Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
On
Formal Logic
PROLEGOMENA (proh-li-gom-uh-nah) is from the
Greek ‘pro’ means ‘before’ and ‘legomen’ means
‘we speak’. Prolegomena refers to introductory
words on a course of study.
Gunewe Publishers
P.O. Box 322, Mwanza-Tanzania.
Phone: +255784442128/+255752239825
ii
CONTENTS
Preface
iv
Logical Form ...........................................................74
DEDUCTIVE REASONING .................................86
Kinds of Deductive Reasoning.........................86
General Rules in Converting Propositions ..92
Specific Rules in Conversion ............................93
Specific Rules for Obversion ............................97
Specific Rules in Contraposition .....................99
MEDIATE REASONING .....................................101
The Difference between Deduction
and Induction .......................................................102
Syllogism ...............................................................103
Major Types of syllogism .........................104
Propositions of Syllogism ..........................106
Four Figures of Syllogism .........................107
Moods of Syllogism .....................................109
Rules of Syllogism .......................................114
How to Determine the Validity
of a Mood ........................................................121
CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM ..........................144
Hypothetical Syllogism ..............................144
Disjunctive Syllogism .................................148
Logical Dilemma ...........................................152
FALLACIES ..............................................................156
References ..................................................................162
v
PREFACE
vi
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
The great developments caused by
science and technology and the enormous
amount of knowledge being collected every
day are direct outcomes of logical thinking.
Logic as the branch of philosophy sets
justly firm guiding principles to judge or
calculate the quality, importance, amount or
value of the processes by which knowledge is
obtained.
It is undeniable that all disciplines rely on
logic to arrive to their truths as logic provides
norms, principles, standards or criteria of
correct reasoning. Any knowledge obtained
without logic is chaos. Dr. Johson C. Philip and
Dr. Sanesh Cherian said, “Superstition is
knowledge deduced or obtained without logic.”
7
What is logic?
Logic comes from the Greek term
"logos", which has a diversity of meanings
including reason, word, thought, idea,
argument, account or principle. Countless
number of definitions have been offered by
various logicians, including the following;
8
“Logic is the art of reasoning” by Henry
Aldrich
Reasoning/Inference/Arguments
Reasoning is a special mental activity
called inferring, what can also be called
making or performing inferences. An
11
inference is drawing conclusions from
premises.
Examples of Inference:
You see smoke and infer that there is a
fire.
You see ambulance making alarm then you
infer that there is a seriously sick person.
12
argument, the premises are envisioned to
back up the conclusion.
In any reasoning, there is a premise
(premises) and a conclusion
e.g. (a) Wherever there is smoke there is fire
(b) There is smoke
(c) Therefore. There is fire.
13
Historical Background of Logic
The history of logic goes as far back in
the ancient world. For example in India, there
were Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda holds
many different logical parts that at a time in
the future changed in four circles of catuskoti:
"A", "not A", "A and not A" and "not A and not
A"
There were texts of Aksapada Gautama
from around the 2nd century B.C. called the
‘Nyaya Sutra.’ These texts were studied and
applied by the Nyaya school of Indian
philosophical speculation. When a careful
study of these texts is done, it is found that its
inferential methodology is grounded on the
logic system because induction and deduction
are combined. As a result, the majority of the
other Indian schools adopted this logic system.
The contemporary logic has been
developed mainly from the ancient Greek
14
tradition. Plato and Aristotle understood logic
as the study of argument.
Six works on logic were released by
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) jointly known as
the ‘Organon.’
1. Categories - deals with terms whereby
ten classes of ideas and the division of
the world of concepts have been
expounded.
2. Interpretation (De Interpretatione) -
deals with statements whereby
judgments and their verbal expressions
have been explained.
3. Prior Analytics - deals with the theory
of inference whereby syllogism in its
various forms and rules governing its
validity have been analyzed.
4. Posterior Analytics - deals with the
axiomatic structure of a science whereby
15
the true premises that are applied for
true conclusions have been studied.
5. Topics - a manual of argumentation
whereby premises yielding probable
conclusions have been dealt.
6. Sophism (De Soph. Elench.) – a
manual on fallacies whereby the fallacies
or erroneous conclusions have been
discussed.
1
Hurly Patrick J. A Concise Introduction to Logic. Clark Baxter Publishers. U.S.A
1960.
17
wider than that of Aristotle. Furthermore, it
contains classical logic. It bears a
resemblance to a mathematical
calculus and deals with the relations of
symbols to each other.
In the 20th century, the work in logic
gave much attention to making logical
systems formal.
Kurt Godel (1906-1978) proved a
theorem which states that in any formal
system adequate for number theory there
exists an undecidable formula—that is, a
formula such that neither it nor its negation is
derivable from the axioms of the system.
Multivalued logic and the formalization of
modal logic are other developments made in
logic in the 20th century.
Generally, a major contribution made by
logic to technology is the provision of the basic
18
concepts which have been applied for the
electronic circuitry of digital computers.
21
Chapter 2
TYPES OF LOGIC
22
conclusion (from a particular to general). For
example:
Gunewe is a sinner.
Lilian is a sinner
Therefore, all men are sinners
23
Object of Logic
Logic as science its object is designated
in two ways; material object and formal
object. Any object has its matter and form.
The matter is the material of which the
object is made, while the form is the shape or
nature of the object.
