Basic Transistor Amplifiers: Revision On

Electronic Circuits
Revision on
Basic Transistor Amplifiers
Contents
• Biasing
• Amplification principles
• Small-signal model development for BJT
Aim of this chapter
To show how transistors can
be used to amplify a signal.
amplifier
Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 2

Basic idea
Step 1: Set the transistor at a certain DC level — biasing
Step 2: Inject a small signal to the input and get a bigger output
— coupling
7V
0.6V amplifier

Biasing the transistor
To set the transistor to a certain DC level = To set VCE and IC
VCC=10V Suppose we want the following biasing condition:

IC = 10 mA and VCE = 5 V
IC Find RB and RL
RB RL
IB + Start with VBE ≈ 0.7 V.
+ VCE Then, IB = (10 – VBE )/ RB = (10 – 0.7)/ RB
– IC = βIB = 100 (10 – 0.7)/ RB = 10 mA
VBE
– So, RB = 94kΩ
Also, VCE = 10 – RL IC
Transistor: Hence, 5 = 10 – 10RL
β = 100
So, RL = 0.5kΩ

β dependent biasing — bad biasing
VCC=10V Now, let’s go to the lab and try using RB = 94kΩ and
RL = 0.5kΩ, and see if we get what we want.
RL IC
RB …totally wrong! We don’t get IC = 10mA and VCE = 5V
IB +
+ VCE This is a bad biasing circuit!
VBE –
– because it relies on the accuracy of β,
but β can be ±50% different from what is
Transistor:
β = 100 given in the databook.

A slightly better biasing method
Again, our objective is to find the resistors such
VCC=10V that IC = 10mA and VCE = 5V.
First, if IB is small, we can approximately write

RL IC
RB1 RB 2 R B 1 94
0.6 = 10 ×
R B1 + R B2
⇒ RB 2
=
6
IB +
VCE
+ Suppose we get IC = 10mA. Then RL = 0.5kΩ.
–
RB2 VBE
We can start with RB1 = 940Ω and RB2 = 60Ω.
–
Such resistors will make sure IB is much smaller
than the current flowing down RB1 and RB2, which
is consistent with the assumption.
What we need in practice is to fine tune RB1 or RB2

such that VCE is exactly 5V.
A much better biasing method —
emitter degeneration
Again, our objective is to find the resistors such
VCC=10V that IC = 10mA and VCE = 5V.
Set VE = 2V, say. Then, RE = 2V/10mA = 0.2kΩ.

RL IC
RB1
Surely, RL = 0.5kΩ in order to get VCE = 5V.
IB +
VCE Finally, we have VB = VE + 0.6. Therefore, if IB is
– small compared to IRB1 and IRB2, we have
RB2 +
VE RE R B 1 74
=
– RB 2 26
Hence, RB1 = 740Ω and RB1 = 260Ω.
NOTE: β is never used in calculation!!

Stable (good) biasing
Summary of biasing with emitter degeneration:
VCC=10V
Choose VE , IC and VCE .
RL IC
RB1
IB +
VB VCE RE RL
–
RB2 + Use VBE ≈ 0.6 to get VB.
VE RE
– Then use R B 1 10− VB
=
RB 2 VB
to choose RB1 and RB2 such that IB is much smaller the
current flowing in RB1 and RB2.

Terminology
The following are the same:
Biasing point
Quiescent point
Operating point (OP)
DC point

Alternative view of biasing
VCC IC
+
RL IC RL VR Load line
– Slope=–1/RL
+ +
VCE –
VCC
+ +
–
VBE IC VCE operating point
– –
VCE
VCC

What controls the operating point?
VCC IC
Load line
RL IC
Slope=–1/RL
a bigger VBE
+
VCE
+
–
VBE operating point a smaller RL
–
VCE
VCC
CONCLUSION: VBE or IB controls the OP

RL also controls the OP
What happens if VBE dances up and
down?
IC The OP also
VCC
Load line dances up and
IC Slope=–1/RL down along the
RL a bigger VBE = 0.65 load line.
+
a smaller VBE = 0.6
VCE VCE also moves up
+ and down.
–
VBE
– Typically, when VBE
VCE moves a little bit, VCE
VCC moves a lot!
THIS IS CALLED
AMPLICATION.

