comb and out
stretched legs. Death rapidly follows unless relief is given.
The ontogeny of thermoregulation in birds is
characterized by three phases (Nichelmann et al., ٢٠٠٢)
with different efficiency of the system. In the prenatal
phase, all control elements of the thermoregulatory system
can function, but the efficiency of the system is low. It is
postulated that endothermic reactions during the prenatal
period do not have a proximate (immediate), but rather an
ultimate influence on the efficiency of thermoregulation.
They may support adaptivity to expected environmental
conditions and may be involved in epigenetic adaptation
processes. During the early postnatal phase, the
thermoregulatory system develops and matures. Summit
metabolism and resting metabolic rate and their
thermoregulatory set points increase. Preferred
temperature is significantly different during different
behavioural activities. The phase of full-blown homeothermy
starts at approximately the ١٠th day of life. It is characterised
٢٣
by an activation order of thermoregulatory control elements
and by secondary chemical thermoregulation.
Newly hatched birds are poikilothermic. However,
brain and body temperatures increased in an exponential
relation with age, approaching adult levels at ٥ to ٦ days
of age and further to complete homeothermy (Arad,
١٩٨٩). The determination of thermoregulation
development is of great importance to avoid high
mortality rate in newly hatched chicks under cold stress.
Fayoumi is an Egyptian native breed for egg
production. Because Fayoumi is well adapted to heat
stress their metabolic rate and egg production are lower
than other high producer breeds. In Egypt, the main
climatic effect is the heat stress effect during summer
where ambient temperature may exceed ٣٥ °C for more
than ٥ months. In some region especially in upper Egypt
ambient temperature may decrease to below ١٥ °C during
winter which may cause cold stress on heat adapted birds.
Scanty literature are available about
thermoregulatory mechanisms of local Egyptian breeds
against heat and cold. Also, the determination of lower
and upper critical temperatures of Fayoumi will help in
avoiding the effect of cold and heat stress on their
production by using managerial mitigation of heat and
cold above and below the thermoneutral zone.
The objectives of the present work are to evaluate
the effect of hot and cold climates on thermoregulation of
Fayoumi chickens, to determine the thermoneutral zone of
Fayoumi adapted to Egyptian conditions as well as to
determine the development of thermoregulatory
mechanism during the neonatal post-hatch period.
٢٤
٢- REVIEW OF LITERATURE
٢.١. Heat production:

Keller (١٩٨٠) reported that it was shown by open
circuit respiration measurements on the birds that the
fasting heat loss in kJ/h ١٠٠ g bodyweight can be
expressed by the equation, H = ٧٦٦ + ٣٦٢G - ٣٢٣ G٢,
where G equals the daily gain in body weight/١٠٠ g body
weight.
Denbow and Kuenzel (١٩٨١) postulated the
equations best describing existence energy rate (EER) for
Ross X Arbor Acre broilers and DeKalb ٢٣١ X Cornell
White Leghorns were Y = ١٤٨W٠٧٧ and Y =
١١٠W٠٧٤, respectively, where Y equals kcal/bird.day
and W equals bodyweight (kg).
Fuller et al. (١٩٨٣) found that heat production
kcal/bird.٢٤h as estimated by energy balance and gaseous
exchange was ٣٥٩ and ٣٤٨ in one experiment, and ٣٩٥
and ٣٩٣ in the other. On the basis of metabolic
bodyweight (in kg W٠٧٥) daily heat production measured
in this manner was ١٦١ and ١٧٣ kcal (W٠٧٥) in the two
experiments.
Khalifa (١٩٩١) found that the mean heat production
of the normal ٧١-week-old White Lohman Selected
Leghorn (L.S.L) laying hens was ٧٢٢٧ kcal/w٠٧٥.hr
during summer.
Glennon et al. (١٩٨٩) reported that total hourly heat
production of the White Leghorn type pullets ranged from
٢٣ to ٣٠٥ kJ/bird over the rearing cycle, while the
٢٥
hourly non-bird latent heat production ranged from ٠٦ to
٦٤ kJ/bird.
٢.١.١. Effect of ambient temperature:
Aerts et al. (٢٠٠٠) concluded that the steady state
gain for the response of heat production of broiler
chickens to step changes in temperature was -٠٢٥ Wkg-١
°C-١ and -٠٣٢ Wkg-١°C-١ on average for a step up and a
step down in air temperature, respectively. The average
time constant of heat production to a step up in
temperature was ١٣٦ min and ٩٢ min for a step down.
٢.١.١.١. Effect of high ambient temperature or heat
stress:
O'Neill and Jackson (١٩٧٤) found that the mean
fasting heat production of White Leghorn hens (from ١ to
٢٢٥ years old) varied between ٤٠٤ and
٤٦٤kJ/kg٠٧٥/day. No difference in fasting heat
production was found between ١٦ and ٢٣ °C for well-
feathered hens in the first few months after moult though
there were substantial reductions at ٢٧ °C and above.
Goll et al. (١٩٨٦) found that body heat production
increased with increasing heat stress, even at constant
actual environmental temperature. Hence, the increase in
the function which describes the relationship between
actual environmental temperature (ET) and body heat
production at less than the thermally neutral temperature,
increased with decrease in feather cover and increasing
ventilation rate.
Goh and Rhee (١٩٨٧) found a negative linear
relation between fasting heat production (FHP) and
temperature (r = -٠٩٧٧٩, -٠٩٩٦٨ and -٠٩٧١٧ for ٠, ٥٠
and ١٠٠٪ defeathering). Increasing defeathering from ٠ to
٢٦
٥٠ and from ٠ to ١٠٠٪ increased FHP by ٥٥ and ٣٩٥٪.
However, at ٣٥° rate of defeathering did not affect FHP
whereas at ٥ °C rate of defeathering had a significant
effect on FHP.
Nishibri et al. (١٩٨٩) found that the mean daily heat
production of commercial laying hens at ٣٥ °C was ١٨
kJ/kg٠٧٥/ h which was similar to that for restricted
feeding at ٢٣ °C. However, for free feeding at ٢٣ °C heat
production was ٢٣kJ/kg٠٧٥/ h.
Chwalibog and Eggum (١٩٨٩) studied the effect of
exposing ٢١ to ٤٢ days old male and female White
Plymouth Rock chickens to ambient temperature varied
from ١٥° to ٤٠ °C and humidity (RH) from ٣٠ to ٧٠٪.
They found that with increasing temperature, heat
production decreased and evaporative loss increased.
Hoffmann (١٩٩١-a) found in Tetra broilers kept in
groups at ٣٥°, ٣٠°, ٢٥°, ٢٠° and ١٥°C from ٥ to ٥٧ days
old that feed intake increased with decreasing
temperature, while heat production was highest at ٢٠ °C.
Hoffmann (١٩٩١-b) stated that when ambient
temperature was altered hourly in ٥ °C steps from ٤٠° to ٥
°C, there was a parabolic relation between heat production
of broilers and environmental temperature at medium and
high temperatures. At low ambient temperatures
increasing from ٥° to about ٢٠ °C heat production
decreased.
Wiernusz and Teeter (١٩٩٣) found that heat
production (H) of starved chickens averaged ٤٨ and ٤٩
kcal/h per unit metabolic body weight (MWT, kg٠٦٦)
within the thermoneutral (TN) and heat stress (HS)
environments, respectively. H increased linearly to ٥٩ in
٢٧
TN and ٦٢ kcal/h per unit MWT in HS as feeding level
rose to ٩٪ of MWT.
Zhou and Yamamoto (١٩٩٦) reported that heat
production rose with increase in food intake and
environmental temperature. Abdominal temperature,
shank skin temperature and respiration rate also increased
but, at ٣٦ °C
Tzschentke et al. (١٩٩٦) reported that in White
Leghorn laying hybrids aged ١٤ to ٣٩٩ days, the
relationships between ambient temperature (Ta) and heat
production (HP) was best expressed as a polynomial
function at low WS, and as a linear function at medium
and high WS.
Zhou et al. (١٩٩٧) stated that heat production (HP)
of broilers increased when abdominal temperature
(TABD) was above ٤٢٥ °C.
Wachenfelt et al. (٢٠٠١) found that sensible heat
produced by the hens decreased as the ambient
temperature increased and was lower during the day than
at night. Meanwhile, latent heat production increased with
increasing ambient temperature and was higher during the
day than at night. Total heat production decreased with
increasing temperature because the hens, by
thermoregulation, decreases their metabolism in order to
maintain a constant body temperature.
Saiful et al. (٢٠٠١) found that when Single Comb
White Leghorn hens were kept at ambient temperatures of
٢٥, ٢٩, and ٣٣°C and fed ad libitum, daily feed intake and
heat production decreased with the increase of
temperature. The hens changed their behavioral pattern,
and minimized heat production when introduced to higher
٢٨
temperatures. From the analysis of variance of the
multiple regression equations, the contribution rates of
activity counts (counts/h) and standing time (min/h)
towards total heat production (kJ/kg٠٧٥/h) were ٦٥٪ and
٢٣٪, respectively. Therefore, activity counts give better
results in regards to estimating heat production in White
Leghorn hens.
Saiful et al. (٢٠٠٢) found that heat production (HP)
of Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens decreased
with the increase of ambient temperatures (Ta) from ٢٥ to
٢٩ and ٣٣°C and with the decrease of food intake (FI).
They calculated an estimation of the increase of HP for ١
g of FI and it was approximately ٣٩ kJ at each Ta in the
ad libitum fed hens. They stated that Almost ٢٨٪ of the
daily HP was related to the activity at each Ta.
Aerts et al. (٢٠٠٣) stated that in general, the
dynamic response of heat production of broiler chickens
to step changes in air temperature and light intensity can
be modeled assuming first-order dynamics.
Saiful et al. (٢٠٠٣) reported that heat production of
Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens (Hyline) was in
an increasing order at ٢٩-٢٩, ٢٥-٣٣ and ٣٣-٢٥°C ambient
temperatures, respectively.
Yahav et al. (٢٠٠٤) found that thermal
manipulation (TM) caused a significant reduction in
chicks body temperature and significant decline in plasma
thyroid hormones concentration, but had no effect on
plasma corticosterone concentration. They concluded that
TM did not affect body weight but had a positive effect on
thermoregulation, most probably in reducing metabolic
rate.
٢٩
The reduction in metabolic rate at high ambient
temperature may be due to the decrease in thyroid
activity. Sokolowicz and Herbut (١٩٩٩) found that in both
pullets and cocks, a high rearing temperature resulted in
reduced concentrations of thyroid hormones
(triiodothyronine and thyroxine) in the blood plasma and a
decreased metabolic rate. Also, Sosnowka-Czajka and
Herbut (٢٠٠١) observed that the increase in temperature (a
٢ h increase of air temperature by ١٠°C on day ١٤)
resulted in a decrease of the thyroid hormone level and
metabolic rate while the lowered temperature increased
thyroid hormone level and air consumption.
٢.١.١.٢. Effect of low ambient temperature or cold
stress:
Gleeson (١٩٨٦) found that exposure to cold (٢ ±٢
°C) increased chickens oxygen consumption up to ١٨٥
plus or minus ٢١٪ of control values. Increases in
ventilation matched the changes in oxygen consumption
by increases in both breathing frequency and tidal volume.
McDermott and Feddes (١٩٨٩) reported that low
temperature during the night caused increased heat
production of commercial turkey hens.
Tzschentke and Nichelmann (٢٠٠٠) indicated that
at low ambient temperature (Ta) and high wind speed the
measured Ta has a stronger influence on heat production
(HP) and cold load than under normal conditions and gave
indications of how much the wind speed should be
reduced to obtain tolerable climatic conditions. The total
effective ambient temperature index (EATt) shows that an
increase in wind speed is equivalent to a decrease in Ta in
its effects on HP in poultry.
٣٠
Krijgsveld et al. (٢٠٠٣) found that the initial
metabolic rates of quails were similar in both groups, but
increased rapidly and were elevated in cold-exposed
chicks from ١٥ days of age onward.
Nichelmann (٢٠٠٤) found that in Muscovy
ducklings, on the ١st day post-hatching HP was affected
by exposure to low Ta of ١٠ °C, while in turkeys, the
relationships between Ta and HP could be described by
parabola-like functions. He concluded that changes in
incubation temperature at the end of embryonic
development may induce an epigenetic temperature
adaptation, which results in a long-lasting cold- and
warm-adaptation in ducks but not in turkeys.
٢.١.٢. Effect of age:
Ladygin (١٩٨١) stated that energy expenditure was
greatest during the period of most intensive growth in
chickens and hens, respectively. Heat production per unit
body surface and per unit bodyweight increased in
chickens from ١ day old to ١٠ and ٣٠ days old,
respectively, and then decreased to ٢٠ and ٦٠٪ of their
maximum values at ١٥٠ days old.
Jurkschat et al. (١٩٨٩) exposed female turkeys aged
between ١٠ and ٥٠ days to ambient temperatures ranging
from ٥ to ٤٠ °C. They found that advancing age was
accompanied by decreased heat production. Between day
٤٠ and ٥٠, no further significant changes were observed
and turkeys of ٤٠ days onward were found to
thermoregulate at adult level. They concluded that the
lower colonic temperature of younger turkeys results from
a lower thermoregulatory set point and a greater load error
to stimulate metabolic cold defense.
٣١
Hoffmann (١٩٩١-b) stated that thermoneutral
temperature of broilers was dependent on age (liveweight)
and environmental temperature. Thermoregulatory heat
production decreased with increasing age and ranged from
٢٤ kJ/kg٠٧٥ at the beginning, to ٨ kJ/kg٠٧٥day-١C-١ at
the end of the experiments.
Snyder et al. (١٩٩١) found that at an ambient
temperature of ١٠ °C, ١٣-day-old control chicks were able
to maintain body temperature, and elevated serum thyroid
hormone levels did not increase rates of oxygen
consumption or body temperature above control values.
Six-day-old chicks had body temperatures that were
significantly lower than those of the ١٣-day-old chicks
and were not able to regulate body temperature when
exposed to an ambient temperature of ١٠ °C. On the other
hand, ٦-day-old chicks with elevated serum thyroid
hormone had significantly higher rates of oxygen
consumption than ٦-day-old control chicks, and were able
to maintain constant body temperatures during cold
exposure. The increased oxygen consumption rates and
improved ability to regulate body temperature during cold
exposure were correlated with increased citrate synthase
activity in skeletal muscle.
Modrey and Nichelmann (١٩٩٢) reported that
increasing age was accompanied by an elevation of body
temperature (Tb) whereas heat production (HP) remained
constant in the mid-range of ambient temperatures (Ta).
They suggested that the lower Tb in the first days of life
results from a lower thermoregulatory set point during the
postnatal period.
Feddes and McDermott (١٩٩٢) found that heat
production for toms ranged from ٢١٤ W/bird to ٦٩٣
٣٢
W/bird at ٦٤ and ١٠٦ days of age, respectively, while that
from hens ranged from ٣ W/birds to ٢٩٧ W/bird at ١٦
and ٩٤ days of age, respectively.
Hoffmann and Klein (١٩٩٣) found that during
growth, thermoneutral temperature of freely-fed broilers
decreased from ٣٥ to ١٨° and thermoregulatory heat
production decreased from ٢٣ to ١٢ kJkg-٠٧٥day-١K-١.
in week ٢, daily thermoregulatory heat production peaked
at ٢٨ kJkg-٠٧٥day-١K-١.
HongWei and Harmon (١٩٩٦) found that total heat
production (THP) of day-old HyLine TK male breeder
chicks decreased from ١٠٣ to ٩١, ٨٥, and ٨٤ W/kg by
increasing ambient temperature from ٢٠, ٢٥, ٣٠ or ٣٥ °C,
respectively. They stated that the daily metabolic rate of
starved chickens at thermal neutrality, ٧٧ kcal/kg٠٧٥
agreed with the literature value of ٧٠ kcal/kg٠٧٥ for
starved homeotherms.
Tzschentke et al. (١٩٩٦) reported that the
description of relationships between the age of White
Leghorn laying hybrids and their heat production (HP),
evaporative heat loss (EHL) and non-evaporative heat loss
with or without considering heat storage (NEHL١ or
NEHL٢) was performed after logarithmic transformation
and yielded a linearly decreasing function with advancing
stage.
Phillips et al. (٢٠٠٣) reported that there was a
gradual increase in absolute metabolic rate and a
reduction in mass-specific metabolic rate from ٥٠ W kg-
١ during the earliest part of linear growth, to ٣٥ W kg-١
by the time chicks reached peak mass. These values are
considerably higher than in resting adults of comparable
٣٣
or lower mass, presumably reflecting the large size and
high metabolic demand of organs involved in rapid
nutrient processing and tissue synthesis by chicks.
٢.١.٣. Effect of feeding:
Harun et al. (١٩٩٧) reported that during feed
restriction, resting metabolic rate did not increase with age
and was lower than the basal and existence metabolic rate
predicted.
Koh et al. (٢٠٠٠) found that heat production in
fasted birds was much lower than that in fed birds at
٢٦°C, changed little until ٢٠°C and then increased
steeply.
٢.١.٤. Effect of egg production:
Ladygin (١٩٨١) reported that in laying hens heat
production per unit bodyweight and per unit body surface
increased to a maximum during the most intensive egg
production period and then decreased at the end of egg
laying.
Vezina et al. (٢٠٠٣) showed that during egg
production European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) undergo
a ٢٢٪ increase in resting metabolic rate (RMR) and that
the maintenance and activity costs of the oviduct are
responsible for ١٨٪ of the variation in elevated laying
RMR.
٢.١.٥. Other factors affecting heat production:
٢.١.٥.١. Diurnal variation:
Feddes et al. (١٩٨٥) found that the total heat
production rates of the White Leghorn layers ranged from
٣٣٢ to ٣٤٦ kJ/(h.bird) during the light period and from
٣٤
٢٤٩ to ٣١٠ kJ/(h. bird) during the dark period, the daily
means ranging from ٢٩٥ to ٣٣٢ kJ/(h. bird).
Li et al. (١٩٩١) found that average heat production
of laying hens during the dark period (٢٠٠٠ to ٠٦٠٠ h)
was ١٨٩ kJ/kgW٠٧٥ h which was ٣٣٪ lower than that
during the light period. About ٧٦٪ of the light-dark
difference in the rate of heat production was probably
associated with activity and posture.
Spratt et al. (١٩٩٠) demonstrated that fasting
metabolism accounted for ٧٥٪ of the maintenance energy
requirement in the Hubbard and Arbor Acre hens. The
liver, gut and reproductive tract, which together make up
٥ to ٦٪ of body weight, account for ٢٦ and ٣٠٪ of the
total energy expenditure in fed and fasted hens,
respectively.
٢.١.٥.٢. Growth rate:
Malan et al. (٢٠٠٣) found that the fast-growing
chickens had low heat production per kg metabolic body
weight (H/W٠٧٥) values compared with slow-growing
lines. These fast-growing breeder sires had lower plasma
thyroid hormone, reduced proportional lung weights, low
arterial pO٢ and high arterial pCO٢ pressures compared
with the slower-growing lines.
٢.١.٥.٣. Muscle activity and specific dynamic action of
food:
McKechnie and Wolf (٢٠٠٤) postulated that the
metabolic rates that represented basal metabolic rate
(BMR) were significantly lower than those that did not
meet the criteria for BMR or were measured under
unspecified conditions.
٣٥
٢.١.٥.٤. Breed or strain:
Ladygin (١٩٨١) stated that throughout the growth
and egg-laying periods total heat production was
significantly greater in White Plymouth Rock than in
White Leghorn hens.
٢.١.٥.٥. Gut microflora:
Muramatsu et al. (١٩٨٨) concluded that estimated
fasting heat production of Single-Comb White Leghorn
chickens was increased by the absence of the gut
microflora.
٢.١.٥.٦. Melatonin:
Zeman et al. (٢٠٠١) found that melatonin reduces
heat production of birds by lowering body temperature
and regulating heat dissipation.
٢.١.٥.٧. Hypothermic incubation:
Black and Burggren (٢٠٠٤) found that embryos
incubated at ٣٨ °C could maintain VO٢ (approximately
٢٧-٣٣ micro l g-١ min-١) during an acute drop in Ta to
approximately ٣٠ °C. However, at the same stage ٣٥ °C
embryos were unable to similarly maintain their VO٢,
which fell as soon as Ta reached ٣٦ °C. Thus, while
hypothermic incubation does not affect gross development
(other than would be predicted from a simple effect of
Q١٠), there is a significant delay in the relative timing of
the onset of thermoregulatory ability induced by
hypothermic incubation.
٣٦
٢.٢. Heat loss:
Total evaporative water loss at ٢٠°C ambient
temperature was found to be ١٢ to ١٧ gm/kg/day (Van
Kampen, ١٩٧٤). The percentage of heat production lost
through evaporation was found to be about ١٣٪ in White
Leghorn hens (Van Kampen, ١٩٧٤) and Japanese Quail
(Brenstein, ١٩٧١)
(Van Kampen, ١٩٧٤) reported that total evaporative
water loss (EWL) of pullets at ٢٠° C Ta and ٥٠٪ RH
was ١٧ gm/kg/day, while at ٢٩٪ RH EWL was ١٢
gm/kg/day. However, Sykes and Fataftah (١٩٨٦) found in
Isa Brown laying hens that evaporative water loss was ٤٨
gm/kg/hr (١٥٥٢ gm/kg/day) which is considerably high.
Khalifa (١٩٩١) found that the EWL of ٧١-week-old LSL
laying hens at ٣١٦ to ٣٨١ °C was ٣٢٥٤٠±١٦٣١
gm/kg.kg٠٧٥.
Glennon et al. (١٩٨٩) stated that approximately
two-thirds of the total heat loss by ventilation was in
sensible heat form. The conversion of sensible to latent
heat in evaporation of moisture ranged from ١٢ to ٣٨٪ of
bird sensible heat production over the rearing cycle.
٢.٢.١. Effect of ambient temperature:
Belay and Teeter (١٩٩٣) reported that water intake
and excretion increased (P<٠٠٥) by ٧٨ and ١٣٣٪,
respectively, during heat distress. They suggested that
broiler chicks adjust water intake and renal handling of
water during acute heat distress and that such handling
influences evaporative heat loss (EHL).
Es et al. (١٩٧٣) found that when White Leghorn
hybrids and brown Hisex Leghorns hens were kept in
٣٧
normal battery at temperatures of from ٥ – ٣٠ °C
considerable water vapour was produced from the hens,
droppings and drinking nipples, particularly at higher
temperatures.
Chwalibog et al (١٩٨٥) reported that sensible heat
loss decreased significantly with increasing environmental
temperature, whereas evaporative heat loss increased.
Farrell and Swain (١٩٧٧) revealed that evaporative
heat loss was reduced by alternating temperature at the
high temperatures, and by maintaining temperature
constant in the cold.
Para et al. (٢٠٠٢) found that under ambient
temperature and relative humidity varied between ١١٠
and ٢٥ °C and ٥٤ and ٨٠٪, respectively, the calculated
production of water vapours of layers during one-hour
intervals ranged from ٢٢٤ to ٦٢٣ g.h-١.kg-١, the daily
means ranged from ٣٤٨ to ٤٣٥ g.h-١.kg-١, and the total
mean was ٣٩١ g.h-١.kg-١. Production of heat in the same
intervals varied within ٢٦٦-٨٧٤ W.h-١.kg-١ with daily
means ranging between ٥٣٢ and ٨٧٤ W.h-١.kg-١, and
the total mean reaching ٥٧٨ W.h-١.kg-١.
Malheiros et al. (٢٠٠٠) showed that chicks raised at
low environmental temperature (٢٠°C) had significantly
lower cloacal and surface temperatures than did other
birds. The radiant heat loss was nine times higher than for
the birds kept at ٣٥ °C at ٧ days of age.
Leghorn laying hybrids aged ١٤ to ٣٩٩ days, evaporative
heat loss (EHL) and non-evaporative heat loss with or
without considering heat storage (NEHL١ or NEHL٢),
conductance (c), total insulation (I) and threshold
٣٨
temperature for evaporative heat loss (Te) were affected
by age, ambient temperature (Ta) and wind speed (WS).
The relationships between Ta and NEHL٢ was best
expressed as a polynomial function at low WS, and as a
linear function at medium and high WS. The relationship
between Ta and NEHL١ at all WS studied was best
described as linear functions, the slope of which increased
with decreasing Ta and rising WS. Meanwhile, those
between Ta, EHL and C were best described as
exponential functions and between Ta and I in terms of
quadratic functions, the rate of increase of which was
higher at low Ta and medium and high WS.
dissipation varied with environment. Within TN, the
increased heat load, with increased feed intake, was
dissipated by increased (P<٠٠١) sensible heat loss (S)
solely, as evaporative heat loss (E) remained constant.
Within HS, E increased (P<٠٠١) from ١٨ to ٢٤ kcal/h
per unit MWT. Viewed over experiments, S was ٣٨٪
lower and E ٦٧٪ higher during HS than TN. Data indicate
that H increases with feeding level, that broilers
preferentially dissipate heat as S when environmental
conditions permit, and that feed intake exacerbates body heat
content increase when environmental conditions limit S.
Marder et al. (٢٠٠٣) found that cutaneous water
evaporation (CWE) was ٢١ mg H٢O cm-٢ h-١ for rain
forest species; it was significantly higher at ٥٦ mg H٢O
cm-٢ h-١ for temperate-zone birds, and significantly
higher again at ١٣٥ mg H٢O cm-٢ h-١ for arid-zone
pigeons. They suggested that effective CEC evolved in
altricial hatchlings of pigeons in a temperate-zone climate
٣٩
as a cooling mechanism, and has achieved its highest
effectiveness in both young and adult desert pigeons.
Peltonen et al. (٢٠٠٣) stated that in the pigeon
(Columba livia), a different response of cutaneous water
evaporation (CWE) is seen at different acclimation states.
While in heat-acclimated pigeons the CWE at high
ambient temperatures will be activated as expected, no
such response to appropriate thermal stimuli is seen in
cold-acclimated birds. This difference is also reflected in
the function of the water barrier, which in the stratum
corneum modulates the diffusion of water through the
skin. In this respect, the skin of birds seems to be more
dynamic than that of mammals.
٢.٢.٢. Effect of air velocity:
Simmons et al. (١٩٩٧) indicated that as air speed
increases, broilers experience increases in sensible heat
loss and corresponding decreases in latent heat loss. The
total heat loss tended to remain constant with increased air
speed. A general decrease in sensible heat loss
accompanied by a general increase in latent heat loss was
observed as temperature was increased.
Yahav et al. (٢٠٠٤) found that sensible heat loss,
expressed as a percentage of energy expenditure for
maintenance, was significantly higher at air velocity of
٢٠ m/s compared with ٠٨ m/s but significantly lower
than that of ٣٠ m/s. The high level of heat loss observed
at ٣٠ m/s probably affected body water balance, as
supported by significantly higher plasma osmolality,
arginine vasotocin concentration, and the hyperthermic
status of these birds.
٤٠
٢.٢.٣. Effect of age:
Wathes and Clark (١٩٨١) demonstrated that the
birds spent ٦٧٪ of their time clustered together, with
sensible heat losses ٣٠-٦٠٪ of those of an isolated bird.
Body plus plumage resistance was constant at ٠٠٩
m٢K/W up to ٣٠ d of age, then increased linearly to ٠٤٠
m٢K/W at ٥٤ d.
Kotrbacek (١٩٧٧) concluded that the autopodium
plays an important part in heat loss, but this function does
not develop fully until three weeks after hatching. Its
effectiveness depends on ambient air temperature and
whether or not the legs are submerged in water.
٢.٢.٤. Mechanisms of heat loss regulation:
Ophir et al. (٢٠٠٠) indicated that the regulatory
pathway for cutaneous water evaporation (CWE) in
pigeon is consisting of both beta١- and beta٢)-adrenergic
receptors. They suggested that the beta١-adrenergic effect
is restricted mainly to the CNS, while the beta٢-
adrenergic effect takes place at the effector level. We
postulate this level to be either the cutaneous
microvasculature or the epidermal layer.
Ophir et al (٢٠٠٣) stated that the most conspicuous
phenomenon in the process of heat acclimation of the rock
pigeon (Columba livia) is the remarkable increase in its
capacity to evaporate water from its skin. This cooling
route becomes the chief thermoregulatory means in the
heat-acclimated (HAc) pigeon and is responsible for its
ability to maintain normal body temperatures even at
extremely high ambient temperatures of ٦٠ °C. They
postulated that since the avian skin lacks sweat glands or
any other homologous functional structure, cutaneous
٤١
water evaporation (CWE) must occur along a different
pathway than that known in mammals. CWE is controlled
by the adrenergic system at various levels, both
peripherally and at higher levels. They stated that the
nonspecific beta-adrenergic inhibition (by propranolol)
increases CWE in the HAc pigeon, but not in the non-
acclimated (NAc) pigeon. This effect was found to be
mainly peripheral, beta ٢-related. Systemic alpha ٢-
adrenergic stimulation (by clonidine) also increased CWE.
However, this response showed no local effect.
To understand the possible role of the
cardiovascular system as the driving force in the CWE
mechanism Ophir et al (٢٠٠٣) reported that heat exposure
(٥٠ °C) significantly increased Skin blood flow (SkBF).
This increase was found to be stronger in HAc pigeons.
Injection of propranolol increased SkBF in HAc pigeons,
but decreased SkBF in NAc pigeons. Injection of
clonidine decreased SkBF in both acclimation states.
Based on these results, we concluded that SkBF by itself
plays no crucial role in the CWE mechanism. Therefore,
apparently other vaso-dynamic changes, apart from SkBF,
are involved in CWE. Ultrasonic measurements showed
that pharmacologically-induced CWE (propranolol or
clonidine) in HAc pigeons is accompanied by an increase
in arterial flow, and by a decrease in venous flow. No
significant changes (arterial or venous) were found in
NAc pigeons. These results suggest a reduction in arterial
resistance along with an increase in venous resistance.
This would lead to an increase in capillary hydrostatic
pressure, and may therefore serve as the main driving
force in the process of CWE.
٤٢
Midtgard (١٩٨٩) concluded that the high number of
arteriovenous anastomoses together with an increased
density of secretory units in the lateral nasal gland suggest
that the heat exposed chickens have an increased capacity
for using evaporative cooling of the nasal mucosa in
thermoregulation.
٢.٣. Thermoregulation and thermoneutral zone:
Adult birds are homeothermic and provided with
physiological mechanisms by which they can maintain
their deep body temperature constant within the
thermoneutral zone. Under heat stress body temperature
increases and the respiratory rate may also rise. The
evaporation of water from the bird remains low as long as
the respiratory rate is only moderate and panting does not
occur. With high respiration rate (panting) a marked
increase in evaporation occurs. This may indicate
therefore, that the cloacal temperature is getting
dangerously high. When the cloacal temperature reaches
٤٥°٠, the hen shows marked distress is followed by
inability to stand and complete collapse with pale comb
and out stretched legs. Death rapidly follows unless relief
is given. Wachenfelt et al. (٢٠٠١) stated that total heat
production decreased with increasing temperature because
the hens, by thermoregulation, decreases their metabolism
in order to maintain a constant body temperature.
٢.٣.١. Thermoneutral zone:
A thermoneutral zone is defined within which the
heat production of a bird is independent of temperature. In
this zone the heat produced by a bird is related to its live
weight and feed intake. The zone is bounded by a lower
critical temperature and an upper critical temperature. The
٤٣
lower critical temperature is the air temperature which
must be maintained at all times to ensure that feed energy
is not diverted unnecessarily for production purposes
(Nikita-Martzopoulou et al., ١٩٨٥).
Es et al. (١٩٧٣) concluded that ١٠ to ٢٥°C appears
to be the thermoneutral zone in hens fed to appetite.
Hoffmann (١٩٨٨) concluded that the thermoneutral
temperature varied from ٣٥ °C for chicks up to ٧ d old,
falling to ٣٠ and ٢٣-٢٥ °C at ٣-٤ and ٨ weeks,
respectively.
However, Nichelmann et al. (١٩٨٦) stated that in
Leghorn hybrids of different age groups (١٤ to ٣٧١ days)
no temperature range which might be defined as
thermoneutral was found to exist between the activation
threshold for evaporation and the threshold for an increase
in heat production.
Dawson (٢٠٠٣) reported that birds show
remarkable plasticity in their thermoregulatory responses,
often enhancing heat or cold resistance seasonally or in
response to experimentally applied thermal challenges. In
regions with severe winters these animals commonly
undergo substantial winter fattening, elevate their general
metabolic level, and increase thermogenic capacity and
endurance. Indications also exist that some species, at
least, also increase their capacity for mobilizing energy
substrates during cold challenges. Some of these
responses also are induced by cold conditioning in the
laboratory. The onset of warmer seasons or exposure to
higher laboratory temperatures can lead to down
regulation of general metabolic level, thereby reducing the
thermal load with which birds must contend during the
٤٤
heat of summer days. However, the most spectacular
phenotypic adjustment to heat thus far documented is that
evident in the heat-acclimated rock pigeon (Columba
livia), which achieves a remarkable resistance to high
ambient temperatures through expression of a highly
efficient system of cutaneous evaporation for cooling.
Yahav et al. (١٩٩٨) suggested that turkeys can
thermoregulate efficiently in response to changes in RH
and that only at high RH (>٧٥٪) did the performance of
turkeys deteriorate.
٢.٣.٢. Thermoregulatory mechanisms:
Electrical stimulation of various parts of the
forebrain of hens implanted with unipolar electrodes
indicated that the heat loss centre is in the medial region
ventral to the anterior commissure of the preoptic anterior
hypothalamus, and the heat production centre is in the
ventrocaudal region of the anterior commissure at the
medial and lateral hypothalamus (Kanematsu, ١٩٨٢).
It is postulated that ٥-hydroxytryptamine or
acetylcholine, rather than norepinephrine, may be an
important neurotransmitter in the neural pathways for
thermoregulation in chickens, even though their action on
thermoregulation is minor compared with norepinephrine
(Hillman, ١٩٨٠).
Bedu et al. (٢٠٠١) found that Liver contribution to
glucagon-induced thermogenesis in vivo was estimated to
be ٢٢٪ in thermoneutral (٢٥ °C) and ١٢٪ in cold-
acclimated (٤°C) ducklings. Glucagon stimulated
gluconeogenesis from lactate in duckling liver and the
stimulation was ٢٢-fold higher in cold-acclimated (CA)
than in thermoneutral fasted birds. These results indicate a
٤٥
stimulated hepatic oxidative metabolism in CA ducklings
but hepatic glucagon-induced thermogenesis (as measured
by LVO٢) was not improved. A role of the liver is
suggested in duckling metabolic acclimation to cold
through an enhanced hepatic gluconeogenesis under
glucagon control.
Filali-Zegzouti et al. (٢٠٠٠) stated that glucagon is
a potential mediator of nonshivering thermogenesis (NST)
in birds. They concluded that the thermogenic action of
glucagon in birds is probably indirect and involves at least
the mobilization of lipids and sympatho-adrenal
stimulation. The changes in peripheral noradrenergic
activity during cold acclimation could be associated with
adaptive changes leading to NST.
Marjoniemi (٢٠٠٠) demonstrated that in cold,
conductance of control birds decreased simultaneously
with increasing heat production while in fasted chicks,
conductance decreased to its minimum before heat
production was activated. Japanese quail chicks adapt
quickly to short-term fasting by decreasing metabolism
but they maintain their ability to thermoregulate in cold.
Diet-induced/growth related thermogenesis has a
significant role in thermoregulation since it reduces the
need of shivering thermogenesis.
Aulie and Toien (١٩٨٨) reported that
electromyographic activity (EMG) of bantam cocks and
hens appeared in thigh and leg muscles at ambient
temperatures (Ta) below ٣٢ °C (shivering temperature,
Tsh). This temperature probably represents the
thermoneutral temperature (TNT) of the cock. EMG
activity in breast muscles appeared at Ta below ٢٠ °C, or
٤ °C below the lower critical temperature (Tc). All
٤٦
muscles were quiet when the hen incubated ٤٠ °C egg at
Ta=Tsh. When Ta was abruptly changed to ٢٥ °C, EMG
activity in the iliotibialis muscle appeared ٣ min before
the activity in the pectoralis muscle. cloacal temperature
(Tb) dropped from ٤١٢° to ٤٠٦ °C in ١٤ min. When Ta
was returned to ٤٠ °C, the EMG activity in the pectoralis
muscle disappeared almost at once, while the iliotibialis
muscle was active until Tb returned to normal. Aerobic
muscles seem to be responsible for shivering
thermogenesis between Tc and Tsh, while anaerobic
muscles are recruited at lower Ta or when the heat loss
during incubation becomes severe.
Hohtola et al. (١٩٧٧) stated that in adult pigeons
glucagon inhibited shivering and caused a fall in oxygen
consumption and body temperature. At ٣٤° the same
amount of glucagon had no effect on these values. At ٢٢°
glucagon produced a rise in plasma free fatty acids (FFA)
and blood glucose. This rise in FFA at ٢٢° coincided with
the suppression of shivering at ٦°. The glucagon-mediated
rise in FFA, but not glucose, was potentiated by cold
ambient temperature. Adrenergic blocking agents given
before glucagon did not abolish its effects. Phentolamine
prolonged the absence and accelerated the suppression of
shivering.
Zhou et al. (١٩٩٧) suggested that changes in
thermoregulatory responses in broilers are induced by
increased abdominal temperature as indicated by the
increase in heat production (HP) when abdominal
temperature was above ٤٢٥ °C and respiration rate (RR)
when abdominal temperature (TABD) was above ٤١٥ °C.
Morita et al. (١٩٨٩) found that the plasma glucose
concentrations significantly decreased at ١٦ hours after
٤٧
cold exposure (٠°C for ٢٤ hours), meanwhile plasma
insulin concentration rapidly and significantly increased
from at ١٢ hrs after cold exposure. The concentration of
glucose and insulin did not recover to the initial level,
even ٢٤ hrs after cold exposure. No significant difference
in plasma glucagon and free fatty acid concentrations was
seen when exposed to cold. They suggested that the
decrease in plasma glucose concentration in hens exposed
to cold might be due to the abundant release of insulin
from pancreatic B-cells.
٢.٣.٣. Thermoregulatory mechanisms under heat
stress:
Yahav et al. (٢٠٠٤) concluded that thermal
manipulation did not affect body weight but had a positive
effect on thermoregulation, most probably in reducing
metabolic rate.
Tzschentke and Tonhardt (٢٠٠٢) proved that in
avian embryos as well as in the postnatal period of birds
high Ta causes a down-regulation of HP mediated by
active thermoregulatory mechanisms as indicated by the
decrease in heat production during heat load.
Turnpenny et al. (٢٠٠٠) stated that the thermal
responses of chickens included feather fluffing, vasomotor
action in the combs and feet, and changes in respiration
rate and body temperature.
Alsam and Wathes (١٩٩١) stated that the maximum
tolerable radiant temperature of chicks was approximately
٥٠ °C.
Sandercock et al. (٢٠٠١) reported that exposure to
acute heat stress significantly increased deep-body
temperatures, panting-induced acid/base disturbances, and
٤٨
plasma creatine kinase activities, reflective of heat stress-
induced myopathy.
Berman and Snapir (١٩٦٥) stated that it may be
expected that heat tolerance would be negatively
correlated with rate of heat production. They suggested
that the better heat tolerance of White Leghorns than
Plymouth Rocks may be due to their lower fasting
metabolic rate.
In White Leghorn laying hybrids aged ١٤ to ٣٩٩
days, Tzschentke et al. (١٩٩٦) reported that heat
production (HP), evaporative heat loss (EHL) and non-
evaporative heat loss with or without considering heat
storage (NEHL١ or NEHL٢), conductance (c), total
insulation (I) and colonic temperature (Tc) as well as
biological optimum temperature (BOT), thermoneutral
temperature (TNT) and threshold temperature for
evaporative heat loss (Te) were affected by age, ambient
temperature (Ta) and wind speed (WS). The relationships
between Ta and HP or NEHL٢ were best expressed as a
polynomial function at low WS, and as a linear function at
medium and high WS. The relationship between Ta and
NEHL١ at all WS studied was best described as linear
functions, the slope of which increased with decreasing Ta
and rising WS. Meawhile, those between Ta, EHL and C
were best described as exponential functions and between
Ta and I in terms of quadratic functions, the rate of
increase of which was higher at low Ta and medium and
high WS. The description of relationships between the age
of birds and their HP, EHL, NEHL١ and NEHL٢ was
performed after logarithmic transformation and yielded a
linearly decreasing function with advancing stage.
٤٩
MacLeod and Hocking (١٩٩٣) demonstrated that ad
lib.-fed fat-line birds are susceptible to heat stress, and
that this is related not to increased heat production, but to
a decreased ability to lose heat.
production (H) of starved chickens averaged ٤٨ and ٤٩
kcal/h per unit metabolic body weight (MWT, kg٠٦٦)
within the thermoneutral (TN) and heat stress (HS)
environments, respectively. H increased linearly to ٥٩ in
TN and ٦٢ kcal/h per unit MWT in HS as feeding level
rose to ٩٪ of MWT. Route of heat dissipation varied with
environment. Within TN, the increased heat load, with
increased feed intake, was dissipated by increased
(P<٠٠١) sensible heat loss (S) solely, as evaporative heat
loss (E) remained constant. Within HS, E increased
(P<٠٠١) from ١٨ to ٢٤ kcal/h per unit MWT. Viewed
over experiments, S was ٣٨٪ lower and E ٦٧٪ higher
during HS than TN. Data indicate that H increases with
feeding level, that broilers preferentially dissipate heat as
S when environmental conditions permit, and that feed
intake exacerbates body heat content increase when
environmental conditions limit S.
٢.٣.٤. Thermoregulatory mechanisms under cold
stress:
Hooper and Richards (١٩٩١) reported that under
cool conditions, changes in rate of heat production were
of major significance in maintaining homeothermy, whilst
in the heat the operant response was used in preference to,
or in addition to, thermal panting. The optimal thermal
conditions for the fowl are likely to be attained at ٢٢ to ٢٤
°C.
٥٠
Yahav (٢٠٠٢) reported that turkeys exposed to low
ambient temperature showed significantly reduced body
weight, which coincided with a reduction in energy intake
and with changes in the circulatory system to
accommodate higher oxygen demand. These changes
included a significant increase in haematocrit,
haemoglobin concentration, plasma triiodothyronine (T٣)
concentration, blood volume, and blood oxygen capacity.
At the relatively high Ta, changes to accommodate heat
dissipation included significant increases in plasma
volume and panting rate. These compensations were
sufficient to control body temperature (Tb). However, the
higher energy expenditure for maintenance followed by
significantly higher plasma triiodothyronine (T٣)
concentration, but with lower energy intake at low Ta,
suggest a physical limitation in the ability to further
increase energy intake as Ta declines.
٢.٣.٥. Effect of age on thermoregulation:
Hai et al. (١٩٩٦) found that during the first day of
exposure to ٢٧°, the cloacal temperature of neonatal
chicks had a tendency to decrease, but in subsequent days
it was not affected by low temperature. They concluded
that the thermoregulation mechanism in neonatal chicks is
not well developed; they are more sensitive to high
temperature than low temperature.
Hoffmann (١٩٩١-b) stated that when ambient
temperature was altered hourly in ٥ °C steps from ٤٠° to ٥
°C, there was a parabolic relation between heat production
of broilers and environmental temperature at medium and
high temperatures. At low ambient temperatures
increasing from ٥° to about ٢٠ °C heat production
decreased. Thermoneutral temperature was dependent on
٥١
age (liveweight) and environmental temperature.
Thermoregulatory heat production decreased with
increasing age and ranged from ٢٤ kJ/kg٠٧٥ at the
beginning, to ٨ kJ/kg٠٧٥day-١C-١ at the end of the
experiments.
The ontogeny of thermoregulation in precocial
birds is characterized by three phases with different
efficiency of the system. In the prenatal phase, all control
elements of the thermoregulatory system can function, but
the efficiency of the system is low. It is postulated that
endothermic reactions during the prenatal period do not
have a proximate (immediate), but rather an ultimate
influence on the efficiency of thermoregulation. They may
support adaptivity to expected environmental conditions
and may be involved in epigenetic adaptation processes.
During the early postnatal phase, the thermoregulatory
system develops and matures. Summit metabolism and
resting metabolic rate and their thermoregulatory set
points increase. Preferred temperature is significantly
different during different behavioural activities. The phase
of full-blown homeothermy starts at approximately the
١٠th day of life. It is characterised by an activation order
of thermoregulatory control elements and by secondary
chemical thermoregulation (Nichelmann et al., ٢٠٠٢).
Sosnowka-Czajka and Herbut (٢٠٠١) demonstrated
that the thermoregulatory system of the broilers were not
fully developed by the second day of life. Thermal stress
applied during the first week of life was found to be
capable of modifying humoral immunity in broilers.
Arad (١٩٨٩) found that the newly hatched pigeons
were completely poikilothermic. However, brain and body
temperatures increased in an exponential relation with
٥٢
age, approaching adult levels at ٥ to ٦ days of age and
further to complete homeothermy. As a result of the
significantly different exponents body-to-brain
temperature difference increased significantly from about
٠٣ °C at hatching to ٢٣ °C at ٣٠ days of age. The
capacity of defending brain and body temperature during
heat exposure improved significantly with age. The slope
of the relation between brain and body temperatures
(٠٨٤٧) was significantly lower than ١٠ indicating an
increased brain-cooling capacity at higher body
temperatures.
Jurkschat et al. (١٩٨٩) exposed female turkeys aged
between ١٠ and ٥٠ days to ambient temperatures ranging
from ٥ to ٤٠ °C. They found that advancing age was
accompanied by an elevation of colonic temperature,
whereas heat production decreased. Between day ٤٠ and
٥٠, no further significant changes were observed. Turkeys
of ٤٠ days onward were found to thermoregulate at adult
level. They concluded that the lower colonic temperature
of younger turkeys results from a lower thermoregulatory
set point and a greater load error to stimulate metabolic
cold defense.
Harun et al. (١٩٩٧) found that the control group
(fed ad libitum) and the feed-restricted group (fed to zero
growth rate for ٩ days) became homeothermic when ٢
days old with moderate (١٠ °C) cold stress. At severe cold
stress (٠°), the control group was homeothermic ٥ days
after hatching. However, the feed-restricted group did not
reach homeothermy at ٠° and showed a large decrease (to
hatching level) in homeothermy index at ١٠° and ٠ °C
after ٩ days of feed restriction.
٥٣
Modrey and Nichelmann (١٩٩٢) reported that
increasing age was accompanied by an elevation of body
temperature (Tb) whereas heat production (HP) remained
constant in the mid-range of ambient temperatures (Ta).
They suggested that the lower Tb in the first days of life
results from a lower thermoregulatory set point during the
postnatal period. The preference temperatures (PT) were
different for the observed types of behaviour. The PT at
rest was higher than the PT during locomotion, food
intake and drinking.
Snyder et al. (١٩٩١) stated that thyroid hormones
play an important role in the development of
thermoregulatory ability in newly hatched birds by
stimulating enzyme activities associated with aerobic
metabolism.
٢.٣.٦. Effect of acclimation on thermoregulation:
Marjoniemi and Hohtola (٢٠٠٠) found that cold
acclimation induced clear morphometric and
physiological changes in ducklings and quails, but no
clear evidence of nonshivering thermogenesis. This was
evident because increased shivering at least in one muscle
coincided with increased oxygen consumption. Ducklings
reacted to cold mainly by means of increasing body
weight (١٧٩٦ g in control, ٢٠٩٥ g in cold-acclimated) and
circulatory changes. Acclimation did not change oxygen
consumption either in vivo or in vitro. In quails, in
addition to increased body weight (٧٨١ g control, ٨٩٩ g)
cold-acclimated improved insulation and metabolic
adaptation to cold.
Yahav (٢٠٠٠) Acclimation of broiler chicken and
turkeys to a wide range of constant environmental
٥٤
temperatures suggested the range of ١٨-٢٠ °C, as the
optimal one for maximal performance. However, in
practice fowls are exposed to diurnal temperature cycling,
therefore it was suggested to expose them to ranges of
ambient temperatures (Tas) of _١٥ °C and _٣٠ °C.
Relative humidity plays a major role in performance of
chickens and turkeys exposed to Tas_٢٨ °C, and >٣٠ °C,
respectively. The preferred rh for raising chickens has
been found to be ٦٠-٦٥٪, whereas in turkeys it was age
dependent, i.e., up to ٨ weeks the preferred rh was ٤٠-٤٥٪
and thereafter ٧٠-٧٥٪. Acclimation to altered
environmental conditions resulted in changes in the blood
system, to accommodate to changing energy needs
(changes in haematocrit/haemoglobin concentrations),
and, on the other hand, changes to accommodate heat
dissipation (increase in plasma volume, alterations in the
blood acid-base balance, and heat loss by radiation)
Zhou et al. (١٩٩٦) showed that the effects of
acclimation to heat on thermoregulation and standing-
lying behaviour are recognized when the birds were
exposed to a high ambient temperature only for ٣ days,
and the standing behaviour of chickens is clearly
associated with thermoregulation at the high ambient
temperature.
٢.٣.٧. Effect of feed intake on thermoregulation:
Koh et al. (٢٠٠٠) stated that in fed birds, shivering
was first observed at ١٧ °C in all ٤ birds while, in fasted
birds, shivering was seen at ١٧ °C in ٢ out of ٥ birds and
at ١٤ °C in the rest. Overall results indicated that feeding
enhanced cold resistance, suggesting that heat increment
of feeding is used as a supplementary heat source for
thermoregulation.
٥٥
Harun et al. (١٩٩٧) found that the feed-restricted
group did not reach homeothermy at ٠° and showed a
large decrease (to hatching level) in homeothermy index
at ١٠° and ٠ °C after ٩ days of feed restriction.
٢.٤. Respiration rate:
Respiration activity in birds is more important with
respect to heat regulation than in mammals, as birds have
no sweat glands and most of heat and humidity losses
occur through the respiration mechanism. For that reason,
respiration rate in birds is more, rapid than that of
mammals. Also, the rates of breathing can be taken as a
criterion of body temperature and the degree of excitation
of nervous system.
Muiruri et al. (١٩٩١) found that hens panted
vigorously in hot ambient environments when they
exposed to ٢٠, ٢٥, ٣٠, ٣٥ and ٤٠ °C ambient temperature
conditions.
Yahav (٢٠٠٠-c) reported that the rate of panting
estimated from blood pH and pCO٢ was lower in
chickens exposed to ٢٨ °C than to ٣٠ °C.
Muiruri and Harrison (١٩٩١) reported that hens of
the ٢٠ ± ١ °C roost did not initiate thermal panting,
whereas those on the ٣٤ ±١ °C roost panted vigorously.
Nishibri et al. (١٩٨٩) found that the mean daily
respiration rate was higher at ٣٥ °C than at ٢٣ °C. At ٣٥
°C respiration rate increased when the light was turned off
and then decreased gradually until light-on.
Gleeson (١٩٨٦) found that exposure to cold (٢ ±٢
°C) increased both breathing frequency and tidal volume
of chickens.
٥٦
Zhou et al. (١٩٩٧) stated that respiration rate (RR)
of broilers increased significantly when abdominal
temperature (TABD) was above ٤١٥ °C and reached a
maximum when abdominal temperature (TABD) was
٤٢٥ °C.
production rose with increase in food intake and
environmental temperature. Abdominal temperature,
shank skin temperature and respiration rate also increased
but, at ٣٦ °C.
Under heat stress in summer (٣١٦ - ٣٨١ °C),
Khalifa (١٩٩١) found that the mean respiration rate of the
normal ٧١-week-old White Lohman Selected Leghorn
(L.S.L) laying hens was ٦١٤ ± ١٢ respiration/min.
Chudoba-Drozdowska et al. (٢٠٠٢) found that the
high air temperature (x=٢٧٢ °C), low humidity (٤٠-٥٢٪)
and minimal air movement led to an interrupted heat
balance of hens and in turn, to elevation of the inner body
temperature and an increased number of breaths taken.
Zulovich et al. (١٩٨٩) reported that the respiratory
latent heat loss of White Leghorn hens was found to be a
function of respiratory rate to the ٠٤٠ power. The
respiratory latent heat loss was also influenced by
reproductive state and environmental temperature.
٢.٤.١. Effect of panting on water consumption:
During exposure to high temperature, chickens
consumed less feed and more water (May and Lott, ١٩٩٢)
to compensate the water lost through evaporative cooling
(Mench, ١٩٨٥), although a reduction in drinking time was
observed when heat stress was applied concurrently with
other stressors (McFarlane et al., ١٩٨٩). Water
٥٧
consumption is increase when chicks are exposed to high
ambient temperature (North and Bell, ١٩٩٠, Deyhim and
Teeter, ١٩٩١ a; and May and Lott, ١٩٩٢) and the survival
in a hot environment is dependent upon the consumption
of large volumes of water (Fox, ١٩٥١).
Mariam et al. (٢٠٠١) studied the effect of cyclic
heat stress temperature (٢٤-٣٥-٢٤°C) on chicks from ١
day old till ٦ weeks of age, they found that water
consumption increased markedly.
٢.٥. Body temperature:
The body temperature of birds is higher than the
prevailing enviromental temperatures in most localities.
At ambient temperature ٨٠°F (٢٦٧ °C) physical means of
heat dissipation: convection, conduction, radiation and
cutaneous evaporative cooling are sufficient to keep their
deep body temperature constant (Hatting, ١٩٧٢). As air
temperature becomes equal or rises above the body
temperature, loss of water from the respiratory tract
becomes the major mean of heat dissipation (Ricarde,
١٩٧٦). This evaporative cooling is enhanced by increasing
the respiration rate (Richards, ١٩٧٠). When environmental
temperature exceeds the upper limit of the thermoneutral
zone the body temperature rises up inducing further
increase in the respiratory minute volume through panting
(thermal polypnea).
Brown-Brandl et al. (٢٠٠٣) reported that core body
temperature is an important physiological measure of
animal thermoregulatory responses to environmental
stimuli.
Turnpenny et al. (٢٠٠٠) found that the prediction of
body temperature for chickens was most sensitive to
٥٨
ambient humidity at high air temperatures, and to body
resistance.
Leghorn laying hybrids aged ١٤ to ٣٩٩ days, colonic
temperature (Tc) as well as biological optimum
temperature (BOT), thermoneutral temperature (TNT) and
threshold temperature for evaporative heat loss (Te) were
affected by age, ambient temperature (Ta) and wind speed
(WS).
Khalifa (١٩٩١) found that under heat stress in
summer (٣١٦ - ٣٨١ °C), the mean cloacal temperature of
the normal ٧١-week-old White Lohman Selected Leghorn
(L.S.L) laying hens was ٤٠٩٤ ± ٠١٧ °C.
Marder et al. (٢٠٠٣) found that body temperature at
a Ta of ٤٧ °C was lower for desert birds (٤٣٣ °C) than
for temperate-zone birds (٤٣٦ °C) and rain forest birds
(٤٤٤ °C).
Muiruri and Harrison (١٩٩١) reported that rectal
temperature of heat-stressed fasted and fed hens with a ٣٤
± ١ °C roost were increased ١٢٠° and ١٣٢ °C,
respectively, whereas those of hens with the water-cooled
roosts increased only ٠٢٢ and ٠٢٨ °C during the heat-
stress period, respectively.
Nishibri et al. (١٩٨٩) found that the mean daily
body temperature was higher at ٣٥ °C, intermediate for
free feeding and lower for restricted feeding at ٢٣ °C. For
both ٢٣ °C groups, body temperature was higher during
the light period than during the darkness, while at ٣٥ °C it
did not alter between the light and dark periods.
Sosnowka-Czajka and Herbut (٢٠٠١) observed that
the increase or decrease in temperature (a ٢ h increase or
٥٩
decrease of air temperature by ١٠°C on day ١٤ from the
thermoneutral temperature) did not affect rectal
temperature of the broilers.
MacLeod et al. (١٩٩٣) reported that all broiler
breeder fowl had a higher rectal temperature at ٢٨ than at
٢٣ °C.
Zhou et al. (١٩٩٧) stated that abdominal
temperature (TABD) varied from ٤٠-٤١ to ٤٤-٤٥ °C by
varying the environmental temperature between ١١ and ٣٣
°C. Heat production (HP) increased when TABD was
above ٤٢٥ °C. Respiration rate (RR) increased
significantly when TABD was above ٤١٥ °C and reached
a maximum when TABD was ٤٢٥ °C. They suggested
that changes in thermoregulatory responses in broilers are
induced by increased abdominal temperature.
production, abdominal temperature, shank skin
temperature and respiration rate increased at ٣٦ °C.
Chudoba-Drozdowska et al. (٢٠٠٢) found that the
high air temperature (x=٢٧٢ °C), low humidity (٤٠-٥٢٪)
and minimal air movement led to an interrupted heat
balance of hens and in turn, to elevation of the inner body
temperature and an increased number of breaths taken.
Chudoba-Drozdowska et al. (٢٠٠١) concluded that
air movement and body heat loss had the most significant
influence on the temperature of thermostable points and -
indirectly through tissue conductivity - on internal body
temperature. The value of the thermostable points on the
skin was affected by all the examined weather factors
(low air temperature, high humidity and excessive body
heat loss).
٦٠
Lin et al. (٢٠٠٤) showed that a new thermal balance
in broiler chickens might be achieved within a few hours
after exposure to acute heat stress.
Koh et al. (٢٠٠٠) found that rectal temperature in
fed birds changed little, but that in fasted birds decreased
with decreasing Ta ranging from ٢٣ to ٨°C.
MacLeod and Hocking (١٩٩٣) found that during the
١st h of heat exposure, rectal temperature in the ad lib.-fed
fat-line birds increased twice as rapidly as in the
corresponding lean-line sample and ٦ times more rapidly
than in the control-fed fat-line group.
Malheiros et al. (٢٠٠٠) showed that chicks raised at
low environmental temperature (٢٠°C) had significantly
lower cloacal and surface temperatures than those raised
at ٢٥ and ٣٥ °C.
El-Hadi and Sykes (١٩٨٠) reported that on the first
day of exposure to ٣٨ °C respiratory alkalosis occurred as
shown by a rise in blood pH and a fall in pCO٢ and
HCO٣. After acclimatization the mean body temperature
was lower but acid-base values were similar to those
found on the first day. It is concluded that heat
acclimatization is not accompanied by any changes in the
pattern of respiratory ventilation.
Hai et al. (١٩٩٦) found that rectal temperature of
neonatal chicks was increased by high ambient
temperature (٣٥ °C) or high humidity (٨٥٪). There was
significant interaction between temperature and humidity;
the harmful effect of high temperature on rectal
temperature was aggravated by high humidity. Under low
temperature (٢٧°), humidity had no significant effect on
the rectal temperature. During the first day of exposure to
٦١
٢٧°, the rectal temperature of chicks had a tendency to
decrease, but in subsequent days it was not affected by
low temperature. They concluded that the
thermoregulation mechanism in neonatal chicks is not
well developed; they are more sensitive to high
temperature than low temperature.
٢.٦. Acclimation
Acclimatization usually occurs naturally when
animals or birds are subjected to a complex of extreme
environmental factors, while the acclimation term is
expressive for experimental factorial adaptation.
Homeotherms acquire thermal tolerance under
potentially deleterious thermal stresses by acclimation and
thermal conditioning. In both strategies alterations in heat
production and/or heat loss occur in response to changes
in the environment. Environmental conditions are
commonly considered to be a combination of ambient
temperature and relative humidity which affect the
performance and thermoregulation of birds (Yahav,
٢٠٠٠). He found that thermal conditioning (exposing
chicks at the age of ٥ days to ٣٦°C, ٧٠-٨٠٪ rh for ٢٤ h) of
broiler chickens, resulted in thermotolerance improvement
during exposure to heat stress (٣٥°C and ٢٠-٣٠٪ rh for ٦
h) at marketing age, and this coincided with significantly
improved performance.
٢.٦.١. Acclimation to heat stress:
Moraes et al. (٢٠٠٣) reported that temperature
challenge (exposure to heat stress) decreased plasma T٣
of broilers but the decrease was greater in pre-conditioned
broilers compared with controls. A similar trend was
observed for triglycerides. These changes did not affect
٦٢
total heat production. Since decreased T٣ and triglyceride
levels are part of the mechanisms for thermoregulation,
these suggest that thermal conditioning during incubation
can improve the broiler chicken capability for
thermotolerance at later post-hatch age.
Freeman (١٩٧١) stated that adult body temperature
is achieved not earlier than ٢-٣ weeks of age.
Zhou et al. (١٩٩٦) showed that the effects of
acclimation to heat on thermoregulation and standing-
lying behaviour are recognized when the birds were
exposed to a high ambient temperature only for ٣ days,
and the standing behaviour of chickens is clearly
associated with thermoregulation at the high ambient
temperature.
Wiernusz and Teeter (١٩٩٦) heat stress (HS) heat-
stressed starved HS-acclimated birds exhibited lower heat
production (٢٢٦ vs. ٢٥٥ kJ/kg٠٦٦ hourly), evaporative
heat loss (٧٥ vs. ٨٨ kJ/kg٠٦٦ hourly), core body
temperature (٤١٨ vs. ٤٢٤ °C) and respiration rate (١٢٩
vs. ١٦٠ breaths/min) than non-acclimated controls. In
contrast to the first experiment, precision-fed HS-
acclimated birds (group ١) exhibited higher heat
production (٢٩٣ vs. ٢٨٠ kJ/kg٠٦٦ hourly) and
evaporative heat loss (١٠٥ vs. ٩٦ kJ/kg٠٦٦ hourly)
during HS and elevated heat production during
thermoneutral periods than their non-acclimated
counterparts. The elevated heat production became more
pronounced with each successive HS exposure.
Sykes and Fataftah (١٩٨٦) have shown that
acclimatisation is not accompanied by any increase in
evaporative heat loss, a situation opposite that found in
٦٣
man and other sweating animals. The lower EWL is a
consequence of the lower temperature of the evaporative
surfaces, brought about by acclimatisation, and when the
initial and the final EWL were calculated at the same Tr
there was no difference between acclimatised and
unacclimatised hens. They stated that without additional
venues of heat loss it is likely that acclimatisation is
achieved by reducing heat production, borne out by the
measurements of oxygen consumption. They found that
following intermittent acclunatisation it decreased by ١٩٪
to ٢٩٪ at Ta ٣٨°C and by ١٣ to ١٨٪ at a thermoneutral
temperature.
٢.٦.٢. Acclimation to cold stress:
Collin et al. (٢٠٠٣) found that after ٧ days of
exposure, cold-exposed chicks (CE) exhibited higher heat
production (+٨٣٪, P < ٠٠١), avUCP mRNA expression
(+٢٠٪, P < ٠٠١), and circulating triiodothyronine (T٣)
levels (+١٠٤٪, P=٠٠٧) for non-statistically different body
weights and feed intake between ٣ and ٧ days of exposure
as compared to thermoneutral temperature chicks (TN).
Plasma thyroxine (T٤) concentration was clearly
decreased in CE chicks (-٣٣٪, P=٠٠٦). The lower hepatic
inner-ring deiodination activity (-٤٧٪) and the higher
renal outer-ring deiodination activity (+٧٥٪) measured in
CE compared to TN chicks could partly account for their
higher plasma T٣ concentrations. This study describes for
the first time the induction of avUCP mRNA expression
by low temperature in chickens, as it has been previously
shown in ducklings, and supports the possible
involvement of avUCP in avian thermogenesis.
Bedu et al. (٢٠٠٢) stated that thermogenic
endurance and development of metabolic cold adaptation
٦٤
in birds may critically depend on their ability to
synthesize and use fatty acids (FA) as fuel substrates.
Hepatic lipogenesis and the capacity to oxidize FA in
thermogenic tissues were measured in cold-acclimated
(CA) ducklings (Cairina moschata) showing original
mechanisms of metabolic cold adaptation in the absence
of brown adipose tissue. Hepatic de novo lipogenesis was
increased by cold acclimation with both glucose and
acetate as precursor. Insulin slightly increased hepatic
lipogenesis from both precursors in CA ducklings,
whereas glucagon was clearly inhibitory. Enhanced de
novo lipogenesis was associated with higher hepatocyte
activity of glucose oxidation and larger capacity of key
lipogenic enzymes. The potential for FA oxidation was
higher in liver and skeletal muscle homogenates from CA
than from TN ducklings, suggesting that the higher
hepatic lipogenesis may fuel oxidation in thermogenic
tissues. They indicated that a high capacity to synthesize
lipids from glucose in species like Muscovy ducks
susceptible to hepatic steatosis. Lipogenic capacity can be
further increased in the cold and may represent an
important step in the metabolic adaptation to cold of
growing ducklings.
٦٥
٣- MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in Animal

Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar
University, Cairo, Egypt.
The present work was designed to evaluate the
effect of hot and cold climates on thermoregulation of
Fayoumi chickens as well as the effect of heat acclimation
on thermoneutral zone of local chickens.
٣١. Animals:
A hundred female Fayoumi chicks of winter (٣١-١-
١٩٩٥) and summer (١٠-٣-١٩٩٥) hatches were used in the
study. The chicks were obtained from the Flock of
Fayoumi breeders raised in the experimental farm of
Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University at Cairo.
٣.١.١. Rearing of the Experimental Birds:
Hatched chicks were brooded for the first week of
age in ٣٥ °C brooding temperature with aid of gas heaters,
if needed. The brooding temperature was then reduced
gradually every week to ambient temperature at the fourth
week of age. The chicks were reared in ambient
temperature then after.
The birds were reared in floor pens during the
experimental period with stock density of ٥ birds/m٢ was
followed. Standard photoperiod were also followed for
birds even before and after sexual maturity where ١٦L:٨D
photoperiod was used followed during laying period. The
birds had free access to food and water allover the
experimental period.
٦٦
During growing period the birds were fed ration
containing ١٨% crude protein and ٢٨٠٠ ME/Kg feed,
while during egg production the ration was containing
١٨٪ crude protein and ٢٨٠٠ ME/Kg.
٣.٢. Controlling the Ambient Temperature :
Ambient temperature was controlled by the aid of
circulating water bath where the bird was put in plastic
desiccator sealed with paper clamps, the desiccator was
immerged to ٢/٣ of its depth in the circulated water inside
the water path. The temperature reading of mercury
thermometer was put inside the desiccator served as
reference temperature to help adjusting the ambient
temperature.
٣.٣. Experimental Procedures:
Two experiments were carried out; the first one was
designed for the determination of thermoregulation
development in newly hatched chicks. The second one
was designed to study the thermoregulatory mechanisms
under different ambient temperatures (from ١٥ to ٤٠ °C)
and determination of thermoneutral zone of two groups of
laying hens; first group was winter hatch (W) and the
second group (S) was summer hatch.
٣.٣.١. Determination of Thermoregulation Development:
Twenty eight day old chicks of (W) group were
exposed to ١٠°C for a maximum of one hour at the
following ages ١, ٤, ٩, ١٤ and ١٩ days old. In addition, ٢٢
chicks of (S) group were also treated. All chicks were
reared between exposures as mentioned similarly in
section (٣١١). Following each exposure, the number of
dead birds was recorded. The changes of mortality
percentage and survival time across the tested ages were
٦٧
considered as an indication of thermoregulation
development at these early ages.
٣.٣.٢. Evaporative Heat Loss Determination:
Five birds from each hatch group were used in
evaporative heat loss experiment. This was done at ٢٢
weeks of age, where birds were exposed to ١٥, ٢٠, ٢٥, ٣٠,
٣٥, ٤٠, °C for one hour. The birds were returned back to
their house between exposures for two days, and
evaporative heat loss was measured at the end of exposure
period.
The objective of the experiment was to measure
evaporative heat loss of (W) and (S) groups by the
gravimetric method. Heat loss was measured as the weight
of water vapour produced by the bird multiplied by the
colorific value of ١ gm of water (٠٥٨) as suggested to
obtain the heat lost during specific period of time. A
similar circuit to that descried was used where total
evaporative water loss (EWL) was determined
individually using an open-flow system at a constant flow
rate of ٤ liters/min. The flow of air was pushed by air
pump to pass into concentrated sulfuric acid as a dryer to
absorb air moisture. Dry air was then passed into a
dissicator served as chamber containing the bird. Then
outlet air passed again into another two jars of
concentrated sulfuric acid to absorb the moisture of
expiration of air. Animals were kept in the chamber for ٢٠
min then the second set of drying jars were connected to
collect evaporative water for an additional ١٥ min. The
second set of jars of sulfuric acid was weighed to the
nearest ٠٠١ mg at zero time and ١٥ min. of exposure to
specific ambient temperature and the increase of jars
٦٨
weight was assumed to be expired water vapour of the
bird.
٣.٣.٣. Heat Production Determination:
Five birds from each group (W and S) were used
for heat production determination. The determination was
done at ٢٢ weeks of age. The birds were exposed to the
same temperatures schedule as mentioned in evaporative
heat loss determination section (٣٣٢). The food was
withdrawn for one hour before measuring heat production.
Oxygen consumption (O٢) and Carbon Dioxide (CO٢)
production measurements were based on the open circuit
technique as described by Shoukry (١٩٨٧). Air volume
that flowed into chamber was measured by a wet gas
meter Wet Test Meter GCA Precision Scientific,
(Chicago, III . USA ).
The amount of consumed oxygen was measured
according to Shoukry (١٩٨٧) by paramagnetic Oxygen
analyser (Tylor, Servomes Portable OA ٢٧٢ Oxygen
Analyser, Sybron Co Sussex , England). While the
amount of CO٢ production was measured by Infrared Gas
Analyser (Canarad Gas Analyser Model AR - ٤٠٠ USA).
Heat Production was calculated according to
Romijn’s short formula (Romijn and Lokhorst, ١٩٦١)
after correcting gas volumes to the STPD volume
(Standard temperature and pressure of dry air) as follows:
Heat production = ٣٨٧١ O٢ + ١١٩٤ CO٢.
Heat production (in Kcal )
O٢ = Oxygen consumption (in liters)
CO٢ = Carbon dioxide production (in Liters )
٦٩
٣.٣.٤. Body Temperature and Respiration Rate
Determination:
Cloacal temperature was measured with electronic
thermometer with accuracy of ٠١°C (Telethermometer,
Yellow Springs USA). Temperature probe was inserted
for ٢ cm into the cloacal cavity and contacted its epithelial
lining for ١ minute during temperature measurements.
Respiration rate was taken by counting the movement of
body wall for one minute.
٣٤. Statistical Analysis:
Data collected were statistically analyzed as one-
way analysis of variance (SAS, ١٩٩٠) according to the
following model:
Y = µ + Xi + Ei j
Where:
X is the effect of ambient temperature
Significant differences among treatment means
were detected using Duncan's (١٩٥٥) Multiple Range Test
(Procedure GLM of SAS).
٧٠
٤- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
٤.١. Determination of Thermoregulation Development