For example, a stool, a chair, a table may be
made of wood, so they possess the same
matter. But their forms are different, that's
why they have different names.
Also, we have several chairs with the same
form, but made of different materials (wood,
plastic, marble etc.) so have a different
matter.
Now, when we come to Logic, the
material object of studying Logic is the human
operations of thinking, while the formal object
of studying Logic is thinking as correct
thinking.
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Thinking logically is better for it is the
material object of Logic, but thinking logically
correct is the best, for it is the formal object of
Logic.
The Relationship between Logic
and other Disciplines.
As I have said earlier that all disciplines
rely on logic to arrive at their truths as logic
provides norms, principles, standards or
criteria of correct reasoning. Therefore, there
is a close relationship between Logic and other
disciplines.
25
Science can be categorized into two;
the positive (descriptive) and
normative.
The positive science describes things
as they are, for example; Physics,
Chemistry, Biology etc.
The normative science describes things
as they should be, for example;
Aesthetics, Ethics etc.
For that case, Logic is a Normative
Science because it provides principles,
norms, and standards of correct
thinking.
Logic as Art
Art comes from the Latin word ‘artem
nominative ars’ to mean as a work of
art, practical skill, a business or craft.
Logic is an art for it lays down certain
rules for the attainment of truth and
removal of errors. It is an art of valid
26
reasoning. Logic is the basis of all
artistic disciplines.
28
Chapter 3
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF LOGIC
29
use a term in one meaning we must hold on
to the same meaning throughout the
argument.
The law forbids additional information
regarding the thing. The data with which we
start in Deductive Logic must remain
unchanged.
2. The law of Non-Contradiction
The law states that contradictory
statements cannot both be true in the same
sense at the same time. Or nothing can
both be and not be at one and the same
time.
The formula is: “Nothing can be both ‘A’ and
‘not A’”
For example; snow cannot be both white
and not white at the same time.
Or a plain paper cannot be both ‘white’ and
‘not white’ at the same time. Which means
30
two contradictory qualities cannot both be
true on one thing.
3. The law of Excluded Middle
The law states that everything must either
be or not be.
The formula is: “A is either B or not B.”
Which means if a plain paper is white, it
cannot be not-white. Two contradictory
qualities cannot be both false of one and the
same thing.
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can become true or false depending on the
conditions.
32
Chapter 4
LOGICAL IMPLICATION
33
All Kings are rich All M are P
Herod is a king S is M
Therefore, Herod is rich Therefore, S is P
34
Middle Term
Middle Term is a term which appears in both
premises and not in conclusion. ‘M’ appears in
the first and the second premises.
All M are P
S is M
S is P
Major Term
Major Term is the one which appears in the
major (first) premise and in the predicate of
the conclusion.
All M are P
S is M
S is P
Minor Term
Minor Term is the one which appears in the
minor (second) premise and in the subject of
the conclusion.
35
All M are P
S is M
S is P
The words like ‘all’ ‘is’ ‘are’ etc. are called
constants in the form. What is important is the
correct form.
39
Chapter 5
STAGES OF REASONING
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Stages of Thinking
a) Simple Apprehension
b) Judgment
c) Reasoning/ argument
Simple Apprehension
The first act of operation of mind is called
simple apprehension. It the stage which mind
produces the idea of an object perceived via
senses. Here notions of various things are
born since it is the comprehension of the
minimum unity of thought.
An act by which the mind understands
the general meaning of an object without
affirming or denying anything about it is called
apprehension.
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NATURE AND MODALITY OF TERMS
42
one word may connote numerous concepts;
for example lie, fair, trunk, plain etc.
A word is either a single or group of
letters expressing a definite meaning. Not
every word is a term because every word by
itself doesn’t convey a meaning.
Kinds of Words
There are different kinds of words like;
1. The Categorimatic words: these are
independent words because they don’t need
the help of other words to express their
meaning. For example; Moses, mortal,
prudence etc.
2. The Syn-Categorematic words: these are
the words which don't express meaning
when they stand alone. For example, an, to,
but etc. always in short adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, articles.
3. The Acategorimatic words: these are the
words which express emotions and
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sentiments of human thoughts. This
includes all interjections e.g. alas! Wow!
etc.
Note: Only categorematic words can be used
as Subject Term or Predicate Term of a
proposition.
Predicatibility
Predicatibility is the operation of logic
which follows from the universality of
concepts. The names of different classes of
predicates in relation to the subjects are called
Predicables.
The term which is either affirmed or
denied of the subject is called the Predicate.
They convey the modes through which a
‘genus' is related to its lower levels.
45
The Neoplatonic philosopher who was
born in Tyre in the Roman Empire called
Porphyry (234-305 A.D), in his work titled in
Greek “Isagoge” or ‘Introduction to Aristotle's'
category' has listed five predicables which are;
Genus
Specific difference
Species
Property
Logical Accident
Genus
Genus is a superspecies. It is called
Genus when two or more terms are so related
to each other that the denotation of one is
already contained or included in the others. It
is a species which contains within itself other
species.
Species
Species is a class of individuals with the
same essential characteristics.
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Differentia/Specific Difference
Differentia is the essential characteristics
which distinguish one species from another
belonging to the same genus.
Property
It is a non-essential characteristic by
which each individual necessarily has.
Accidents
These are some accidental quality which
may or may not belong to a subject.