Animation to show amplifier action

Derivation of voltage gain
∆ Vo ∆V
Question: what is = CE ?
∆Vin ∆VBE
VCC Clearly, Ohm’s law says that
RL IC VCE = VCC − IC RL ⇒ ∆VCE = −RL .∆IC
+ Then, what relates ∆IC and ∆VBE ?

VCE ∆IC
+ Last lecture: transconductance gm =
– ∆VBE
VBE
–
Hence, ∆ VCE
= −gmR L
∆VBE

Common-emitter amplifier
The one we have just studied is called COMMON-EMITTER amplifier.
VCC
SUMMARY:
RL IC
RB1 Small-signal voltage gain
= –gmRL
+
vCE That means we can
+
– increase the gain by
RB2 vBE
increasing gm and/or RL.
–
Output waveform is anti-
phase.

How do we inject signal into the amplifier?
VCC
RL IC
RB1
∆vin +
~
? vCE = VCE + vCE
+
~ –
vin RB2 VBE
– or
±20mV
∆vCE

Note on symbols
= + Total signal
a
~ DC point
vCE = VCE + vCE A
total signal
(large signal) operating point small signal Small signal
or or
DC value ~
or
ac signal a or ∆a
quiescent point

Solution: Add the same biasing DC level
VCC But, it is impossible to find a

Exactly the voltage source which is
same biasing equal to the exact biasing
RB1 RL IC
VBE voltage across B-E.
+
VBE could actually be
+
–
vCE 0.621234V, which is

+
– determined by the network
~ RB2 vBE
vin –
RB1, RB2 and the transistor
characteristic!!
±20mV
How to apply the exact VBE?

The wonderful voltage source: capacitor
VCC
The capacitor voltage is RB1 RL IC

exactly equal to VBE
because DC current 0A +
must be zero VCE
+ +
–
VC RB2 VBE
– –

Solution — insert coupling capacitor
DC voltage VCC
equal to exactly
the same
RB1 RL IC
biasing VBE
This is called a – +
coupling capacitor +
vCE
+
~ –
vin RB2 vBE
±20mV –

Complete common emitter amplifier
VCC
RB1 RL IC
– + + + – +
vCE ~
+ + vo
– –
~ RB2 vBE
vin –
–
coupling capacitors
(large enough so that they become
short-circuit at signal frequencies)

Can we simplify the analysis?
We are mainly interested in the ac signals.
The DC bias does not matter!
Can we create a simple circuit just to look at ac signals?
+
+
~ common emitter ~
vin amplifier vo
–
–

Small-signal model
Two basic questions:
+
+
~ common emitter ? ~
vin ? amplifier vo
–
–
1 What is the loading 2 What is the

(resistance) seen Thévenin or Norton
here? equivalent circuit
seen here?

Small-signal model of BJT: objectives
rin rin
To find: or Ro
Ro
Gm Am
+
Ro
rin Ro rin –
Gmvin Amvin
Norton form Thévenin form

Derivation of the small-signal model
Input side:
vB E v
rin = = BE
iB iB iC / β
For small-signal, rπ
+
vBE ∆v BE ∆v BE
– rin = =
∆i B ∆i C / β
β β
= =
(∆i C / ∆v BE ) gm rπ = β/gm
where gm is the BJT’s transconductance

Output side:
vCE = VCC – ICRL +
VCC ~
For small-signal, RL vCE
RL IC ~
∆v CE = −∆i C × RL gmvBE –
= −g m ∆ v BE × R L
+
vCE
–
where gm is the BJT’s transconductance

+
Output side: Including BJT’s Early effect
~
ro RL vCE
VCC ∆v CE ∆vCE ~
+ = −∆ iC
RL ro gmvBE –
RL IC
∆v CE = −∆i C (RL ro )
+ = −g m ∆ v BE (R L ro )
vCE
–
where ro is the Early resistor of the BJT.
Recall: ro = VA/IC , where VA is typically about 100V.
A very rough approx. is ro = ∞.