Table (١) and Fig. (١) show that before exposure to
cold stress (١٠ °C), cloacal temperature increased
significantly with age in both seasons except from ٩ to ١٤
days old in winter. The increase in cloacal temperature
with age indicates that Fayoumi chicks cannot maintain
their body temperature at the adult level until ١٩ days
after hatch regardless of the environmental temperature.
Hai et al. (١٩٩٦) concluded that the thermoregulation
mechanism in neonatal chicks is not well developed; they
are more sensitive to high temperature than low
temperature. The lower cloacal temperature in winter
group than in summer one is in agreement with Malheiros
et al. (٢٠٠٠) who stated that chicks raised at low
environmental temperature (٢٠°C) had significantly lower
cloacal and surface temperatures than those raised at ٢٥
and ٣٥ °C.
After exposure to ١٠ °C for ١ hr., cloacal
temperature decreased significantly in W and S groups by
about ٥٠ % at all ages except at ١٩ days old where a
nonsignificant decrease by ٥٪ occurred. As a result,
cloacal temperature after cold exposure was significantly
higher at ١٩ days old (٣٨٨ and ٣٩١٥ °C for W and S
groups, respectively) than all other ages from ١-١٤ days
old. As Brown-Brandl et al. (٢٠٠٣) mentioned that core
body temperature is an important physiological measure
of animal thermoregulatory responses to environmental
stimuli, the significant decrease in cloacal temperature of
W and S groups from ١ day old to ١٤ days old indicates
٧١
that in both seasons thermoregulation of Fayoumi chicks
start to be well developed at ١٩ days old. This result is
confirmed by results obtained on survival time (Table ٢
and Fig. ٢) where survival time increased significantly
with age and reached the full exposure time at ١٩ days of
age. However, Tables (٢ & ٣) and Fig. (٢ & ٣) indicate
that survival time was significantly higher in W than in S
at all ages except ١٩ days old, while mortality rate was
better in W than in S at ١٤ days old (٥٠ vs. ١٠٠٪ in W and
S, respectively). The better survival time and mortality
rate in W than in S indicates that W was more
acclimatized to cold stress than S.
Table (١): Effect of cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour) on
mean cloacal temperature (°C) of Fayoumi chicks at
different ages.
Age Winter hatch Summer hatch
(days) Before After % Before After %
Mean P١ Mean P١ Mean P١ Mean P١
١ ٣٢٠٠ d ١٦٢٤ c ٤٩٢٥ a ٣٢٣٠ e ١٩٢٥ b ٤٠٤٥ b
٤ ٣٤٧٠ c ١٧٢٥ bc ٥٠٢٧ a ٣٣٥٠ d ١٩٩٨ b ٤٩٢٥
ab
٩ ٣٧٢٠ b ١٨٥٠ bc ٥٠٥٥ a ٣٧٢٠ b ١٩٧٥ b ٤٦٨٣
ab
١٤ ٣٦٩٠ b ١٩٠٥ b ٤٨٣٧ a ٣٥٦٥ c ١٧٠٠ b ٥٢٢٠ a
١٩ ٣٨٨٠ a ٣٧١٠ a ٤٣٨ b ٣٩١٥ a ٣٦٩٥ a ٥٦٢ c
Mean = Least square means.

