Diodes

1
 Diode
• Class of non-linear circuits
– having non-linear v-i Characteristics

• Uses
– Generation of :
• DC voltage from the ac power supply
• Different wave (square wave, pulse) form generation

– Protection Circuits

– Digital logic & memory circuits

 Creating a Diode

• A diode allows current to flow in one

direction but not the other.

• When you put N-type and P-type silicon

together gives a diode its unique
properties.
 Diode

Equivalent circuit in the reverse direction

Equivalent circuit in the forward direction.

 Operation
Reverse Bias
• -ve voltage is applied to Anode
• Current through diode = 0 (cut off operation)
• Diode act as open circuit

Forward Bias
+ve voltage applied to Anode
• Current flows through diode
• voltage Drop is zero (Turned on)
• Diode is short circuit
The two modes of operation of ideal diodes

Forward biased Reverse biased

Forward Current 10 mA Reverse Voltage 10 V

 Ex 3.2

1
1

iP  
vD 1.5v vD
1.5v 


iD 
1.5
 1.5 A
iD  0
1
vD  1.5v
vD  0
 Rectifier circuit

Input waveform
Equivalent circuit when vi  0

Output waveform.
Equivalent circuit when vi ≤ 0

Waveform across diode

 Exercise 3-3

10  0
iD   10mA
1k
t
1 2
v0   vi dt
T t1

1   2

v0   10 sin    0dt
2  0  

v0  
1 
10 cos  0  
10
 1  1   3.18V
10
2 2 
Figure 3.6 Circuits for Example 3.2. Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V
Example 3.2.

Assumption
Both Diodes are conducting
 Assumption
Both Diodes are conducting
V  0, VB  0
Node A
10  0
I D2   1mA
10k
Node B
0   10
I 5k  I D1  I D 2   2mA
5k
From above equation I D1 should be 1mA
It is not possible

Not Possible
Thus assumption of both diode
conducting is wrong
Example 3.2(b). Assumption # 2
Diodes 1 is not conducting
Diodes 2 is conducting

10   10 20
I D2    1.33mA
15 15

VA  10  1.335k   3.3v

VB  1.3310k   10  3.3v

Assumption is correct

VB  VA  3.3 V, I D1  0, I D 2  1.33mA
Figure E3.4
Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V
Figure E3.4
Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

I= 2mA I= 0A I= 0A I= 2mA
V= 0V V= 5V V= 5V V= 0V
Figure E3.4 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

I= 3mA I= 4mA
V= 3V V= 1V
Figure P3.2 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V
 Figure P3.2 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

Diode is conducting
I = 0.6 mA
V = -3V

Diode is cut-off
I = 0 mA Diode is conducting
V = 3V I = 0.6 mA
V = 3V Diode is cut-off
I = 0 mA
V = -3V
 Problem 3-3
Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

D1 Cut-Off & D2 Conducting

I = 3mA
D1 Cut-Off & D2 Conducting
I = 1mA , V=1 V
Figure P3.4
In ideal diodes circuits, v1 is a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
Sketch the waveform of vo
 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 is a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V Vp+ = 0V

Vp- = 0V Vp- = - 10V Vo = 0V
f = 1 K-Hz f = 1 K-Hz
Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V
Vp- = -10V Vp+ = 10V Vp+ = 10V
f = 1 K-Hz Vp- = 0V Vp- = 0V
f = 1 K-Hz f = 1 K-Hz
Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
Sketch the waveform of vo
 Figure P3.4
In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 0V
Vp- = -10V V0 = 0V Vp+ = 10V
f = 1 K-Hz Vp- = -5V
f = 1 K-Hz
Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V
Vp- = -5V
f = 1 K-Hz
Problem 3-4(k)
vi  10V peak @ frequency 1000H z
vi  10 sin 2000t

For Vi >0 V D1 is cutoff D2 is conducting vo=1V

For Vi < 0 V is conducting D2 is cutoff vo=vi+1V

-9V
Problem 3-4(k)
 Figure P3.6

X=A.B
X=A+B
 Problem 3-4 (c)

vi  10Vpeak @ frequency1000 H z
vi  10 sin 2000t

vo=zero
 Problem 3-4(f)
Vi is a 1kHz 10-V peak sine wave.