Initial small-signal model for BJT
“MUST” REMEMBER Small-signal

BJT parameters:
IC I
gm = = C
B C (kT / q ) VT
+ + β
rπ =
~ ~ ~ gm
vBE rπ gmvBE ro vCE
V
– ro = A
– IC
E VT is thermal voltage
≈ 25mV
BJT model VA is Early voltage
typically ~ 100V

Initial small-signal model for FET
Similar to BJT, but input resistance is ∞.
G D Small-signal
FET parameters:
+ +
~ ~ ~
vGS gmvGS ro vDS gm = 2 K I D
– 1
– ro =
λ
S λ is the channel length modulation
parameter
FET model K is a semiconductor parameter
All amplifier configurations using BJT can be likewise constructed

using FET.

Example: common-emitter amplifier
VCC is ac 0V.
Assume the coupling caps are large
enough to be considered as short-
circuit at signal frequency
RL
VCC B C
RB1 RL ro
RB1 ||RB1 rπ
gm~
vBE
+ E E
+ vo
+
RB2 vBE –
vin
– –

Complete model for common-emitter amplifier
Complete model:
+ + +
~ rπ ro
vin RB1 ||RB1 vBE RL vo Total input resistance
– – gm~
vBE –
Rin = RB1 ||RB1 || rπ
Total output resistance

Simplified model:
Ro = RL||ro
+ + +
~
vin RB1 ||RB1 || rπ vBE RL||ro vo Voltage gain
– – gm~
vBE –
vo
= −g m (R L || ro )
v in
≈ −g m R L

Alternative model for common-emitter amplifier
Output in Thévenin form:
RL||ro Total input resistance
+ + + Rin = RB1 ||RB1 || rπ

~ –
vin RB1 ||RB1 || rπ vBE + vo
– – – Total output resistance
~ Ro = RL||ro
gm(RL||ro) vBE
Voltage gain
vo
= −g m (R L || ro )
v in
≈ −g m R L

More about common-emitter amplifier
Because the output resistance is quite large (equal to RL||ro ≈ RL), the
common-emitter amplifier is a POOR voltage driver. That means, it is not a
good idea to use such an amplifier for loads which are smaller than RL. This
makes it not suitable to deliver current to load.
1kΩ, for example

RL||ro
practically no
+ + + output!!
~ –
vin RB1 ||RB1 || rπ vBE + vo 10Ω
– – –
~
gm(RL||ro) vBE

Bad idea — wrong use of common-emitter amplifier
+10V Transconductance gm = IC /(25mV) = 5/25 = 0.2 A/V
Expected gain = gmRL = (0.2)(1k) = 200 or 46dB
RB1 5mA 1kΩ
But the output circuit is:
+
+ speaker 1kΩ +
+ vo –
RB2 vBE 10Ω 10Ω vo
vin – +
– 200vin –
–
The effective gain drops to

10
200× = 1.98
1000+ 10

Proper use of common-emitter amplifier
+10V The load must be much larger than RL.
RB1 5mA 1kΩ

Now the output circuit is:
nearly open
circuit + 1kΩ +
+ –
+ 10MΩ vo + 10MΩ vo
RB2 vBE 200vin –
vin –
– –
The effective gain is
107
200× ≈ 200
7
1000+ 10

How can we use the amplifier in practice?
+10V
How to connect the output to load?
RB1 5mA 1kΩ
?
+ + speaker
+ vo
RB2 vBE 10Ω
vin –
– –