% = Percentage change.
P١ = Probability between ages
Similar letters within each column are not significantly differ at
p=٠٠٥.
Season had significant effect (p<=٠٠٥) after exposure to cold
except at ١٩ days old
٧٢
Table (٢): Effect of cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour) on
mean survival time (min.) of Fayoumi chicks at different
ages.
Age Winter hatch Summer hatch P٢

(days) Mean P١ Mean P١
١ ٢٥١٠ d ١٨٢٥ d *
٤ ٣٣٢٥ c ٢٧٧٥ c *
٩ ٤٩٥٠ b ٣٦٢٥ b *
١٤ ٥١٢٥ b ٣٠٥٠ bc *
١٩ ٦٠٠٠ a ٦٠٠٠ a NS
P١ = Probability between ages .
P٢ = Probability between seasons.
p=٠٠٥.
NS = Insignificant at p=٠٠٥
* = Significant at p≤٠٠٥
Table (٣): Effect of cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour) on

mortality rate (%) of Fayoumi chicks at different ages.
Age Winter hatch Summer hatch
(in days)
١ ١٠٠ ١٠٠
٤ ١٠٠ ١٠٠
٩ ١٠٠ ١٠٠
١٤ ٥٠ ١٠٠
٧٣
١٩ ٠ ٠
Winter before Winter after

Summer before Summer after
45
42
39
Cloacal temperature (°C)
36
33
30
27
24
21
18
15
1 4 9 14 19
Age (in days)
Fig. (١): Mean cloacal temperature (°C) of Fayoumi

chicks at different ages before and after exposure to cold
stress (١٠°C for ١ hour).
٧٤
Winter hatch Summer hatch
60
50
Survival time (min.)
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Age (in days)
Fig. (٢): Mean survival time (min.) after cold exposure

(١٠ °C for ١ hour) of Fayoumi chicks at different ages.
٧٥
Winter hatch Summer hatch
100
80
Mortality rate (%)
60
40
20
0
1 4 9 14 19
Age (in days)
Fig. (٣): Percentage of mortality rate of Fayoumi chicks

after cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour) at different ages.
٧٦
٤.٢. Effect of ambient temperature on heat production
(HP):
Table (٤) and Fig. (٤) reveal that in W group HP
decreased insignificantly as Ta increased from ١٥ to ٢٥
°C then increased as Ta increased from ٢٥ to ٣٠ and ٣٥
°C. At ٤٠ °C, HP increased significantly from ٤٢٣٩ to
٥٥٦٨ kcal/hr.W٠٧٥. It is worth noting that although
changes in HP with Ta was insignificant except at ٤٠ °C,
the minimum value was attained at ٢٥ °C indicating that
this temperature is the thermoneutral zone for this group.
In S group, HP did not differ significantly when Ta
increased from ١٥ to ٤٠ °C. A reversed trend to that found
in W group was obtained where HP reached its highest
level at ٢٥ to ٣٥ °C. As a result, HP was significantly
higher in S than in W groups at ٢٥ and ٣٠ °C.
Above results indicate that the birds acclimatized to
cold (winter hatch) had a typically thermoneutral curve of
HP in relation with Ta where HP was lowest at ٢٥ °C and
tended to increase as Ta decreased or increased.
Meanwhile, hot acclimatized group (summer hatch) had
no obvious thermoneutral zone.
Khalifa (١٩٩١) reported higher HP for L.S.L hens
of ٧٢٢٧ kcal/hr. W٠٧٥, while lower values were found by
Fuller et al (١٩٨٣). Meanwhile, the present values of HP
were in the range reported by Glennon et al. (١٩٨٩).
Goll et al. (١٩٨٦); Goh and Rhee (١٩٨٧) and
Hoffmann (١٩٩١-b) found that body heat production
increased with increasing heat stress or Ta. Saiful et al.
(٢٠٠١) found that when Single Comb White Leghorn hens
were kept at ambient temperatures of ٢٥, ٢٩, and ٣٣°C
and fed ad libitum, daily feed intake and heat production
٧٧
decreased with the increase of temperature. The hens
changed their behavioral pattern, and minimized heat
production when introduced to higher temperatures.
Meanwhile, Chwalibog and Eggum (١٩٨٩) found that
with increasing temperature from ١٥° to ٤٠ °C and
humidity (RH) from ٣٠ to ٧٠٪., heat production decreased
and evaporative loss increased. Also, Saiful et al. (٢٠٠٣)
reported that heat production of Single Comb White
Leghorn laying hens (Hyline) was in an increasing order
at ٢٩-٢٩, ٢٥-٣٣ and ٣٣-٢٥°C ambient temperatures,
respectively.
The increase in HP at low Ta is in agreement with
Gleeson (١٩٨٦) who found that exposure to cold (٢ ±٢
°C) increased chickens oxygen consumption up to ١٨٥
plus or minus ٢١٪ of control values. Increases in
ventilation matched the changes in oxygen consumption
by increases in both breathing frequency and tidal volume.
The reduction in metabolic rate at high ambient
temperature may be due to the decrease in thyroid
activity. Sokolowicz and Herbut (١٩٩٩) found that in both
pullets and cocks, a high rearing temperature resulted in
reduced concentrations of thyroid hormones
(triiodothyronine and thyroxine) in the blood plasma and a
decreased metabolic rate. Also, Sosnowka-Czajka and
Herbut (٢٠٠١) observed that the increase in temperature (a
٢ h increase of air temperature by ١٠°C on day ١٤)
resulted in a decrease of the thyroid hormone level and
metabolic rate while the lowered temperature increased
thyroid hormone level and air consumption.
٧٨
Table (٤): Effect of ambient temperature on mean heat
production (kcal/hr.W٠٧٥) of Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢
weeks old) acclimatized to moderate (٢٩-٣٢ °C) and
severe (٣٥ – ٤٠ °C) environmental temperatures.
Ta Winter Hatch Summer hatch P٢
Moderate temperature Severe temperature
Mean P١ Mean P١
١٥ °C ٤١٩٣ b ٤٧٢٠ a NS
٢٠ °C ٣٦٤٧ b ٤٢٤٦ a NS
٢٥ °C ٣١١٢ b ٥٣٤٦ a *
٣٠ °C ٣٦٣٢ b ٥٦٠٥ a *
٣٥ °C ٤٢٣٩ b ٥٠٣٥ a NS
٤٠ °C ٥٥٦٨ a ٤٩٣٦ a NS
S.E = ١٦٠٣
P١ = Probability between temperatures
p=٠٠٥.
٧٩
Moderate Severe
7
Heat production (kcal/W0.75.hr)
6
2
15 20 25 30 35 40
Ambient temperature (°C)
Fig. (٤): Mean heat production (kcal/hr.W٠٧٥) of ٢٢