+ve Half Cycle with 10 V peak

at 1 KHz
 Problem 3-4(h)

vi  10Vpeak @ frequency1000 H z
vi  10 sin 2000t vo=zero
REVERSE POLARITY
PROTECTOR
 REVERSE POLARITY
PROTECTOR
• The diode in this circuit protects a radio or
a recorder etc... In the event that the
battery or power source is connected the
wrong way round, the diode does not allow
current to flow.
 Problem 3-9

I1 I1

2
2

I3 I3

D1& D2 Conducting
I1=1mA D1=off, D2=On
I3=0.5 mA I1= I3=0.66 mA
I2=0.5 mA V = -1.7 V
V= 0 V
 Problem 3-10

D conducting D is not conducting

I=0.225 mA I=0A
V=4.5V V=-2V
 Problem 3-16

V RED GREEN

3V On Off D1 conducts
0 V Off Off
-3 V Off On D2 conducts
Two-dimensional representation of the silicon crystal.
Silicon and Germanium
Silicon Lattice
At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by
thermal ionization.
Each broken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of
which become available for current conduction.
Intrinsic Semiconductor

Electrons and holes

Semiconductor Current
 The Doping of Semiconductors

.
Valence Electrons
N Type
P Type
 p-n Junction
• P Junction
– Concentration of holes is high
– Majority charge carrier are hole

• N Junction
– Concentration of electron is high
– Majority charge carrier are electron
 Diffusion Current ID
• Hole diffuse across the junction from the p
side to the n side & similarly electron

• Two current components add together to

form the diffusion current with direction
from p to n side
 Drift Current Is
• Diffusion current due to majority carrier
diffusion

• A component due to minority carrier drift

exists across the junction
(a)The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).
(b) The potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the junction.
Forward Biased Conduction
• The polarity of applied voltage which can't produce any current is
called Reverse Bias.
• The polarity of applied voltage which causes charge to flow through
the diode is called Forward Bias.
Terminal Characteristics
of
a Junction Diode
 The diode i–v relationship

The diode i–v relationship with some scales expanded

and others compressed in order to reveal details.
 Terminal Characteristics of a
Junction Diode

• Forward Biased Region v > 0

• Reversed Biased Region v < 0

• Breakdown Region v < -VZK

 Forward Biased Region
 nVv 
i  Is e  1
T

 
 
• Is Saturation current – Scale Current

– Is is constant at a given temperature

– Is is directly proportional to Cross-Sectional

region of the diode, Is doubles if cross-sectional
area is double

– Is is 10-15 A for small size diode

– Doubles in value for every 10OC rise in

temperature
 Forward Biased Region
 nVv 
• Thermal Voltage VT 
i  Is e

 1
T


 
VT = kT/q
• K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 X 10-23 Joules/Kelvin
• T = Absolute Temperature in Kelvin (273 +Temp in Co)
• q = Magnitude of charge = 1.6 X 10-19 Coulombs

VT @ 20oC is 25.2mV, ~ 25 mV

• n is 1 or 2 depending on the material

and the physical structure of the diode
– n = 1 for Germanium Diode & n=2 for
Silicon
 Forward Biased Region
 nVv 
i >> Is i  Is e


T
 1


v

i  I se nVT

 nVv 
ln i  ln I s e T   v  ln I s
  nVT
 
i
v  nVT ln
Is

b Relationship of the current i to the voltage

v holds good over many decades of current
(seven decades, a factor of 107
 Forward Biased Region
v1

I1  I s e nVT

v2

I2  I se nVT

v  v 
2 1

I2
e nVT

I1
I2 I2
v2  v1   nVT ln  2.3nVT log
I1 I1
 Forward Biased Region
v2  v1   2.3nVT log I2
I1
• for I2
I1
 10 v drop changes by
for n = 1 2.3nVT  60mV

for n = 2 120mV

 v  0.5v  cut  in  voltage

v  0.6v 0.8v  0.7v

Illustrating the temperature dependence of the diode forward characteristic

At a constant current, the voltage drop decreases by

approximately 2 mV for every 1C increase in
temperature.
Figure E3.9

If V=1V at 20o C, Find V at

400C and 00C

Is

At 20o C Reverse current Is = 1V/1M Ω= 1μ A

Since the reverse leakage current doubles for every 100 C increase,

At 400 C I = 4*1 = 4 μ A V = 4 μ A * 1MΩ = 4.0 V

At 0 C I = ¼ μ A V = 0.25 V
 Forward biased Diode Characteristics
Example 3.3
• A silicon diode displays a forward voltage
of 0.7 V at a current of 1mA. Find Is at n=1
&2
v v