Note: any class which can be subdivided is a
Genus while any class which cannot be
subdivided is a Species. For example:
Man is an animal ---------Genus
Man is a rational animal -----Species
Man’s rationality -----------Specific Difference
Man is capable of speech –-- Property
Man is an African (maybe or not) --- Accident
A Genus can either be supreme, remote
or proximate.
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Supreme Genus is a class which cannot
be subsumed into a higher class.
Remote Genus is the one which can be
subdivided into at least two general (plural of
genus).
Proximate Genus is the one which is
subsumed into a super genus.
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A real definition is expressed by the
approximate genus and by a specific
difference. For example;
Animality --------- Proximate Genus
Rationality --------- Specific Difference
Predicaments
In Classical Logic, Predicaments are
commonly used as categories. Aristotle is the
father of predicaments. According to Aristotle,
there are ten (10) predicaments which he calls
them as ‘Supreme classes of Predicates.’
These are; Substance, Quantity, Quality,
Relation, Action, Passion, Time, Place, Posture,
Possession.
1. He is man (belongs to the category
‘Substance’)
2. He is short and fat (belongs to the category
‘Quantity’)
3. He is healthy, capable and blackish (belongs
to the category ‘Quality’)
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4. He is the husband of Lilian (belongs to the
category ‘Relation’)
5. He works hard and walks fast (belongs to
the category ‘Action’)
6. He is loved by all; he is praised by all
(belongs to the category ‘Passion’)
7. He is 40 years old; he was born in 1979
(belongs to the category ‘Time’)
8. He lives in Mwanza; he is from Morogoro
(belongs to the category ‘Place’)
9. He is sitting on a couch; he is sleeping on
the bed (belongs to the category ‘Posture’)
10. He is wearing a suit; he is the owner of a
printing company (belongs to the category
‘Possession’)
Types of Qualities/Properties
There are two types of qualities, which
are; accidental and essential. Accidental
qualities are the ones that may or may not
belong to a subject, without changing its
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characteristic features. Accidental qualities are
subjected to change. While essential qualities
of an object are the most basic qualities that
an object must have, without which it loses its
identity.
Connotation and Denotation as
Properties of the Term
Connotation comes from Latin origin
‘con’ means ‘with’ and ‘notare’ means ‘to
note.’ It refers to the group of notes,
characteristics or qualities essential to a term.
With connotation often intention and
signification are synonymous. The connotation
of ‘man’ is rationality and animality, which is
to say without the essential quality the
creature loses its identity.
The denotation of a term is the thing or
set of things to which the term refers. it is also
called extension. The denotation of a term
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points out to particular in a class (sub-class).
For example;
Man denotes – all men (rich and poor; black
and white; short and tall).
Man connotes-essential attribute (animality
and rationality).
Note: Connotation of a term is the full
meaning of a term as expressed by the sum
total of its essential characteristics (intention).
The Relation between Connotation and
Denotation
Connotation and Denotation are related
in inverse ratio. Inverse ratio relation is the
one between two qualities such that one
increases in proportion and the other
decreases and vice versa.
For example;
1. Man – denotation – all men (decreased)
Man – connotation – rationality, animality
(increased).
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2. Man – denotation – all animals (increase)
Man – connotation – animality (decreased)
3. Man – connotation – honesty (increases)
Man – denotation – only honest men
(Decreases).
4. Man – connotation – excluding rationality
(Decreases)
Man – denotation – animality is not only
possessed by all men, but also by animals
(increases)
Rules in Classifying Concepts
Concepts are divided so as to bring to
them more clarity. The following are a few
rules in classifying concepts;
1) Each division must exclude the other.
2) No part should be equal to the whole.
3) All parts put together must constitute the
whole.
4) No number may be included in the other in
a grouping.
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Classes of Terms
(a) Simple and Composite (Compound)
Term
A simple term is the one which consists
of only one word; e.g. Black
A composite (compound term) is the
one which consists of a combination of
several words; e.g. the intelligent
woman, this boy.
(b) Singular and General Term
A singular term is the one which when
used in the same sense can denote only
one single object; e.g the largest snake
in the World, Mwanza, Godwin Gunewe.
A general term is the one which can be
applied in the same sense to an
indefinite number of similar objects;
e.g. Star, Man etc.
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Division of a Single Term
A singular term can be subdivided into
two;
i. Significant Singular Term: these terms
point out someone or individual thing by
referring to some attribute peculiar to it.
For example; the highest mountain in
Africa, the fifth President of Tanzania.
ii. Non-Significant Singular Terms: these
terms do not imply any attribute. For
example; Dar-es-salaam, Napoleon.
(c) Collective and Distribute Terms
A collective term is one which is applied
to a group of similar things, not
separately, but as constitution as a
whole. E.g. Army, Library.
A Distributive term is the one which is
not only used to the whole class but also
each and every individual. E.g. All men
are mortal.
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(d) Concrete and Abstractive Term
Concrete terms are those terms which
refer to an individual person or thing.
E.g. man, cow
Abstract terms are those which refer to
qualities in common to more than
individual. e.g animality, justice,
prudence etc.
Note: Prudent is concrete while
Prudence is abstract.
-Some words can be used as either
concrete or as abstract terms depending
according to the meaning;
Justice --- noun --- concrete
Justice --- quality -- abstract
(e) Positive, Negative and Privative
Terms
A positive term is the one which shows
its presence. E.g. light, table, sad etc.