weeks old female Fayoumi chicks acclimatized to
moderate and severe environmental temperatures after
exposure to different ambient temperatures.
٨٠
٤.٣. Effect of ambient temperature on total
evaporative heat loss (THL):
In winter and summer hatches, THL was
significantly lower at low environmental temperature (١٥
and ٢٠ °C) than all other Ta treatments (Table, ٥). At ٢٥
°C THL increased significantly in summer hatch group
(S) while slight decrease occurred in winter one (W)
causing a significantly higher THL in severe heat
acclimatized group (summer hatch) than in moderate one
(winter hatch). A reversed trend was found at ٣٠ °C where
a significant increase in THL occurred in moderate
acclimatized group with slight decrease in the severe heat
acclimatized one. At ٣٥ °C THL increased significantly in
both groups so that there was no significant difference
between the two groups at ٣٠ and ٣٥ °C. However, at ٤٠
°C a further significant increase in THL from ٢٧٥ to ٤٤٦
kcal/ hr.W٠٧٥ occurred in severe heat acclimatized group
while no significant changes occurred in winter one. The
previous results indicate that acclimatization to severe
heat stress may cause heat load on S group so that they
need to increase THL at ٢٥ °C to keep their Tc constant,
while W group start to increase THL at ٣٠ °C. The
significant increase in THL at ٤٠ °C in S group confirm
the possibility that this group was suffer from heat stress
due to high rearing environmental temperature (٣٥ – ٤٠
°C). Regarding the effect of Ta increase on THL, Table
(٥) and Fig. (٥) show that a moderate significant increase
in THL occurred when Ta increased from ٢٥ to ٣٠ °C and
from ٢٠ to ٢٥ °C in W and S groups, respectively.
Meanwhile, increasing Ta from ٣٠ to ٣٥°C caused a
dramatic significant increase in THL (almost double) in
both groups which followed by futher significant dramatic
٨١
increase in THL in S group, while a slight decrease
occurred in W group.
The increase in THL at high Ta has been reported
by many authors. Chwalibog et al (١٩٨٥) reported that
sensible heat loss decreased significantly with increasing
environmental temperature, whereas evaporative heat loss
increased. Tzschentke et al. (١٩٩٦) reported that
evaporative heat loss (EHL) and non-evaporative heat loss
with or without considering heat storage (NEHL١ or
NEHL٢), conductance (c), total insulation (I) and
threshold temperature for evaporative heat loss (Te) were
affected by age, ambient temperature (Ta) and wind speed
(WS). Wiernusz and Teeter (١٩٩٣) postulated that within
thermoneutral, the increased heat load, with increased
feed intake, was dissipated by increased (P<٠٠١) sensible
heat loss (S) solely, as evaporative heat loss (E) remained
constant. Within heat stress, E increased (P<٠٠١) from
١٨ to ٢٤ kcal/h per unit MWT. Sensible heat loss was
٣٨٪ lower and E ٦٧٪ higher during HS than TN.
The increase in THL in severe heat acclimatized
group than in moderate one is in agreement with results
found by Peltonen et al. (٢٠٠٣). They stated that in the
pigeon (Columba livia), a different response of cutaneous
water evaporation (CWE) is seen at different acclimation
states. While in heat-acclimated pigeons the CWE at high
ambient temperatures will be activated as expected, no
such response to appropriate thermal stimuli is seen in
cold-acclimated birds. Also, Marder et al. (٢٠٠٣) found
that cutaneous water evaporation (CWE) was significantly
higher for arid-zone pigeons than for temperate ones.
Moreover, Ophir et al (٢٠٠٣) stated that the most
conspicuous phenomenon in the process of heat
٨٢
acclimation of the rock pigeon (Columba livia) is the
remarkable increase in its capacity to evaporate water
from its skin. This cooling route becomes the chief
thermoregulatory means in the heat-acclimated (HAc)
pigeon and is responsible for its ability to maintain normal
body temperatures even at extremely high ambient
temperatures of ٦٠ °C. They postulated that since the
avian skin lacks sweat glands or any other homologous
functional structure, cutaneous water evaporation (CWE)
must occur along a different pathway than that known in
mammals. CWE is controlled by the adrenergic system at
various levels, both peripherally and at higher levels.
They stated that the nonspecific beta-adrenergic inhibition
(by propranolol) increases CWE in the HAc pigeon, but
not in the non-acclimated (NAc) pigeon. This effect was
found to be mainly peripheral, beta ٢-related. Systemic
alpha ٢-adrenergic stimulation (by clonidine) also
increased CWE. However, this response showed no local
effect. They concluded that skin blood flow by itself plays
no crucial role in the CWE mechanism. Therefore,
apparently other vaso-dynamic changes, apart from skin
blood flow, are involved in CWE.
٨٣
Table (٥): Effect of ambient temperature on mean
evaporative heat loss (kcal/hr.W٠٧٥) of Fayoumi female
chicks (٢٢ weeks old) acclimatized to moderate (٢٩-٣٢
°C) and severe (٣٥ – ٤٠ °C) environmental temperatures.
Mean P١ Mean P١
١٥ °C ٠١٦٧ c ٠١٢٩ d NS
٢٠ °C ٠١٥٥ c ٠١٦٩ d NS
٢٥ °C ٠١٠٨ c ١١١٠ c *
٣٠ °C ١١٥٣ b ١٠٩٥ c NS
٣٥ °C ٢٩٧٥ a ٢٧٤٨ b NS
٤٠ °C ٢٦٤٦ a ٤٤٦١ a *
S.E = ٠٢٦٥
p=٠٠٥.
٨٤
Moderate Severe
5
Evaporative heat loss (kcal/hr.W0.75)
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. (٥): Mean evaporative heat loss (Joules) of Fayoumi

chicks acclimatized to moderate and severe environmental
temperatures after exposure to different ambient
temperatures.
٨٥
Table (٦) and Fig. (٦) indicate that in both groups the
percentage of heat production lost by evaporation (HPP)
increased significantly with increasing Ta from ٣٠ to ٤٠
°C. However, at ٤٠ °C the percentage heat production lost
by evaporation decreased significantly in W group due to
significant increase in HP while THL decreased slightly.
In S group a reversed trend was found where HPP
increased significantly at ٤٠ °C to reach ٩٠٤٪ due to
significant increased in THL with slight decrease in HP.
At low Ta HPP was significantly low in both groups at ١٥
and ٢٠ °C while in S group a significant increase occur at
٢٥ °C. As a result, HPP did not differ significantly
between W and S groups at low Ta (١٥ and ٢٠ °C).
Meanwhile, it was significantly higher in S than in W at
٢٥ and ٤٠ °C and significantly lower at ٣٠ and ٣٥ °C.
Accordingly, summer hatch group (severe heat
acclimatized) is more efficient in heat dissipation than
winter hatch at ٤٠ °C.
٨٦
Table (٦): Percentage heat production lost by evaporation
(percentage of heat loss/heat production) in Fayoumi
female chicks (٢٢ weeks old) acclimatized to moderate
(٢٩-٣٢ °C) and severe (٣٥ – ٤٠ °C) environmental
temperatures.
Mean P١ Mean P١
١٥ °C ٣٩٧٥ d ٢٧٤٠ d NS
٢٠ °C ٤٢٥١ d ٣٩٧٦ d NS
٢٥ °C ٣٤٨٦ d ٢٠٧٥٩ c *
٣٠ °C ٣١٧٥١ c ١٩٥٤٠ c *
٣٥ °C ٧٠١٨٧ a ٥٤٥٧٥ b *
٤٠ °C ٤٧٥٢٤ b ٩٠٣٧٦ a *
S.E = ١٦٠٣
p=٠٠٥.
٨٧
Moderate Severe
100
90
Heat loss/heat production (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. (٦): Mean percentage of heat production lost by

evaporation of ٢٢ weeks old female Fayoumi chicks
acclimatized to moderate and severe environmental
temperatures.
٨٨
٤.٤. Effect of ambient temperature on respiration rate
(RR):
Pindlay (١٩٥٠) stated that respiration activity in
birds is more important with respect to heat regulation
than in mammals, as birds have no sweat glands and most
of heat and humidity losses occur through the respiration
mechanism. For that reason, respiration rate in birds is
more, rapid than that of mammals. Respiration rate of
both moderate and severe heat acclimatized groups ranged
between ٣٧ to ٤٨ respirations/min. (Tables, ٧ & ٨)
without any significant difference between groups. under
similar conditions in summer (٣١٦ - ٣٨١ °C), Khalifa
(١٩٩١) found higher value (the ٦١٤ ± ١٢
respiration/min) in ٧١-week-old White Lohman Selected
Leghorn (L.S.L) laying hens. The lower RR in the present
study may be due to the fact that Fayoumi is more heat
tolerant than L.S.L, or due to the effect of changes in
RH%.
The difference between before and after exposure to
different Ta in Tables (٧ & ٨) and Figs. (٧ & ٨) reveal
that at Ta below ٣٠ °C (١٥ to ٢٥ °C) Ta had no significant
effect on RR of moderate or severe acclimatized groups.
However, at ٣٠ °C RR increased significantly in both
groups. Similar trends were found at ٣٥ and ٤٠ °C but the
rate of increase in RR was more pronounced at higher Ta
(increased by ١٨, ٩٦ and ١٠٧ in moderate and ٢٤, ٩٧ and
١٠٩ rpm in severe acclimatized groups at ٣٠, ٣٥ and ٤٠
°C, respectively). These results are in agreement with
Muiruri and Harrison (١٩٩١) who reported that hens of
the ٢٠±١ °C roost did not initiate thermal panting,
whereas those on the ٣٤±١ °C roost panted vigorously.
٨٩
Table (٩) and Fig. (٩) show that RR started to
increase significantly at ٣٠ °C with sharp significant
increase from ٣٠ to ٣٥ °C (from ٦٥٤ or ٦٢٤ to about
١٣٧ rpm in W and S, respectively). Further significant
increase in RR occurred from ٣٥ to ٤٠ °C although it was
lower than that from ٣٠ to ٣٥ °C (from ١٣٧ to ١٥٠ vs.
about ٦٤ to ١٣٧ rpm, respectively). Similar results have
been found by Muiruri et al. (١٩٩١) who reported that
hens panted vigorously in hot ambient environments when
they exposed to ٢٠, ٢٥, ٣٠, ٣٥ and ٤٠ °C ambient
temperature conditions. However, Zhou and Yamamoto
(١٩٩٦) stated that respiration rate increased at ٣٦ °C,
which is higher than the ٣٠ °C at the present study.
The increase in RR during heat stress reflects the
increase in evaporative heat loss to keep body temperature
constant. Hatting (١٩٧٢) demonstrated that at ambient
temperature ٨٠°F (٢٦٧ °C) physical means of heat
dissipation: convection, conduction, radiation and
cutaneous evaporative cooling of birds are sufficient to
keep their deep body temperature constant. Ricarde
(١٩٧٦) added that as air temperature becomes equal or
rises above the body temperature, loss of water from the
respiratory tract becomes the major mean of heat
dissipation. When environmental temperature exceeds the
upper limit of the thermoneutral zone the body
temperature rises up inducing further increase in the
respiratory minute volume through panting (thermal
polypnea). Thus the significant increase in RR and Tc at
٣٠°C indicates that ٢٥ °C is the thermoneutral zone of
Fayoumi hens the hot adapted Egyptian native egg
production breed. As Ta was higher than ٢٥ °C both RR
and Tc increased significantly with a dramatic increase in
RR from ٣٠ to ٣٥ °C. Summer hatch (severe heat
٩٠
acclimatized group) may be less heat tolerant than winter
hatch (moderate heat acclimatized group) as indicated by
higher increase in Tc from ٣٠ to ٤٠ °C in summer hatch
group, while both groups had similar trend for the
increase in RR (Figs. ٦ & ٩).
Table (٧): Least square means of respiration rate of
Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢ weeks old) acclimatized to
moderate ambient temperature (winter hatch) before and
after exposure to different ambient temperatures.
Ta Before After Change P٢
Mean P١ Mean P١ in °C
١٥ °C ٤٠٤ a ٣٣٢ d -٧٢ NS
٢٠ °C ٤١٤ a ٣٧٢ d -٤٢ NS
٢٥ °C ٤٣٤ a ٤٠٨ d -٢٦ NS
٣٠ °C ٤٧٤ a ٦٥٤ c ١٨ *
٣٥ °C ٤١٠ a ١٣٧٠ b ٩٦ *
٤٠ °C ٤١٠ a ١٤٨٠ a ١٠٧ *
S.E = ٢٤٩٢
Ta = Ambient temperature.
P١ = Probability between temperatures.
P٢ = Probability between before and after exposure.
p=٠٠٥.
٩١
Table (٨): Least square means respiration rate of Fayoumi
female chicks (٢٢ weeks old) acclimatized to severe
ambient temperature (summer hatch) before and after
exposure to different ambient temperatures.
١٥ °C ٣٧٦ a ٣٣٤ d -٤٢ NS
٢٠ °C ٣٩٦ a ٣٩٦ d ٠٠ NS
٢٥ °C ٤١٠ a ٤٠٢ d -٠٨ NS
٣٠ °C ٣٨٤ a ٦٢٤ c ٢٤٠ *
٣٥ °C ٤١٠ a ١٣٧٨ b ٩٦٨ *
٤٠ °C ٤١٠ a ١٥٠٠ a ١٠٩٠ *
S.E = ٢٤٩٢
p=٠٠٥.
٩٢
Table (٩): Effect of ambient temperature on mean
respiration rate of Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢ weeks old)
acclimatized to moderate (٢٩-٣٢ °C) and severe (٣٥ – ٤٠
°C) environmental temperatures.
Moderate Severe
temperature temperature
Mean P١ Mean P١
١٥ °C ٣٣٢ d ٣٣٤ d NS
٢٠ °C ٣٧٢ d ٣٩٦ d NS
٢٥ °C ٤٠٨ d ٤٠٢ d NS
٣٠ °C ٦٥٤ c ٦٢٤ c NS
٣٥ °C ١٣٧٠ b ١٣٧٨ b NS
٤٠ °C ١٤٨٠ a ١٥٠٠ a NS
S.E = ٢٤٩٢
p=٠٠٥.
٩٣
Before After
200
175
150
Respiration rate
125
100
75
50
25
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. (٧): Mean respiration rate of moderate acclimatized