i  I se nVT
 I s  ie nVT

 0.7
 1 3
I s  10 e 2510 3
 6.9  10 16 A
 0.7
2 3
I s  10 e 2 2510 3
 8.3  10 10
A
 Ex 3.7
Silicon Diode with n=1 has VD=0.7V @
i=1mA. Find voltage drop at i=0.1mA &
10mA

v v

i  I se nVT
 I s  ie nVT

 0.7
 1 3
I s  10 e 2510  3
 6.9  10 15 A
i 10  4
For i  0.1mA  V1  VT ln 3
 25  10 ln 16
 0.64V
Is 6.9  10
2
i 10
For i  10mA  V1  VT ln  25  10  3 ln 16
 0.76V
Is 6.9  10
 Solution P3-18
(a) At what forward voltage does a diode for which n=2 conduct a
current equal to 1000Is?

(b) In term if Is what current flows in the same diode when its forward
voltage is 0.7 V

(a)
  2, Diode current  i  1000IS
v v

i  ISe nVT
 1000I S  I s e 22510 3

v  0.345V
(b)
v  0.7V
v 0.7
i  ISe nVT
 I se 0.05
 1.2 106 I S
 Problem 3-23
• The circuit shown utilizes three
identical diodes having n=1 and Is=
10 -14 A. Find the value of the
current I required to obtain an output
voltage Vo=2 V. Assume n=1

• If a current of 1mA is drawn away

from the output terminal by a load,
what if the change in the output
voltage. Assume n=1
 Solution 3-23
The circuit shown utilizes three identical
diodes having n=1 and Is= 10 -14 A. Find the
value of the current I required to obtain an
output voltage Vo=2 V.

Info available n  1, I S  10 14 A,Vo  2V

vo 2
The voltage across each diode is  vDX 
3 3
v DX 2
3
14
I DX  I S e ηVT
 10 e 0 .025
 3.81mA

If a current of 1mA is drawn away from the output terminal

by a load, what if the change in the output voltage.

(b)
Load current  1mA, therefore I DY  2.81mA
(v DY  v DX ) (v DY  2 / 3 )
I DY
e 0 .025
e 0 .025
I DX
ΔvoY  vO 2  v01  22.8mV
 Problem 3-25
• In the circuit shown,
both diode have n=1,
but D1 has 10 times
the junction area of
D2. What value of V
results?
 In the circuit shown, both diode
Solution 3-25(a) have n=1, but D1 has 10 times the
junction area of D2. What value
of V results?
VD 1 VD 2
VT VT
I D1  I S1e I D 2  I S 2e
I S1  10 I S 2
VD 1
VT
I D1  10 I S 2e
VD 2
VT VD 2 VD 2
I D2 I e VT
 S 2 VD1  0.1e ..............1
I D1
10 I S 2eVT
10 I D 2
V0  VD 2  VD1  VT ln .................2
I D1

I1  I D 2  I D1  I D 2  I1  I D1..........3
 I D1  2mA, I D 2  10  2  8mA

80
V0  VD 2  VD1  0.025  ln  92.2mV
2
 To obtain a value of 50 mV, what current
solution 2-25 (b) I2 id needed.

Vo  50mA, Find I D1 , I D 2

I D 2  0.01  I D1
VD 2 VD 2
I D2 VT I D2
 0.1e   0.1e 2
I D1 0.01  I D 2
I D 2  4.25mA

I D1  (10  4.25)  5.75mA

Problem 3-26
• For the circuit shown,
both diodes are identical,
conducting 10mA at 0.7 V
and 100 mA at 0.8 V.