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A negative term is the one which implies
the absence of something or denial of
someone or something. These include;
-negative prefixes like im, in, un, dis,
etc.
-words preceded by not
-negations without prefixes like evil,
darkness.
Private terms refer to the absence of an
attribute in an object which it might
have been expected to exist. E.g. Deaf,
blind etc.
(f) Contradictory and Contrary Terms
Contradictory terms are the ones when
two terms when mutually exclude each
other and at the same time exhaust the
entire denotation. E.g. Black and not
black
Contrary terms are the ones when two
terms connote the greatest degree of
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difference between the things denoted
by them. E.g. black and white, tall and
short etc.
(g) Relative and Absolute Terms
Relative terms are the ones which
express a relation between two or
more persons or things in relation. E.g.
husband, wife, daughter etc.
Absolute terms are the ones which at
least in meaning do not express such
relation. E.g. Man, Boy, Girl etc.
(h) Particular and Universal Terms
Particular terms are those terms which
are referred to one or more individuals
of a whole class but not to the whole
class.
Universal terms are those terms which
refer to all the individuals of the whole
class. E.g. every man, all the students
etc.
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-Universal terms include singular
terms which include a single individual
person or thing or words with ‘this' or
‘that'
-Universal terms can either be
collective or distributive.
E.g All proper names (Godwin, Lillian)
This book, that nation
(i) Univocal, Equivocal and Analogous
Univocal terms are those which are used
for many persons or things exactly in
the same sense. Terms are univocal if
they exhibit similarity in meaning or
signification even though they are used
in at least two occasions.
e.g. Honey Pie is a photographer
Tweety Cute is a photographer
Equivocal terms are those which are
used for many persons or things
completely in a different sense.
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e.g. Note – taking note
notebook
Bull - the letter of the Pope
- Animal
Analogous is the midway between
univocal and equivocal. Terms are
analogous if they express partly the
same and partly different meanings
when used in at least two occasions. An
analogous term is applied to related
things that used in meaning that is
partly same and partly different.
e.g. Healthy man, healthy medicine.
Healthy is used analogically.
Or Orange is fruit, orange is colour.
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Chapter 6
THE NATURE AND MODALITY OF
JUDGMENT
62
In Logic, we deal with Assertive
sentences only.
Parts of Proposition
A proposition has three parts, namely; a
subject, a predicate, and copula (a
connecting link).
A subject term is a term about which
something is stated.
The predicate term is a term which states
something about the subject term.
A copula is the sign of the relationship
between them. It is the connecting word. It
may be present tense of the verb ‘to be' i.e.
am, is, are. It may be also affirmative i.e. am
not, is not, are not.
Classification of Proposition
Traditional thinkers classify the
propositions from the viewpoint of relation,
quantity and quality.
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1. Relational Proposition
On the basis of relation, we can classify
propositions into; Categorical, Conjunctive,
Disjunctive, and Hypothetical.
a) Categorical Proposition
A categorical proposition is the one which
affirms or denies the predicate of the
subject. It is a simple statement without
any condition or qualification.
All S are P (A form)
No S are P (E form)
Some S are P (I form)
Some S are not P (O form)
e.g.
Name English Standard Form
Sentence
A All cows have All S is P
four legs
64
E No cows have No S is P
eight legs
I Some cows are Some S is P
red
O Some cows are Some S is not P
not black
65
b) Conjunctive Proposition
The conjunctive proposition is the one
with a combination of two categorical
propositions by using ‘and' or ‘but.'
e.g. he studies hard but he fails exams
The day is hot and the night is cold
c) Disjunctive Proposition
The disjunctive proposition is also known as
the conditional proposition. It is the one
which makes an alternative statement. Two
propositions are combined by using two
disjuncts which are ‘either …or…'
e.g. he is either insane or pretending
he will either call me or I will call him.
d) Hypothetical Proposition
The hypothetical proposition has two parts,
which are antecedent and consequent. This
kind of proposition is also a conditional one.
The antecedent contains the condition and
the consequent contains the statement. The
66
antecedent and consequent are combined
by “if…..then…”
e.g. If you work hard, then you will be rich
-‘if you work hard’ is antecedent which
imposes the condition.
-‘you will be rich’ is consequent which is
imposes the result of the antecedent
(condition).
Properties of Proposition
In this part, we are going to talk about
quantity and quality as properties of a
proposition.
➠ Propositions of Quantity
Quantity is the number of members of
the subject class that are used in the
proposition. Based on quantity we can classify
proposition into two; universal and
particular proposition.
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If the proposition refers to all members of
the subject class the proposition is called
universal.
When the subject is taken in its entire
meaning or denotation the proposition is
universal. In the universal proposition the
predicate is affirmed or denied of the subject.
e.g.
-All men are mortal – A (Universal Affirmative)
-No man is perfect – E (Universal Negative)
The universal affirmative propositions
start with ‘all,’ ‘every,’ ‘any' etc. while the
universal negative proposition starts with ‘no,’
‘not one,’ etc.
If the proposition doesn’t employ all
members of the subject class, the proposition
is called particular. When the subject is
taken in its partial meaning or denotation, the
proposition is particular. In a particular
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proposition, the predicate is affirmed or denied
of a part of the subject.
e.g.
-Some men are prudent – I (Particular
Affirmative)
-Some men are not prudent – O (Particular
negative).