birds before and after exposure to different ambient
temperatures.
٩٤
Before After
200
175
150
Respiration rate
125
100
75
50
25
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. (٨): Mean respiration rate of severe acclimatized

birds before and after exposure to different ambient
temperatures.
٩٥
Moderate Severe
160
Respiration rate (respiration/min.)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. (٩): Mean respiration rate of Fayoumi chicks

temperatures.
٩٦
٤.٥. Effect of ambient temperature on cloacal
temperature (Tc):
At ٢٢ weeks old, Fayoumi chicks hatched in winter
were acclimatized to moderate ambient temperature (٢٩ -
٣٢ °C). Before temperature treatment, mean cloacal
temperature ranged between ٤٠٠ to ٤١٢ °C (Table, ١٠).
Similar value was found by Khalifa (١٩٩١) who reported
that under heat stress in summer (٣١٦ - ٣٨١ °C), the
mean cloacal temperature of the normal ٧١-week-old
White Lohman Selected Leghorn (L.S.L) laying hens was
٤٠٩٤ ± ٠١٧ °C.
Exposure to cold Ta (١٥ °C) caused a significant
reduction in cloacal temperature by ٢٥٢ °C. A significant
but slightly lower reduction in Tc occurred when birds
exposed to ٢٠ °C (١٧٢ °C) indicating that ٢٠ °C is lower
than the lower critical temperature of ٢٢ weeks old
Fayoumi chicks acclimatized to moderate Ta. Exposure to
٢٥ °C had no significant effect on Tc (+٠٣٦ °C), while
temperature of ٣٠ °C or higher caused a significant
increase in Tc (by ٠٨, ٠٦ and ١٨٨ °C at ٣٠, ٣٥ and ٤٠
°C, respectively). These results indicate that
thermoneutral zone for Fayoumi chicks hatched in winter
(acclimatized to moderate Ta) may be around ٢٥ °C.
Similar results was found by MacLeod et al. (١٩٩٣) who
reported that all broiler breeder fowl had a higher rectal
temperature at ٢٨ than at ٢٣ °C. Also, Es et al. (١٩٧٣)
concluded that ١٠ to ٢٥°C appears to be the thermoneutral
zone in hens fed to appetite.
Similar trends were observed in summer-hatched
group acclimatized to severe Ta of ٣٥ to ٤٠ °C (Table, ١١
and Fig., ١١). However, the rate in Tc reduction at cold
٩٧
temperatures (١٥ and ٢٠ °C) was lower, while its increase
at high Ta (٣٠ – ٤٠ °C) was higher than that in winter-
hatched group. As a result, Tc at ١٥ and ٢٠ °C was
significantly higher in chicks acclimatized to severe Ta
than those acclimatized to moderate Ta (Table, ١٢ and
Fig., ١٢) because the reduction in Tc at low Ta was more
pronounced in moderate than in severe heat acclimatized
groups. At high Ta (٣٠ to ٤٠ °C), the rate of increase in
Tc was higher in severe than in moderate heat
acclimatized groups so that Tc tend to be higher in severe
heat acclimatized group than in moderate one being
significant at ٤٠ °C.
Table (١٠): Least square means of cloacal temperature
(°C) of Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢ weeks old)
acclimatized to moderate ambient temperature (winter
hatch) before and after exposure to different ambient
temperatures.
١٥ °C ٤٠٦٠٠ b ٣٨٠٨٠٠ f -٢Q٥٢ *
٢٠ °C ٤١٢٠٠ a ٣٩٤٨٠٠ e -١Q٧٢ *
٢٥ °C ٤٠٠٠٠ b ٤٠٣٦٠٠ d ٠Q٣٦ NS
٣٠ °C ٤٠٤٤٠ b ٤١٢٤٠٠ b ٠Q٨٠ *
٣٥ °C ٤١٠٠٠ a ٤١٦٢٠٠ b ٠Q٦٢ *
٤٠ °C ٤٠٦٠٠ b ٤٢٤٨٠٠ a ١Q٨٨ *
S.E = ٠١٨٢
p=٠٠٥.
S.E = ٠٣٤٧
٩٨
Table (١١): Least square means of cloacal temperature
(°C) of Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢ weeks old)
acclimatized to severe ambient temperature (summer
hatch) before and after exposure to different ambient
temperatures.
١٥ °C ٤٠٦٠٠ b ٣٩١٢٠ f -١Q٤٨ *
٢٠ °C ٤٠٨٤٠ b ٤٠٢٤٠ d -٠Q٦ *
٢٥ °C ٤١٠٦٠ ab ٤٠٦٠٠ d -٠Q٤٦ NS
٣٠ °C ٤٠٠٨٠ b ٤١٤٠٠ c ١Q٣٢ *
٣٥ °C ٤٠٣٦٠ b ٤٢٦٠٠ b ٢Q٢٤ *
٤٠ °C ٤١٤٠٠ a ٤٣٤٤٠ a ٢Q٠٤ *
S.E = ٠١٨٢
p=٠٠٥.
٩٩
Table (١٢): Effect of ambient temperature on mean
cloacal temperature (°C) of Fayoumi female chicks (٢٢
weeks old) acclimatized to moderate (٢٩-٣٢ °C) and
severe (٣٥–٤٠ °C) environmental temperatures.
Ambient Winter Hatch Summer hatch P٢
temperature Moderate temperature Severe temperature
Mean P١ Mean P١
١٥ °C ٣٨٠٨٠٠ f ٣٩١٢٠ f *
٢٠ °C ٣٩٤٨٠٠ e ٤٠٢٤٠ d *
٢٥ °C ٤٠٣٦٠٠ d ٤٠٦٠٠ d NS
٣٠ °C ٤١٢٤٠٠ b ٤١٤٠٠ c NS
٣٥ °C ٤١٦٢٠٠ b ٤٢٦٠٠ b NS
٤٠ °C ٤٢٤٨٠٠ a ٤٣٤٤٠ a *
S.E = ٠١٨٢
p=٠٠٥.
١٠٠
Before After
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. (١٠): Mean cloacal temperature of moderate

acclimatized birds before and after exposure to different
ambient temperatures.
١٠١
Before After
46
45

44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. (١١): Mean cloacal temperature of severe

acclimatized birds before and after exposure to different
ambient temperatures.
١٠٢
Moderate Severe
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. (١٢): Mean cloacal temperature of Fayoumi chicks

temperatures.
١٠٣
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The present work was designed to evaluate the