• Find ‘n’

• Find the value of R for

which V = 80 m V.
 Solution 3-26 (a)
Diodes are identical therefore I S , ,VT are same
For Diode 1  VD1  0.7V @ I D1  10mA
For Diode 2  VD2  0.8V @ I D 2  100mA
I D2
VD 2  VD1  VT ln
I D1
Find η
100
0.8  0.7    0.025  ln
10
  1.739

Find R if Vo=80mV I D2
V  VD 2  VD1  VT ln
I D1
0.01  I D1
 0.08  1.737  0.025  ln
I D1
I D1  1.4mA
80
R  57.1
1.4
 Problem 3.36
Assuming identical diodes for which VD
=0.7V @ ID=1mA. Find R if V0 = 3 V

3
VDx   0.75V
4
VDX
V
I DX  I S e T

VD 2
V (VD 2 VD 2 )
I D2 e T
V
 V e T

I D1 D1
V
e T

(VD 2 VD 2 ) ( 0.75  0.7 )

V
I D 2  I D1  e T
 1 e 2510 3
 7.389mA

I D2
.75  0.7  VT ln  I D 2  7.389mA
10 3
10  3
R  947
7.389  10 3
Modeling the Diode
Forward
Characteristics
A simple circuit used to illustrate the analysis of circuits in which
the diode is forward conducting.

VD
V
ID  ISe T

VDD  VD
ID 
R
Graphical analysis of the circuit using the exponential diode model.
 Iterative Analysis using the
Exponential Model
Determined the diode current ID and Diode
voltage VD with VDD =5V and R =1000
ohms. Diode has a current of 1mA @ a VD
of .7 V, and that its voltage drop changes
by 0.1 V for every decade change in
current.
 Solution
First iteration VD  0.7V
VD
VT
ID  ISe  4.3mA
I2
V2  V1  2.3VT log
I1
V  2.3VT  0.1V For Every decade change in current
4.3
V2  V1  0.1 log  0.763V
1.0

Second iteration VD  0.763V Solution

I D  4.237 mA,
VD
V
ID  ISe T
 4.237 mA
I2
V2  V1  2.3VT ln
I1 VD  0.762V
4.237
V2  0.763  0.1 log  0.762V
4.3
The Piecewise-Linear Model
Approximating the diode forward characteristic with
two straight lines: the piecewise-linear model.
 The Piecewise-Linear Model
• Exponential curve is approx into two
straight lines

• Line No 1 with zero slope & Line 2 with a

slope of 1/rd

• The voltage change of less than 50 mV is

observed in case the current change from
0.1 mA to 10 mA. i 0
D v  0V D

(v D  V D 0 )
iD  v D  VD 0
rD
Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and
its equivalent circuit representation.
Piecewise-linear model
 The
Constant – Voltage Drop
Model
Constant – Voltage Drop Model
• Forward conducting diode exhibits a
constant voltage drop VD

• The voltage change of less than 50

mV is observed in case the current
change from 0.1 mA to 10 mA.

• Model is used when

– Detailed information about diode
characteristics in not available
Constant-voltage-drop model
The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward
characteristics and its equivalent-circuit representation.
 The Small – Signal Model
• A small ac signal is superimposed on the
DC components.

• First determined dc Operating Point

• Then small signal operation around the

operating point
– Small portion of the curve is approximated as
almost linear segment of the diode
characteristics.
The Small – Signal Model
Figure 3.17 Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2.
 The Small – Signal Model
In absence of signal Once signal is applied
v D (t )  VD  vd (t )
I D  I s e VD
VT i D (t )  I s e v D
VT
i D (t )  I s e
VD  vd (t )
VT
VD vd (t )
V V
i D (t )  I s e T
e T

vd (t )
V
i D (t )  I D e T

vd
For very small signal  1
VT
vd
i D (t )  I D (1  )
VT
i D (t )  I D  id (t )
The Small – Signal Model
vd
i D (t )  I D (1  )
ηVT
i D (t )  I D  id (t )
I D vd
id (t ) 
VT
VT
rd 
ID

rd is inversely proportional to I D
Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic
Table 3.1 (Continued)
 Exp 3-6
VDD  10V,v d  1V peak amplitude @ 60 Hz
Diode has a current of 1mA @ a VD of .7 V, n  2
Find rd ,VD , vd (t )