The particular propositions begin with
‘some.' In Logic, some refer to ‘one’ or ‘more’
which could mean ‘all’.
➠ Proposition of Quality
Based on the quality, the categorical
propositions are divided into; affirmative and
negative. The copula is affirmative in an
affirmative proposition while in an affirmative
proposition, the predicate is affirmed of the
subject.
e.g.
-All men are mortal–A (Universal Affirmative)
-Some men are wise–I (Particular Affirmative)
69
In a negative proposition, a copula is
generally negative. In the negative
proposition, the predicate is denied of the
subject. It states the exclusion of one class or
part of a class from another.
e.g.
-No man is perfect-E Universal Negative
-Some men are not wise-O Particular Negative
70
Propositions with infinite and Gerund,
the subject should be considered as
universal.
e.g. To err is human – is considered as
universal proposition.
Singular proposition is treated as
universal if the singular proposition is
taken is its total extension which
happens to only one object of the group.
e.g. John is at home – in this example,
John is the only member of the class, so
John is regarded as universal
Proposition.
Terms Distribution in Four Categorical
Proposition (AEIO)
A term distribution is when a term is
taken in its entire meaning. Or it is when a
term is taken universally or with reference to
all parts of it.
(a) ‘A’ – All men are mortal
71
In the above Universal Affirmative
proposition, the subject term is said to be
distributed since the subject ‘All Men’ are
taken in its entirety. On the other hand, the
predicate term is not distributed because
‘mortal’ is only a part of the denotation.
Mortality is not exclusively confined to
‘men.’
(b) ‘E’ – No man is perfect
The above example is Universal Negative
proposition. Since the entire humanity is
excluded from the predicate ‘perfect.’ So, in
‘E’ proposition both subject and predicate
are distributed, for both terms are taken in
entirety.
(c) ‘I’ – Some men are kind
The above example is for Particular
Affirmative. ‘Some men’ shows that the
entire denotation of the subject is not
considered, so the subject is not distributed.
72
(d) ‘O’ – Some men are not kind
The above example is Particular Negative
proposition. Here, ‘some men’ is excluded
from the entirety, hence the subject is not
distributed. The predicate is distributed.
In a nut shell:
‘A’ – distributes the Subject Term (S) only
‘E’ – distributes the Subject Term (S) and
predicate term (P)
‘I’ – does not distribute any term
‘O’ – distributes the Predicate Term (P) only
Additional Principles
If the copula is affirmative the
predicate is particular
In ‘A’ and ‘I’ propositions the copula is
affirmative, hence the predicate is not
distributed.
If the copula is negative the predicate
is universal
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In ‘E’ and ‘O’ propositions the copula is
Negative, hence the predicate is distributed.
Rules in Reducing Sentences
to Logical Form
Logical propositions which are categorical
sentences have only three parts;
Subject (S)
Predicate (P)
Copula
Since sentences that are in AEIO forms
are in logical forms, so there is a need to
reduce the ordinary sentences into logical form
by following rules.
1. General Rules for the Reduction
1) The subject and the predicate of the
given sentences should be shown in their
proper places.
2) Identify quantity of the sentence
(whether the whole subject or part of the
subject).
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3) Identify the quality (Affirmative or
Negative) of the proposition.
4) The copula must be in the present tense
indicate mood (am, is, are) and the
original tense of the proposition may be
shown with the predicate.
5) While rewriting, the meaning of the
sentence should not be changed.
For example;
-Kenya was under the British rule.
The above sentence is not in logical form.
It order to be in logical from it should be;
-Kenya is the country, which was under the
British rule.
2. Special Rules for the Reduction
1) All affirmative sentences containing words
like all, each, every, any are to be
reduced to ‘A’ proposition.
e.g. i) Every man is a sinner
All men are sinners– A (Logical form)
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ii) Anybody can say it
All men are men who can say it – A
(Logical form)
2) All negative sentences with all, every,
each, any are to be reduced to ‘O’
proposition.
e.g. All men are not kind
Some men are not kind (Logical Form)
The second example is in a logical form for
it has been reduced to ‘O’ proposition
according to the rule.
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a. ‘A’ proposition can be obtained by
interchanging the places of the subject
and predicate of the given sentences.
e.g.
i. Only PhDs are required for
Presidential post.
All those who are required for this
post are PhDs - A (Logical Form)
ii. None but a wife deserves care.
All who deserves care are wives – A
(Logical Form)
b. ‘E’ proposition can be obtained by
making the subject of the original
sentence negative.
e.g.
i. Only PhDs are required for
Presidential post.
No non-PhDs are required for the
presidential post.
ii. None but the serious deserves fair
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No non-serious person deserves
the fair – E (Logical Form)
9) Sentences containing the words like
except, but, all but etc. and whose
predicate is affirmed or denied of the
subject with some exceptions, are to be
‘reduced to ‘A’ and ‘E’ or ‘I’ and ‘O’
proposition.
i. When the exceptions are definitely
stated, the sentences are to be reduced
to universal propositions – ‘A’ or ‘E’
e.g.
All professors except Gunewe have gone
All professors except Gunewe are those
who have gone – A (Logical Form)
No professor except Gunewe have gone
No professor except Gunewe are those
who have gone – E (Logical Form).
ii. When the exceptions are not definitely
asserted, the sentences are to be
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reduced to particular propositions ‘I’ or
‘O’
e.g.