effect of hot and cold climates on thermoregulation of
Fayoumi chickens as well as the effect of heat acclimation
on thermoneutral zone of local chickens.
Hundred Female Fayoumi chicks of Winter (٣١-١-
١٩٩٥) and Spring (١٠-٣-١٩٩٥) hatches were used in the
present study, respectively..
Two experiments were carried out; the first one was
designed for the determination of thermoregulation
development in newly hatched chicks. The second one
was designed to study the thermoregulatory mechanisms
under different ambient temperatures (from ١٥ to ٤٠ °C)
and determination of thermoneutral zone of two groups of
laying hens; first group was winter hatch (W) and the
second group was summer hatch (S). At ٢٢ weeks of age,
Heat production (HP), total evaporative water loss (THL),
respiration rate (RR) and cloacal temperature (Tc) were
measured at ١٥, ٢٠, ٢٥, ٣٠, ٣٥ and ٤٠ °C.
Results Indicated that:
First experiment:
Exposure to cold stress (١٠ °C) decreased
significantly body temperature of new hatched chicks at ١,
٤, ٩ and ١٤ days after hatch, while no significant effect
occurred at ١٩ days.
Age has significant effect in survival time under
cold stress. The above results indicate that the
thermoregulatory center of Fayoumi chicks start to be
well developed at ١٩ days after hatching.
١٠٤
Second experiment:
Summer hatch group (S) acclimatized to moderate
heat stress during first ١٠ weeks of live and to severe Ta
(٣٥ to ٤٠ °C) during the last ١٢ weeks before the start of
experimentation. While, Winter hatch group (W)
acclimatized to cold during first ٤-٦ weeks of live to cold
and to moderate heat stress (٢٩-٣٢ °C) until ٢٢ weeks of
age.
Increasing ambient temperature from ١٥ to ٤٠ C°
had no significant effect on heat production (HP) of S
group, while a significant increase in HP occurred at ٤٠
°C in W group. At ٢٥ °C, W group had the lowest level of
HP, while S group had the highest level although the
insignificant differences between HP from ١٥ to ٣٥ °C.
These results indicate that the birds acclimatized to cold
(winter hatch) had a typically thermoneutral curve of HP
in relation with Ta where HP was lowest at ٢٥ °C and
tended to increase as Ta decreased or increased.
Meanwhile, hot acclimatized group (summer hatch) had
no obvious thermoneutral zone.
A moderate significant increase in total evaporative
heat loss (THL) occurred when Ta increased from ٢٥ to
٣٠ °C and from ٢٠ to ٢٥ °C in W and S groups,
respectively. Meanwhile, increasing Ta from ٣٠ to ٣٥°C
caused a dramatic significant increase in THL (almost
double) in both groups which followed by significant
dramatic increase in THL in S group, while a slight
decrease occurred in W group.
At ٢٥ and ٤٠ °C, S group had significantly higher
THL than W indicating that acclimatization to severe heat
stress may enhance the use of THL to keep body
١٠٥
temperature constant specially at ٤٠ °C. On the other
hand, the significant increase in THL in S group at ٢٥°C
may be an adaptive response to lose the heat load caused
by high Ta (٣٥-٤٠ °C).
At low Ta (١٥ and ٢٠ °C) The percentage heat
production lost by evaporation (HPP) was significantly
low in both groups. However, it increased significantly
with increasing Ta from ٢٠ to ٤٠ °C in S group and from
٢٥ to ٤٠ °C in W.
At ٤٠ °C the percentage heat production lost by
evaporation decreased significantly in W group due to
significant increase in HP while THL decreased slightly.
In S group a reversed trend was found where HPP
increased significantly at ٤٠ °C to reach ٩٠٤٪ due to
significant increased in THL with slight decrease in HP.
At Ta below ٣٠ °C (١٥ to ٢٥ °C) Ta had no
significant effect on respiration rate (RR) of moderate or
severe acclimatized groups. However, at ٣٠ °C RR
increased significantly in both groups. Similar trends were
found at ٣٥ and ٤٠ °C but the rate of increase in RR was
more pronounced at higher Ta.
Respiration rate started to increase significantly at
٣٠ °C with sharp significant increase from ٣٠ to ٣٥ °C.
Further significant increase in RR occurred from ٣٥ to ٤٠
°C although it was lower than that from ٣٠ to ٣٥ °C.
Exposure to cold Ta (١٥ °C) caused a significant
reduction in cloacal temperature (Tc). A significant but
slightly lower reduction in Tc occurred when birds
exposed to ٢٠ °C indicating that ٢٠ °C is lower than the
lower critical temperature of ٢٢ weeks old Fayoumi
chicks.
١٠٦
Exposure to ٢٥ °C had no significant effect on Tc,
while temperature of ٣٠ °C or higher caused a significant
increase in Tc.
The rate in Tc reduction at cold temperatures (١٥ and
٢٠ °C) was lower, while its increase at high Ta (٣٠ – ٤٠ °C)
was higher in S than in W groups resulting in significantly
higher Tc in S than in W at ١٥, ٢٠ and ٤٠ °C Ta.
It could be concluded that ٢٥ °C is the
thermoneutral zone of ٢٢-week-old female Fayoumi
chicks adapted to heat stress under Egyptian conditions.
When Ta was lower or higher than ٢٥ °C, body
temperature decreased and increased significantly
although the changes in heat production and heat loss.
Fayoumi hens cannot tolerate well cold stress and their
body temperature decreased significantly at ١٥ °C because
of no significant increase in heat production at cold Ta
although the reduction in heat loss.
The main thermoregulatory mechanism against heat
is the significant increase in evaporative heat loss through
the significant increase in respiration rate meanwhile no
significant reduction in heat production occurred. The
upper critical temperature of Fayoumi is at ٤٠ °C Ta
which caused significant increase in body temperature
although the significant increase in heat loss specially in
summer hatched chicks.
It is recommended to use managerial technique to
mitigate the effect of cold stress during winter if will be
lower than ١٥ °C and the effect of heat stress in summer
when Ta is higher than ٣٥ °C. Winter hatch can tolerate
the effect of acute heat stress in summer better than
summer one.
١٠٧
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١٢٨
‫ا‪ +,‬اﺏ"‬
‫ﻴﻬﺩﻑ ﺍﻝﺒﺤﺙ ﺇﻝﻰ ﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ﺍﻝﺤﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻝﺒﺎﺭﺩ ﻋﻠـﻰ ﺍﻝﺘﻨﻅـﻴﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻝﻠﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻝﻔﻴﻭﻤﻲ ﻭﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺃﺜﺭ ﺍﻝﺘﺄﻗﻠﻡ ﻝﻠﺠﻭ ﺍﻝﺤﺎﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻨﺴﺏ ﻤـﺩﻯ‬
‫ﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻝﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﺘﻡ ﺇﺠﺭﺍﺀ ﺍﻝﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ‪ ١٠٠‬ﻜﺘﻜﻭﺕ ﻓﻴـﻭﻤﻲ‬
‫ﻓﻘﺱ ﻤﻭﺴﻡ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ )‪ (١٩٩٥/١/٣١‬ﻭ ‪ ١٠٠‬ﻜﺘﻜﻭﺕ ﻓﻴﻭﻤﻲ ﻓﻘـﺱ ﻤﻭﺴـﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ )‪ (١٩٩٥/٣/١٠‬ﺘﻡ ﺇﺠﺭﺍﺀ ﺘﺠﺭﺒﺘﻴﻥ‪ :‬ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝﻰ ﻝﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺍﻝﺘﻁﻭﺭ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺘﻨﻅﻴﻡ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﺒﻌﺩ ﺍﻝﻔﻘﺱ ﻤﺒﺎﺸﺭﺓ ﺃﻤـﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻝﺜﺎﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﺩ ﺼﻤﻤﺕ ﻝﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻭﺴﺎﺌل ﺍﻝﺘﻨﻅﻴﻡ ﺍﻝﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺘﺤﺕ ﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﻥ ‪ ١٥‬ﺇﻝﻰ ‪٤٠‬ﻡ‪ ٥‬ﻝﺘﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﺃﻨـﺴﺏ ﻤـﺩﻯ ﺤـﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻝﻠﻤﺠﻤـﻭﻋﺘﻴﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝﻰ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻝﺜﺎﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ‪.‬‬
‫ﺨﻁﺔ ﺍﻝﺒﺤﺙ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻻﻭﻝﻰ‪:‬‬
‫ﺘﻡ ﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﺍﻝﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺍﻋﻤﺎﺭ‪ ١٩ ،١٤ ،٩ ،٤ ،١‬ﻴﻭﻡ ﺍﻝﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ‬
‫ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ )‪°١٠‬ﻡ( ﻝﻤﺩﺓ ﺴﺎﻋﺔ ﻭﺘﺴﺠﻴل ﻭﻗﺕ ﺍﻝﺯﻤﻥ ﺍﻝـﻼﺯﻡ ﻝﻠﻭﻓـﺎﺓ‬
‫ﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻝﻠﺒﺭﺩ ﻤﻊ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ ﻗﺒل ﻭﺒﻌﺩ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﻝﻠﺒﺭﺩ‪ .‬ﺘـﻡ‬
‫ﺍﺠﺭﺍﺀ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻤﻭﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ ﻝﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺍﺜﺭ ﻤﻭﺴﻡ ﺍﻝﺘﻔـﺭﻴﺦ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘﺤﻤل ﺍﻝﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﺤﺩﻴﺜﺔ ﺍﻝﻔﻘﺱ ﻝﻠﺠﻭ ﺍﻝﺒﺎﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻝﺜﺎﻨﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺘﻡ ﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ‪ ٥‬ﺇﻨﺎﺙ ﻓﻴﻭﻤﻰ ﻝﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻝﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺘﺎﻝﻴﺔ ﻓـﻰ ﺤﺠـﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﺄﻗﻠﻡ ﻝﻤﺩﺓ ﺴﺎﻋﺔ ﻤﻊ ﺘﺭﻙ ‪ ٤٨‬ﺴﺎﻋﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻝﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻭﺍﻵﺨـﺭ ﻴـﺘﻡ ﺘﻌـﺭﺽ‬
‫ﺍﻝﻁﻴﻭﺭ ﺃﺜﻨﺎﺌﻬﺎ ﻝﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺍﻝﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺨﺎﺭﺠﻴﺔ )ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ( ﻭﺫﻝﻙ ﻝﻤﻨـﻊ‬
‫‪١٢٩‬‬
‫ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﺽ ﻝﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻝﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺍﻝﺘﺎﻝﻴـﺔ ﻝﻬـﺎ‪،٢٠ ،١٥ :‬‬
‫‪٤٠ ،٣٥، ٣٠ ،٢٥‬ﻡ‪.°‬‬
‫ﺍﻝﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻝﻤﺘﺤﺼل ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝﻰ‪:‬‬
‫ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﻝﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ‪١٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺍﻝﻰ ﺍﻨﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻯ ﻓﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ‬
‫ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺍﻋﻤﺎﺭ ‪ ١٤، ٩ ،٤ ،١‬ﻴﻭﻡ ﻭﻗﺩ ﺍﺼﺒﺢ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻝﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﻏﻴـﺭ‬
‫ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴ ﹰﺎ ﻋﻨﺩ ﻋﻤﺭ ‪ ١٩‬ﻴﻭﻡ ﻭﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻝﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺃﻜﺜﺭ ﻭﻀﻭﺤﹰﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻤﻭﺴﻡ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﻋﻨﻪ‬
‫ﻓﻰ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺨﺘﻠﻔﺕ ﻤﺩﺓ ﺘﺤﻤل ﺍﻝﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﻝﻠﺠﻭ ﺍﻝﺒﺎﺭﺩ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺎ ﻤﻊ ﺍﻝﻌﻤﺭ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺒﻠﻎ‬
‫ﻤﺘﻭﺴﻁ ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺘﺤﻤل ﺤـﻭﺍﻝﻰ ‪ ٣٠‬ﺩﻗﻴﻘـﺔ ﻋﻨـﺩ ﻋﻤـﺭ ﻴـﻭﻡ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺍﻝـﻰ‬
‫‪ ٥٠‬ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻋﻨﺩ ﻋﻤﺭ ‪ ١٤‬ﻴﻭﻡ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺩ ﺃﻭﻀﺤﺕ ﺍﻝﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻝﺘﻨﻅﻴﻡ ﺍﻝﺤـﺭﺍﺭﻯ‬
‫ﻝﻠﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﺍﻝﻔﻴﻭﻤﻰ ﻴﻜﺘﻤل ﻋﻨﺩ ﻋﻤﺭ ‪ ١٩‬ﻴﻭﻡ ﺤﻴﺙ ﻝﻡ ﺘﺤﺩﺙ ﺃﻱ ﻭﻓﻴﺎﺕ ﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻝﻠﺘﻌﺭﺽ ﻝﻠﺒﺭﺩ )‪١٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﻝﻤﺩﺓ ﺴﺎﻋﺔ( ﻋﻨﺩ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻝﻌﻤﺭ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺏ‪ %١٠٠‬ﻓـﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻻﻋﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻻﺨﺭﻯ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻝﺜﺎﻨﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﺍﻝﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ ﻤﺘﺄﻗﻠﻤﺔ ﻝﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﺭﺘﻔﻌﺔ ﻨﻭﻋـﹰﺎ‬
‫ﺨﻼل ﺍﻝﻌﺸﺭ ﺃﺴﺎﺒﻴﻊ ﺍﻷﻭﻝﻰ ﺒﻌﺩ ﺍﻝﻔﻘﺱ ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺘﻌﺭﻀـﺕ ﻝـﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺤـﺭﺍﺭﺓ‬
‫ﻤﺭﺘﻔﻌﺔ ﺨﻼل ﺍﻷﺜﻨﻰ ﻋﺸﺭ ﺍﻷﺴﺒﻭﻉ ﺍﻝﺘﺎﻝﻴﺔ ﻭﻗﺒل ﺒﺩﺀ ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ )‪ ٤٠–٣٥‬ﻡ‪(°‬‬
‫ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺘﻌﺭﺽ ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﺇﻝﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺨـﻼل‬
‫)‪ (٦-٤‬ﺃﺴﺎﺒﻴﻊ ﺍﻷﻭﻝﻰ ﺒﻌﺩ ﺍﻝﻔﻘﺱ ﺜﻡ ﺇﻝﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﺭﺘﻔﻌﺔ ﺤﺘﻰ ﺒـﺩﺀ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﺠﺭﺒﺔ ﻋﻨﺩ ‪ ٢٢‬ﺃﺴﺒﻭﻉ )‪٣٢-٢٩‬ﻡ‪.(°‬‬
‫‪١٣٠‬‬
‫ﻝﻡ ﻴﺅﺩﻱ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺠﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ﻤﻥ ‪ ١٥‬ﻏﻠﻰ ‪٤٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝﻰ ﺘـﺄﺜﻴﺭ‬
‫ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﻝﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ‪٤٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﻓﻲ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ‪ .‬ﺍﻨﺨﻔﻀﺕ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻝﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﻭﻭﺼﻠﺕ ﺇﻝﻰ ﺃﺩﻨﻰ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﻝﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ‬
‫ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ‪٢٥‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺼﻴﻑ ﺯﻴـﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﻏﻴﺭ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ‪٢٥‬ﻡ‪ .°‬ﻭﻴﺴﺘﻨﺘﺞ ﻤﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻝﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺃﻥ ﺃﻨـﺴﺏ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻝﻠﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻝﻤﺭﺒﻰ ﻤﻥ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻝﻤﺘﺄﻗﻠﻡ ﻝﻠﺠﻭ ﺍﻝﺒـﺎﺭﺩ ﻫـﻲ‬
‫‪٢٥‬ﻡ‪ ،°‬ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺍﻝﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻝﻤﺭﺒﻰ ﺘﺤﺕ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﺭﺘﻔﻌﺔ ﻝﻡ ﻴﻜﻥ ﺘﺤﺩﻴﺩ‬
‫ﺃﻨﺴﺏ ﻤﺩﻯ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻝﻪ‪ .‬ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻉ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺠﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ‪٢٥‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝﻰ ‪٣٠‬ﻡ‪°‬‬
‫ﺇﻝﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﺘﻭﺴﻁﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻜﻼ ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﻴﺘﻥ ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ﻤﻥ ‪ ٣٠‬ﺇﻝﻰ ‪٣٥‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝـﻰ ﺯﻴـﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴـﺔ ﻓـﻲ ﻜـﻼ‬
‫ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺘﻴﻥ ﺃﻋﻘﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﺴﺘﻤﺭﺍﺭ ﺍﻝﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ ﻤﻊ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ﻤـﻥ ‪٤٠-٣٥‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺒﻴﻨﻤـﺎ ﺍﻨﺨﻔـﻀﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻨﺨﻔﺎﻀﹰﺎ ﻏﻴﺭ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﺨﺭﻯ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺍﻝﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻋﻥ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ‪٢٥‬ﻡ‪٤٠ ،°‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﻜﻤـﺎ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ ﻭﺍﻝﻤﺭﺒﺎﺓ ﺘﺤﺕ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ‬
‫ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﺭﺘﻔﻌﺔ ﻴﺸﻴﺭ ﺇﻝﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺘﻌﺎﻨﻲ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻝﻌـﺏﺀ ﺍﻝﺤـﺭﺍﺭﻱ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻝﺫﻱ ﺘﻁﻠﺏ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ‪ .‬ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﺍﻝﺘﻲ ﻓﻘـﺩﺕ‬
‫ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻴﻕ ﺍﻝﺘﺒﺨﻴﺭ ﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ﻤﻥ ‪ ٢٠‬ﺇﻝﻰ‬
‫‪٤٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻔﻘـﻭﺩﺓ ﻋـﻥ ﻁﺭﻴـﻕ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﺒﺨﻴﺭ ﻭﺍﺨﺘﻠﻑ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻉ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ﻋﻨﺩ ‪٤٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﻋﻠـﻰ ﻨـﺴﺒﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻜﻼ ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺘﻴﻥ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻝﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴـﹰﺎ ﻓـﻲ‬
‫‪١٣١‬‬
‫ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺍﻨﺨﻔﻀﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ‪.‬‬
‫ﻝﻡ ﻴﺘﺄﺜﺭ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻝﺘﻨﻔﺱ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺩﺭﺠـﺎﺕ ‪٢٥-١٥‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺒﻴﻨﻤـﺎ ﺃﺩﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﺇﻝﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﻥ ‪ ٣٠‬ﺇﻝﻰ ‪٤٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴـﺔ ﻓـﻲ‬
‫ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻝﺘﻨﻔﺱ ﺨﺎﺼﺔ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ﻤﻥ ‪ ٣٠‬ﺇﻝﻰ ‪٣٥‬ﻡ‪.°‬‬
‫ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﻭﻴﺽ ﻝﻠﺒﺭﺩ )‪١٥‬ﻡ‪ (°‬ﺇﻝﻰ ﻨﻘﺹ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ‬
‫ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﺇﻝﻰ ‪٢٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝﻰ ﻨﻘﺹ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻱ ﺒﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺃﻗل ﻓـﻲ ﺩﺭﺠـﺔ‬
‫ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻋﻨﺩ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﻝﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ‪١٥‬ﻡ‪.°‬‬
‫ﻝﻡ ﻴﺅﺩﻱ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﺇﻝﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ‪٢٥‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝﻰ ﺍﺨﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓـﻲ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﺇﻝﻰ ‪٣٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺃﻭ ﺃﻜﺜﺭ ﺇﻝـﻰ ﺯﻴـﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ ﻜﺎﻥ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻝﻨﻘﺹ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ‬
‫ﺃﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﻝﻠﺒﺭﺩ ﻭﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻝﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﻴﺽ ﻝﻠﺤﺭ ﺃﻜﺜﺭ ﻭﻀﻭﺤﹰﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻝﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ‪.‬‬
‫ﻤﻤﺎ ﺴﺒﻕ ﻴﻤﻜﻥ ﺍﺴﺘﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺃﻥ ﺃﻨﺴﺏ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻝﻠﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻝﻔﻴﻭﻤﻲ ﻋﻨـﺩ‬
‫ﻋﻤﺭ )‪ (٢٢‬ﺃﺴﺒﻭﻉ ﻫﻲ )‪٢٥‬ﻡ‪ (°‬ﺤﻴﺙ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻨﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺃﻭ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺍﻝﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺃﺜﺭ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﻭﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ ﻜﻤـﺎ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻝﻔﻴﻭﻤﻲ ﻝﻴﺱ ﻝﻪ ﻤﻘﺩﺭﺓ ﻝﻰ ﺍﻝﺘﺄﻗﻠﻡ ﻝﻠﺠﻭ ﺍﻝﺒﺎﺭﺩ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﻝﺘﻌـﺭﻴﺽ‬
‫ﺇﻝﻰ ‪١٥‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝﻰ ﻨﻘﺹ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ‪.‬‬
‫ﻜﻤﺎ ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺍﻝﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻝﻭﺴﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﻷﺴﺎﺴﻴﺔ ﻝﻠﺘﻐﻠﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺭﺘﻔـﺎﻉ ﺩﺭﺠـﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻫﻲ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ ﺒﺎﻝﺒﺨﺭ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻴﻕ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻝﻔﻘـﺱ‬
‫ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻝﻡ ﻴﺤﺩﺙ ﻨﻘﺹ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ‪ .‬ﻜﺫﻝﻙ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺍﻝﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺤﺭﺠﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻝﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻝﻠﺩﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻝﻔﻴﻭﻤﻲ ‪٤٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺤﻴﺙ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﻝﺘﻌﺭﺽ ﺇﻝـﻰ ‪٤٠‬ﻡ‪ °‬ﺇﻝـﻰ ﺯﻴـﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻝﺭﻏﻡ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻝﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻝﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘـﻭﺩﺓ‬
‫‪١٣٢‬‬
‫ﻤﻤﺎ ﻴﺩل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻝﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻝﻤﻔﻘﻭﺩﺓ ﻝﻡ ﺘﻜﻥ ﻜﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻝﻠﻤﺤﺎﻓﻅﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺠﺴﻡ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﺸﻴﺭ ﺍﻝﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻝﺴﺎﺒﻘﺔ ﺇﻝﻰ ﺃﻨﻪ ﻴﻨﺼﺢ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻝﻭﺴـﺎﺌل ﻝﺘﻘﻠﻴـل ﺘـﺄﺜﻴﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻝﺒﺭﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺼل ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﻨﺨﻔﻀﺕ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤـﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠـﻭ ﻋـﻥ ‪١٥‬ﻡ‪°‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﻭﺴﺎﺌل ﺘﻘﻠﻴل ﺃﺜﺭ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻉ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻝﺠﻭ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﻌـﺕ ﻋـﻥ‬
‫‪٣٥‬ﻡ‪ .°‬ﻜﻤﺎ ﻴﻨﺼﺢ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻝﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺸﺘﺎﺀ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻝﺒﻴﺽ ﺃﺜﻨـﺎﺀ‬
‫ﻤﻭﺴﻡ ﺍﻝﺼﻴﻑ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺃﻨﻬﺎ ﺃﻜﺜﺭ ﺃﻗﻠﻤﺔ ﻝﻠﺠﻭ ﺍﻝﺤﺎﺭ ﻋﻥ ﻜﺘﺎﻜﻴﺕ ﻓﻘﺱ ﺍﻝﺭﺒﻴﻊ‪.‬‬
‫‪١٣٣‬‬

Ahmed Shokey

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Ahmed Shokey

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Department of Animal Production

I wish to express my sincere appreciation and

My deep thanks and gratefulness to Dr. Hesham

Ahmed Shauky Mohamed Naem

٢.١. Heat production:

The present study was conducted in Animal

٤.١. Determination of Thermoregulation Development

Mean = Least square means.

Age Winter hatch Summer hatch P٢

Table (٣): Effect of cold exposure (١٠ °C for ١ hour) on

Winter before Winter after

Fig. (١): Mean cloacal temperature (°C) of Fayoumi

Fig. (٢): Mean survival time (min.) after cold exposure

Fig. (٣): Percentage of mortality rate of Fayoumi chicks

Fig. (٤): Mean heat production (kcal/hr.W٠ ٧٥) of ٢٢

Fig. (٥): Mean evaporative heat loss (Joules) of Fayoumi

Fig. (٦): Mean percentage of heat production lost by

Fig. (٧): Mean respiration rate of moderate acclimatized

Fig. (٨): Mean respiration rate of severe acclimatized

Fig. (٩): Mean respiration rate of Fayoumi chicks

Fig. (١٠): Mean cloacal temperature of moderate

Cloacal temperature (°C)

Fig. (١١): Mean cloacal temperature of severe

Fig. (١٢): Mean cloacal temperature of Fayoumi chicks

The present work was designed to evaluate the

Aerts, J.M.; Wathes, CM.; and Berckmans, D. (٢٠٠٣):

S-ar putea să vă placă și

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‫‪ .‬ا‪7‬ﻥ ج ااﻥ‬

‫ا* ء (' ت ا‪%‬ل ‪ "#‬در

‫ا* ء (' ت ا‪%‬ل ‪ "#‬در

Fig. (٤): Mean heat production (kcal/hr.W٠٧٥) of ٢٢