+
vd
+
ID -
VD
-
 Solution
VDD  VD 10  0.7
ID    0.93mA
R 10
VT 2  25
rd    53.8
ID 0.93
Small signal
rd
vdpeak  v speak  5.35mV
R  rd
Input variation of 10% resulted in output voltage
variation of 0.7+5.4mV(0.8%) Voltage regulation
 Exercise 3-16
• Design a circuit shown so that Vo=3v
when IL =0 A and Vo changes by 40 mV
per 1mA of diode current.
• (a) Find the value of R
• (b) The junction area of each diode
relative to a diode with ).7 V drop at 1mA
current. Assume n=1
 Excercise 3-16
vo 0.04
rDT   3  40
io 10 Why 4 diodes and not 5? Diodes
will not conduct at 0.6 V
rDX  40 / 4  10
nVT
I DX   2.5mA
rDX
15  3
R  4.8 K
2.5m
At dc Operating Point VDX  3 / 4  .75V
I D1  1mA, VD1 0.7V
VDX V1
I DX I SX I SX
 e nVT
  0.34
I D1 I S1 I S1
The diodes have the junction area 0.34 times the diode
 Diode Forward Drop in Voltage
Regulation
• Small signal model is used.

• Voltage remains constant in spite of :

– Changes in load current
– Changes in the dc power supply voltages

• One diode provides constant voltage of

0.7 V and for greater voltages diodes can
be connected in series.
 Example 3-7

• A string of three diodes is used to provide

a constant voltage of about 2.1 V. We
want to calculate the percentage change
in this regulated voltage caused by
• (a) a + 10 % change to the power supply
voltage
• (b) Connection of a 1 K ohms load
resistance , Assume n=2
Solution Exp 3-7
 P 3-53
• In a particular cct application, ten
“20 mA diodes” ( a 20 mA diode is
a diode that provides a 0.7 V drop
when the current thru it is 20 mA)
connected in parallel operate at a
total current of 0.1 A. For the
diodes closely matched, with n=1,
what current flows in each.
0.1
iDx   0.01A
10

What is the corresponding small

nVT
signal resistance of each diode and rdx   2.5
of the combination? I Dx
2.5
req   0.25
10
• If each of the 20 mA diode has a
series resistance of 0.2 ohm
associated with the wire bonds to
the junction. What is the
equivalent resistance of the 10
parallel connected diodes?
Re q 
1
2.5  0.2  0.27
10

What connection resistance would

single diode need in order to be
totally equivalent?
The diode i–v relationship
Reversed Biased Diode
 Leakage current:
• In the reverse direction there is a small
leakage current up until the reverse
breakdown voltage is reached.

• This leakage is undesirable, obviously the

lower the better.

• Diodes are intended to operate below their

breakdown voltage.
 The Reversed Biased Region
 nVv 
i  Is e  1
T

 
 
v is negative &  VT (25mV )
i  I S
Current in reserved biased diode circuit is due to leakage
current & increases with increase in reverse voltage

Leakage current is proportional to the junction area &

temperature but doubles for every 10oC rise in
temperature
 Breakdown Region
• Once reverse voltage exceeds a threshold value of diode
VZK, this voltage is called breakdown voltage.
VZK Z – Zener, K – Knee

• At breakdown knee reverse current increases rapidly

with associated small increase in voltage drop

• Diode breakdown is not destructive if power dissipated

by diode is limited by external circuitry.

• Vertical line for current gives property of voltage

regulation
The diode i–v characteristic with the breakdown
region shown in some detail.
Zener Diode
 Zener Diode
• Operation in the Reverse Breakdown
Region

• Very steep i-v curve at breakdown with

almost constant voltage drop region

• Used the designing voltage regulator

• Diode manufactured to operate specifically

in the Breakdown region called Zener or
Breakdown Diode
Zener Diode : Symbol
IZ

- VZ +
 Model: Zener
• Manufacturer specify Zener Voltage Vz at a
specified Zener test current Iz, the Max. power
that the device can safely dissipate 0.5 W @ 6.8
v at max 70mA V  I r
z z z

• rz Dynamic resistance of the Zener and is the

inverse of the slope of the almost linear i-v
curve at operating point Q

• Lower rz, the more constant Zener Voltage

• The most common range of zener voltage is 3.3

volts to 75 volts,
Model for the zener diode.
 Model: Zener

Vz  Vzo  rz I z
I z  I zk
V z  Vzo
 Designing of the Zener shunt regulator

+
Supply voltage includes
a large ripple component Vo

Zener regulator
Vo is an output of the zener regulator
that is as constant as possible in spite of
the ripples in the supply voltage VS
and the variations in the load current
Voltage regulator performance can be measured
Line Regulation & Load Regulation
Line Regulation = ΔVo/ΔVs
Load Regulation = ΔVo/ΔIL
 Expression of performance : Zener regulator