Emitter follower
Biasing conditions:
+10V
Base voltage ≈ 5.6V
Emitter voltage ≈ 5V
RB1 IC biased to 10mA Collector current ≈ 10mA
RE = 500Ω
VCE biased to 5V RB1:RB2 ≈ 44:56
Say, RB1 = 440kΩ
RB2 = 560kΩ
+
RB2
vin + VE = VB – 0.6
– vo
RE Thus, for small signal,
– ∆V E = ∆V B
or vo = vin
Gain = vo / vin =1

Small-signal model of emitter follower
+10V
B C
RB1
rπ ro
RB1 || RB2 gm~
vBE
E E
+ +
RB2
vin + vo
– RE –
RE vo
–

Input resistance is
iB B C vi n v BE + v E
vin rin = =
iB iB
rπ ro vB E v E
rin ~ = +
gmvBE iB iB
RB1 || RB2
E E v
+ = rπ + E
iB
vo
RE vE
– = rπ +
i E /(1 + β )
= r π + (1 + β )R E
which is quite large (good)!!

Output resistance is
B C v m −v BE −v BE
rout = = =
im im iE − i B − gm v BE
rπ ro vE 1
= =
gm~
vBE im
v 1 1
iE + E + gmv E + + gm
E E rπ RE rπ
rout + 1 1
vm = ≈
RE – 1 g 1
+ m + gm + gm
RE β RE
1
= R E ||
gm
which is quite small (good)!!

Thevenin form:
very large RE||(1/gm) very small
+ +
+
vin rπ + (1+ β) RE – vo
– 1 vin –
Large input resistance Draw no current from previous stage

Small output resistance Good for any load
Voltage gain = 1

A better “emitter follower”
+10V Input resistance is very LARGE

because RE = ∞.
RB1 Output resistance is 1/gm.
Gain = 1.
+ This circuit is also called CLASS A

RB2 +
vin ∞ output stage. Details to be studied
– vo in second year EC2.
IE 1/gm –

Common-emitter amplifier
with emitter follower as buffer
+10V
RB1 RL emitter follower

(unit gain)
+
+ ∞
RB2 vBE
vin
– – +
speaker
IE 1 vo
10Ω
gm –
common-emitter amplifier
(high gain)

FET amplifiers (similar to BJT amplifiers)
+10V
RG1 RL source follower

(unit gain)
+
+ ∞
RG2 vGS
vin
– – +
speaker
IS 1 vo
10Ω
gm –
common-source amplifier
(high gain = –gmRL)

Further thoughts
Will the biasing resistors affect the gain?
Seems not, because

RL
Rbias
Gain = –gmRL
+
which does not depend on Rbias .
+ vo
vin –
However, a realistic voltage source has finite internal
– resistance. This will affect the gain.

Input source with finite resistance
The input has a voltage divider network.
RL R bias || r π
Rbias v BE = v in
R bias || r π + R s
Rs
+ Therefore, the gain decreases to
+ vo
vin – vo R bias || r π
= (−g m R L )
– v in R bias || r π + R s
assuming ro very large.
Rs
+ + +
vin Rbias vBE rπ gmvBE ro RL vo
– – –

Example
10V
5mA By how much does the gain drop?
1kΩ
94kΩ 50Ω
50Ω + +
+ vin Rbias vBE rπ
+ vo – –
vin –
600Ω
–
94k||600 = 596Ω
gm = 5mA/25mV = 0.2A/V
rπ = β/gm = 100/0.2 = 500Ω
R bias || r π 596|| 500

Voltage divider attenuation = = = 0.845 or − 1.463dB
50 + R bias || r π 50 + 596||500
Hence, the gain is reduced to 0.845(gmRL) = 169

Further thoughts
Recall that the best biasing scheme should be β independent.
10V One good scheme is emitter degeneration, i.e.,

5mA using RE to fix biasing current directly. Here,
1kΩ
84kΩ since VB is about 1.6V, as fixed by the base
resistor divider, VE is about 1V.
+
+ vo Therefore, IC ≈ VE/RE = 5mA (no β needed!)
vin –
16kΩ
– 200Ω
Question:
Will this biasing scheme affect the
gain?