All professors except a few have gone.
Some professors are those who have
gone – I (Logical Form).
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No mother is a person who will forget her
biological child – E (Logical Form)
ii. Is there any a wise man who rapes his
own daughter?
No wise person is one who rapes his own
daughter – E (Logical Form)
14) Inverted sentences and proverbs are
reduced to universal propositions ‘A’ or ‘E’,
by exchanging the subject and predicate in
their proper order.
e.g. blessed are the peace makers
All the peace makers are blessed – A
(Logical Form)
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e.g. A wheel is round
All wheels are round – A (Logical Form)
Explosive is flammable
All explosives are flammable – A
(Logical Form)
-Crystal is transparent.
All crystal is transparent – A (Logical
Form)
Note:
It is impossible to provide all rules for
reducing sentences to logical form.
When reducing sentences to logical form,
make sure that the original sentences
remain unaltered.
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Chapter 7
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
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a) Opposition of Proposition
b) Education
a) Opposition of Proposition
Opposition of proposition is understood
in a broad sense in classical logic as ‘how
proposition stand against one another
when one have the same subject and
predicate and differ in quantity or quality
or both.’
Aristotle expounded how the four types
of terms can be placed in a square form giving
illustration on the various oppositions between
them. Then, he kept on characterizing each
types of opposition.
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A. Conversion of Proposition
This is a form of immediate reasoning in
which there is licit transportation of the
subject and predicate of a proposition. In
conversion of proposition, the given
proposition is called the convertend, while
the inferred proposition is called the
converse.
The purpose of conversion is to explain
the truth of a proposition in a different way.
General Rules in Converting Propositions
1. The subject of the converted turn out to be
the predicate of the converse.
2. The quality of the converse must be the
same as that of the converted.
3. The predicate of the converted becomes the
subject of the converse.
4. No term can be distributed in the converse
unless it is distributed in the converted.
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5. If the quantity of the convertend is the
same as that of the converse, it is called
simple conversion. If the quantity of the
convertend is different from that of
converse, it called conversion by
limitation. If the convertend is universal,
the converse is called particular.
Specific Rules in Conversion
Conversion ‘A’ is ‘I’ proposition
For example;
All men are mortal -A All S is P
Some mortal beings are men -I Some P is S
Note:
Converting ‘A’ proposition is impossible
because of violation of rules of distribution. On
the other hand, when the subject and
predicate of ‘A’ proposition are definite
singular terms ‘A’ proposition can be simply
converted to ‘A’ proposition.
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e.g. -Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in
Africa – A All S is P
-The highest mountain in Africa is the
Kilimanjaro – A All P is S
Conversion ‘I’ is ‘I’ proposition
For example;
Some women are brave -I Some S is P
Some brave being are women – I Some P is S
The ‘I’ proposition has no distribution of terms,
therefore the interchange of terms will not be
problem.
Conversion ‘E’ is ‘E’ proposition
e.g. No man is perfect - E No S is P
No perfect beings are men – No P is S
In the ‘E’ proposition both the terms are
distributed, and therefore the interchange of
terms will not be a problem. For that case, an
‘E’ proposition is converted to another ‘E’.
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Conversion of ‘O’ proposition
Conversion of proposition ‘O’ doesn’t guide to
a valid conclusion.
e.g. Some women are not faithful - O Some S
is not P
In converting the ‘O’ proposition the
quality should remain unaltered, which means
the conclusion must remain negative. A
particular negative ‘O’ distributes the predicate
term. The predicate of the converse is
distributed but the term is not distributed in
the given. The distribution is violated.
Inverse by Converse Relation
This is immediate reasoning, in which we
pass from one statement of relation to
another. For example;
1. Gershom is the son of Dr. Gunewe
Dr. Gunewe is the father of Gershom
2. Train is heavier than a car
A car is lighter than a train.
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B. Obversion of Proposition
It is the type of immediate reasoning in
which there is an alteration in the quality of
the provided proposition, at the same time its
meaning remains unaltered. Obvertend is the
provided proposition, and Obverse is the
conclusion, while the whole process is called
obversion. The obversion stand as agent of
re-stating in opposite quality.
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d. The predicate of the obverse is the
contradictory of the predicate of the
obvertend.
Specific Rules for Obversion
The obversion of A is E
e.g. All women are beautiful -A All S is P
No women are not beautiful- E No S is
non P
The obversion of ‘A’ is ‘E’. For the sake of
maintaining the quantity of the proposition
and alteration of the quality the predicate has
been rewritten in its contradictory form.
The Obversion of ‘E’ is ‘A’
e.g. No man is reliable -E No S is P
All men are not reliable -A All S is non P
The obversion of ‘E’ is ‘A’. For the sake of
maintaining the quantity of the proposition
and altering quality the predicate has been
rewritten in its contradictory form.
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The Obversion of ‘I’ is ‘O’
e.g. Some Pastors are faithful –I Some S is P
Some Pastors are not non faithful –O
Some S is not non P
The obversion of ‘I’ is ‘O’. For the sake of
maintaining the quantity of the proposition
and alteration of the quality the predicate has
been written in its contradictory form.
Obversion of ‘O’ is ‘I’
e.g. -Some metals are not heavy - O Some S
is not P
-Some metals are non-heavy – I Some S
is non-P
The obversion of ‘O’ is ‘I’. For the sake of
maintaining the quantity of the proposition
and alteration of the quality the predicate has
been written in its contradictory form.