I +
(Vs -Vo ) (Vo -V zo)
  IL
R rz V
o
- IL

R r
Vo  Vzo( )  VS ( z ) - I L(rz ||R)
R  rz R  rz

• Only the first term on right hand side is desirable one

Second and third terms depend upon
Supply Voltage Vs and Load current IL

• Line Regulation = Vo rz

/ 
Vs (rz  R)
• Load Regulation =
ΔVo
 - (rz ||R)
ΔI L
 Expression of performance : Zener regulator

I +

V
o
- IL

• An important consideration for the design is

• To ensure that current through the zener
diode never becomes too low i.e less than
IZK or Izmin

• Minimum zener current Izmin occurs when

• Supply Voltage Vs is at its minimum VSmin
• Load current IL is at its maximum ILmax

• Above design can be made be selecting proper

VZ
value of resistor R where I L max 
(Vs min – VZO - rz I z min ) RL
R 
(I z min  I L max )
 Example 3.8

The circuit with the zener diode replaced with its equivalent circuit model.
Exp 3-8
Example 3-8

V  10v  1v
R  0.5k
V z  6.8v
I z  5mA
rz  20
I zk  0.2mA
I RL  1mA
 a) Find No Load Vo & Vo Line Regulation

Depending upon the manufacturer provide Data

First calculate Vzo if Vz =6.8 V & Iz=5mA, rZ=20 ohm

Vz  Vzo  rz I z
3
Vzo  Vz  I z rz  6.8  5  20 10  6.7v
Now connecting the Zener diode in the Cct as shown
Calculate actual Iz and resulting Vo
Thus establishing operating Point

V  Vzo 10  6.7
Iz    6.35mA
R  rz 500  20
Vo  Vzo  I z rz  6.7  6.35  20 10 3  6.827V  6.83V

Now carry out Small Signal Analysis

Suppress DC source and calculate resultant change in Vo
Use voltage divider rule

V  rz  1 20
Vo    38.5mv
R  rz 520

Vo 38.5
Line Regulation   3.85mv / v
V 1
b) Find vO if load resistance RL connected
& draws 1mA and load regulation
 1mA drawn by load would
decrease by same amount so
Vo  rz I z  20  1mA  20mV Iz

Vo
Load Regulation   20mV / mA
I z

6.83v
RL   6.83k
1mA
Check 20  6830
RL || R   19.94
6850
exact Calculations
VZ  Vo  VZO  I Z rZ  6.7  5.35  20  6.807V
Vs  VZ 10  6.807
IZ    6.14mA
R  RL || rZ 500  19.94
I Z  6.35  6.14  .21mA  210A
c) Vo for RL  2k

VZ
I RL   3.4mA
RL
I Z  3.4mA
Vo r Z I Z  68mV
• 1) Check
 10
500

2000 2000
Vo  10  8v
2500

Zener at Breakdown region

 10v
10
0.5k

A
500 
6 .7 v

6.63v  2k 
20
Vo
B
19.8
A

6.7  2000
Voc   6.63v
2020
Re q  19.8
 d ) RL  500

10v
10  500
Vo   5v
500 1000

Zener is not operating

500 @ V  V
o zk

5  6.8v
e) Min value of R for which the diode still
L

operates in the breakdown region

• at Breakdown Region

 10  1v
I z  I zk  0.2mA
500 Vz  Vzk  6.7v
Iz
Iz VDD  9v min
9  6.7
6.7v RL I  4.6mA
500
0.2mA I  I zk  I RL
I RL  4.6  0.2  4.4mA
Vzk 6.7
RL    1.5k
I RL 4.4m
 Problem D3.68
Design a 7.5-V zener regulator circuit using a 7.5-V
zener specified at 12mA. The zener has an incremental
resistance rz = 30 Ω and a knee current of 0.5mA. The
regulator operates from a 10-V supply and has a 1.2-kΩ
load.

(a) What is the value of R you have chosen?

(b) What is the regulator output voltage when the supply is

10% high? Is 10% low?

(c) What is the output voltage when both the supply is 10%
high and the load is removed?