Common-emitter amplifier with emitter
degeneration
Exercise: Find the small-signal gain of this

VCC amplifier.
RL Answer:
RB1
+ vo − g m RL
=
vo v in ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
+ ⎜
1 + ⎜1 + ⎟ g m R E
vin –
RB2 ⎝ β⎠
– RE −g m R L −R L
≈ ≈
1 + gmR E RE
The gain is MUCH smaller.
We have a good biasing, but a poor gain! Can we improve the gain?

Common-emitter amplifier with emitter by-pass
Add CE such that the effective emitter
resistance becomes zero at signal
VCC frequency.
RL
RB1 So, this circuit has good biasing, and the
gain is still very high!
+
+ vo Gain = – gmRL
vin –
RB2
– RE CE which is unaffected by RE because
effectively RE is shorted at signal
frequency.
CE is called bypass capacitor.

Summary
Basic BJT model
(small-signal ac model):
IC I
gm = = C B C
(kT / q ) VT
+
β
rπ = vBE rπ gmvBE ro
gm –
V
ro = A E E
IC
VT is thermal voltage
≈ 25mV
VA is Early voltage
typically ~ 100V

Summary
Basic FET model
(small-signal ac model):
G D
Similar to the BJT model,
but with infinite input +
resistance. vGS ∞ gmvGS ro
–
Therefore, the FET can be S S
used in the same way as
amplifiers.

Summary
Common-emitter (CE) amplifier
small-signal ac model:
+ + +
RL vin Rbias vBE rπ gmvBE ro RL vo
Rbias – – –
+
+ vo
vin – Gain = –gmRL
–
Input resistance = Rbias || rπ (quite large — desirable)
Output resistance = RL ||ro ≈ RL (large — undesirable)

Summary
Emitter follower (EF)
small-signal ac model:
+
Rbias + vBE rπ gmvBE
vin –
Rbias
+ –
+
vin + RE vo
– RE vo –
–
Gain = 1
Input resistance = Rbias || [rπ +(1+β)RE ] (quite large — desirable)
Output resistance = RE || (1/gm) (small — desirable)


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Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 2

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 3

VCC=10V Suppose we want the following biasing condition:

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 4

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 5

First, if IB is small, we can approximately write

What we need in practice is to fine tune RB1 or RB2

Set VE = 2V, say. Then, RE = 2V/10mA = 0.2kΩ.

NOTE: β is never used in calculation!!

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 8

Operating point (OP)

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 9

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 10

CONCLUSION: VBE or IB controls the OP

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 12

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 13

VCC Clearly, Ohm’s law says that

RL IC VCE = VCC − IC RL ⇒ ∆VCE = −RL .∆IC

+ Then, what relates ∆IC and ∆VBE ?

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 14

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 15

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 16

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 17

VCC But, it is impossible to find a

vCE 0.621234V, which is

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 18

The capacitor voltage is RB1 RL IC

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 19

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 20

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 21

Can we create a simple circuit just to look at ac signals?

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 22

Two basic questions:

1 What is the loading 2 What is the

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 23

Norton form Thévenin form

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 24

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 25

where gm is the BJT’s transconductance

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 26

Recall: ro = VA/IC , where VA is typically about 100V.

A very rough approx. is ro = ∞.

“MUST” REMEMBER Small-signal

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 28

All amplifier configurations using BJT can be likewise constructed

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 29

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 30

Total output resistance

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 31

Output in Thévenin form:

RL||ro Total input resistance

+ + + Rin = RB1 ||RB1 || rπ

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 32

1kΩ, for example

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 33

+10V Transconductance gm = IC /(25mV) = 5/25 = 0.2 A/V

Expected gain = gmRL = (0.2)(1k) = 200 or 46dB

RB1 5mA 1kΩ

But the output circuit is:

The effective gain drops to

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations 34

+10V The load must be much larger than RL.