C. Contraposition
It is a type of immediate reasoning in
which combines both obversion and
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conversion. The procedure is as follows; first
the obversion of a given proposition is done,
then follows the conversion of a obverted
proposition. The conclusion obtained is called
contrapositive.
Specific Rules in Contraposition
Contrapositive of ‘A’ is ‘E’
All men are mortal (A) All S is P
No man is non-mortal (E) No S is non P
No non-mortal beings are man (E) No non-P is S
Contrapositive of ‘E’ is ‘I’
No tilapia is mammal (E) No S is P
All tilapia is non-mammal (A) All S is non-P
Some non-mammal is tilapia (I) Some non-P
is S
Contrapositive of ‘O’ is ‘I’
Some men are not honest – (O) Some S is not P
Some men are non-honest – (I) Some S is non P
Some non-honest beings are men (I) Some non-P
is S
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The contrapositive of ‘I’ is impossible
because when ‘I’ is obverted it
produces ‘O’ and the ‘O’ proposition
cannot be converted due to the
violation if distribution.
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Chapter 8
MEDIATE REASONING
Aristotle is a man
101
Induction (to induce)
John is imperfect
102
Syllogism
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hypothetical syllogisms because the
arguments are not always valid and are
sometimes are not accepted as truth.
Major premise: Gershom is clever.
Conclusion: Gershom’s parents are clever.
Example:
This carpet is either blue or yellow.
(Major Premise)
It's not yellow. (Minor Premise)
This carpet is blue. (Conclusion)
Note: There are other minor types of syllogism
as follows;
Enthymemes is a syllogism with an
incomplete argument.
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Modus Ponens is a syllogism which states
that ‘If X is true then Y is true; X is true,
therefore Y is true.
Modus Tollens is a type of syllogism which
states that ‘If X is true then Y is true; Y is
false, therefore X is false.
Set Theory refers to the basics of
overlapping groups.
Propositions of Syllogism
There are three propositions in syllogism,
which two are given and the other proposition
is inferred from them. The two given
propositions are called premises while the
inferred one is called as the conclusion.
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3. The Predicate Term/ Major Term (P)
1 2 3 4
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Moods of Syllogism
AE EE IE OE
AI EI II OI
AO EO IO OO
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Note that; ‘EA’ and ‘EI’ are valid in every
figure.
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AAI EAI IAI OAI
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The total number of moods in all would
be 64x4=256. This is the mood in wider sense.
The valid moods in this sense will be 24 as
follows;
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Rules of Syllogism
Note below:
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1) Every syllogism must have only three
terms.
For example;
For example;
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If the middle term is used
ambiguously, it is known as fallacy of
ambiguous middle.
For example;
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3) The middle term must be distributed at
least once in the premises. If this rule is
violated is called fallacy of undistributed
middle. If the middle term is not
distributed there will be no establishment of
a common link between the major and the
minor term.
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major premise, then it is called the fallacy
of illicit Major.
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middle term. If this rule is violated it
creates the fallacy of negative premise.
121
‘AA’
‘AE’
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As stipulated in the rule 6, since the
minor premise is negative the conclusion
should be negative. The major premise is
affirmative and the major term is not
distributed. This is the fallacy of illicit major,
so no conclusion is obtained. So, AEE is not
a valid mood.
‘AI’
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‘AO’
is not M) -O
is not P) -O
‘EA’
‘EI’
S is P) -I
S is not P) -O
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The above syllogism has followed rules
number 6 and 9. Logically the conclusion
will be particular. The major term is
distributed in the conclusion, which is also
distributed in the major premise. Therefore,
the conclusion is valid making the mood
‘EIO’ become valid. The cute name given to
this mood is FERIO.
‘IA’
M is P) -I
S is P) -I
OA
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Some animals are not quadrupeds (Some M
is not P) -O
is not P) -O
AA
AI
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There is no valid conclusion is this
syllogism, for that case there is no valid
mood because there is violation of rule
leading to the fallacy of undistributed
middle.
AO
EA
EI
IA
‘OA’
AA
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conclusion, which result to a valid mood. The
cute name for this valid mood is DARAPTI.
AE
AI
is S) -I
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The syllogism has followed rules 7 and 9.
The middle term is distributed in the major
premise. Because ‘I’ proposition has no
distribution, the possibility of violating the
rule is omitted. Therefore, the conclusion is
valid creating the valid mood called DATISI.
AO
not S) -O
EA
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All men are animals (All M is S) -A
not P -O
EI
IA
OA
not P) -O
136
Some mortals are not faithful (Some S is
not P) -O
AA
AE
AI
AO
is not S) -O
139
Some mammals are not men (Some S is
not P) -O
EA
EI
140
No man is perfect (No P is M) -E
M is S) -I
is not P) -O
IA
is P) -I
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The middle term is distributed in the
minor premise and the conclusion has no
distribution. The mood produced is the valid
one called DIMARIS.
OA
not M) -O
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The Nine Valid Moods from All Four Figures
143
Chapter 9
CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM
a. Hypothetical Syllogism
b. Disjunctive Syllogism
c. Dilema
Hypothetical Syllogism
144
1)Pure hypothetical Syllogisms (HS)
In this syllogism, both of the premises as
well as the conclusion are conditionals.
The validity of this syllogism relies on the
match of the antecedent of the one
premise with the consequent of the
other.
Antecedent ----------condition
Consequent ----------Result
2)Mixed hypothetical syllogism
In this syllogism, one of the premises is a
conditional while the other serves to
register affirmation or denial with either
the antecedent or consequent of that
conditional. There are four possible forms
of mixed hypothetical syllogism, two are
valid and two are invalid.
The valid forms;
A. (AA) Affirming the Antecedent (Modus
Ponens) ----- If p, then q
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P
q
e.g. If parrot is a bird, then parrot flies
Parrot is a bird.
Parrot flies
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D. (DA) Denying the Antecedent
If p, then q.
Not p
Not q
e.g. If parrot is a bird, then parrot flies.
Parrot doesn’t fly.
Parrot is not a bird.
2) From Categorical
All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
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Therefore, Socrates is a mortal
To Hypothetical syllogism
If Socrates is a man then he is mortal
Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
b. Either A or B
B
Therefore, not A
c. Either A or B
Not A
Therefore, B
d. Either A or B
Not B
Therefore, A
II) In weak disjunctive syllogism, the rules
states that, only a negative minor premise
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gives us a valid conclusion. For that case,
only two forms are valid.
a. Either A or B
Not A
Therefore, B
b. Either A or B
Not B
Therefore, A
Logical Dilemma
The word originated from the two Greek
words ‘DI’ and ‘LEMMA’ to mean
‘double/two’ for ‘DI’ while ‘assumption’ for
‘LEMMA.’
Dilemma can be understood in a broad
and strict sense. In a broad sense, dilemma
plays as disjunctive arguments in general. In a
strict sense, dilemma plays as an argument in
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which an alternative having been posited, it is
proved that both the alternates point to the
same conclusion.
e.g. Either A or B
If A then C
If B then C
Therefore, C
How to Analyze a Dilemma
A dilemma basically consists of a major
proposition which is always a disjunctive
proposition. Minor proposition is a compound
hypothetical proposition and its conclusion can
be either a categorical proposition or
disjunctive proposition. There are two types of
dilemma;
① Constructive Dilemma, which consists of
Simple Constructive and Complex
Constructive dilemma.
A Simple Constructive
e.g. Either A or B (Major Premise)
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If A then C (Minor Premise)
If B then C
Therefore, C (Conclusion)
Exampe;
He is either Gunewe or Gershom
If he is Gunewe then he is male
If he is Gershom then he is male
Therefore, he is male
Complex Constructive
Either A or B (Major Premise)
If A then C (Minor Premise)
If B then D
Therefore, either C or D (Conclusion)
Example;
If the wife acts as the husband say the
neighbors will be unhappy.
If the wife acts as the neighbors say the
husband will be unhappy.
154
② Destructive Dilemma, which consists of
Simple Destructive and Complex
Destructive dilemma.
155
Chapter 10
FALLACIES
1) Fallacies of Ambiguity
2) Contextual Fallacies (Subject Matter)
156
Fallacies of Ambiguity are the ones
which happen if terms have more than one
meaning.
Fallacy of equivocation
This happens when one of the three terms in a
syllogism become ambiguous. If it happens in
the major term then it becomes ‘fallacy of
ambiguous major.’ If happens in the minor
term then it becomes ‘fallacy of ambiguous
minor.’
Fallacy of Amphibology
It happens in the ambiguous construction of
a sentence.
e.g. Gershom Gunewe will come.
1st meaning: Gershom Gunewe (as one
person) will come
2nd meaning: telling Gershom that Gunewe
will come.
157
Fallacy of Accent
The error comes from the accent or
emphasis on wrong word.
Ice cream ---- I scream
Fallacy of Figures of Speech
Errors come from making mistake in
constructing similar words or similarity in
meaning.
Coarse – rough and not smooth or soft, or
not in very small pieces
Course- a set of classes or a plan of study
on a particular subject, usually resulting in
an examination or qualification
Fallacy of composition
It happens when taking words as a unit
when they have to be taken separately.
e.g. Each brick in that building weighs less
than a pound. Therefore, the building
weighs less than a pound.
158
Fallacy of division
It happens when taking words separately
when they should be taken as a unit or
collectively.
e.g. His house is about half the size of most
houses in the neighborhood. Therefore, his
doors must all be about 3 1/2 feet high.
Fallacy of Accident
The error comes from one’s confusing or
mixing some accidental quality of something
or somebody with the essential quality.
Logical Form:
159
Example:
161
REFERENCES
162
10. Celestine Sahaya S. Essentials of Formal
Logic. Salvatorianum, Morogoro, Tanzania,
2010.
11. Journal of Philosophical Logic, Springer
SBM.
12. Hurly Patrick J. A Concise Introduction to
Logic. Clark Baxter Publishers. U.S.A
13. Phillip Jonhson C. Logic and Errors. Trinity
Graduate School of Apologetics and
Theology. Unpublished Module. India.
14. J Lear, Aristotle and logical
theory (Cambridge-New York, 1980).
15. J Lukasiewicz, Aristotle's Syllogistic from
the Standpoint of Modern Formal
Logic (1967).
16. J P Lynch, Aristotle's school: A Study of a
Greek Educational Institution (Berkeley,
1972).
17. https://en.wikipedia.org
18. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nyaya
19. https://www.iep.utm.edu/republic/
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