(d) What is the smallest possible load resistor that can be

used while the zener operates at a current no lower
than the knee current while the supply is 10% low?
 Solution 3-68
rz  30
I Zk  0.5mA
VZ  7.5V
I Z  12mA
3
7.5  VZO  12  30 10
 VZO  7.14V
7.5
I RL   6.25mA
1.2
 Design a 7.5-V zener regulator circuit using a
7.5-V zener specified at 12mA. The zener has
an incremental resistance rz = 30 Ω and a knee
current of 0.5mA. The regulator operates from
a 10-V supply and has a 1.2-kΩ load.

(a) What is the value of R you have chosen?

Select I  10mA
7.5
I RL   6.25mA
1. 2
So that I Z  3.75mA
Which is  I Zk
10  7.5
R  250
10
 (b) What is the regulator output
voltage when the supply is 10%
high? Is 10% low?
For V   1V
1.2 // 0.03
V O  1
0.250  (1.2 // .03)
 0.1V
Thus V O  7.4V to  7.6V

(c) What is the output voltage when

both the supply is 10% high and
the load is removed?

With V   11V and I L  0

11  V O
V O  V ZO  X 0.03
0.28
 V O  7.55V
(c) What is the smallest possible load resistor that can
be used while the zener operates at a current no
lower than the knee current while the supply is 10%
low? IZK=0.5mA, VZO=7.14 V

9  7.155
11V 3 250
R 0.25
 7.38mA
VO
7.14  0.03 X 0.5
2 0.5mA RL min
7.155V
1

7.155
RL min 
7.38  0.5
 1.04k
 Rectifier Circuit Power Supply
• Power supply must supply dc voltage to be constant in
spite of
– variation is ac line voltage
– Variation in current drawn by load, that is variable load resistance
 Rectifier Circuits

• Filter
– Smoothes out pulsating dc but still some time-dependent
components-(ripple) remain in the output

• Voltage Regulation
– Reduces ripples
– Stabilizes magnitude of dc output against variation in
load current
– Regulation by Zener Diode or Voltage regulator I.C
 Half Wave Rectifier

Transfer characteristic of
the rectifier circuit

Input and output waveforms, assuming that rD >> R.

Full Wave Rectifier
Input and output waveforms.
 Full Wave Rectifier
• Diode in Reverse biased state
Anode @ - Vs
Cathode @ + Vo

• PIV = 2Vs - VDO

Twice as in case of half wave rectifier

Bridge Rectifier
The bridge rectifier: (a) circuit; (b) input and output
waveforms.
Bridge Rectifier
Bridge Rectifier
 Bridge Rectifier
D1
• Peak Inverse Voltage D4

D2 D3

– PIV => consider loop D3, R & D2

– VD3(res) = Vo + VD2
– Vo = Vs – 2VD
– PIV = Vs – 2VD + VD = Vs – VD

– Half of PIV for Full wave Rectifier

Figure 3.28 (a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the
effect of a filter capacitor. (b) Input and output
waveforms assuming an ideal diode.
Peak detector with Load
Figure 3.29 Voltage and current waveforms in the peak
rectifier circuit with CR<<T.
Charge / Discharge Cycle
Peak detector with Load

Vo
iL 
R
iD  iC  iL
dVs
iD  C  iL
dt
Figure 3.30 Waveforms in the full-wave peak rectifier.
Peak Rectifier : Output Voltage
• When Vr is small
– Vo = Vpeak
– iL is almost constant
VP
– DC components of iL iL 
R

• Accurate value of output dc voltage

Average Value V  V  1 V
o P r
2
 Charge / Discharge Cycle
t

vo  V P e CR

T

Vo  VP  Vr  VP e CR

T
 T
e CR
 1
CR
 
T


 Vr  VP 1  e CR 

 
VP
iL  
Vr  VP 1  1 
T 

R  CR 
1 VP T V
Vo  VP  Vr Vr 
CR
 P
fCR
2 VP
IL 
R
IL
Vr  , provided Vr  V p
fC
 Peak Rectifier : Ripple Voltage

• During Discharge cycle t


vo  V P e CR

• At the end of discharge cycle

T

Vo  VP  Vr  VP e CR

 
T

 Vr  VP 1  e 
CR

 
• Since CR >> T
T
 T
e CR
 1
CR
 Peak Rectifier : Ripple Voltage
 
T
 
T
T
Vr  VP 1  e 
CR
e CR
 1
  CR
 T 
Vr  VP 1  1  
 CR 
Ripple Voltage VP T VP
Vr  
CR fCR
VP
Vr 
fCR
VP
IL 
R
IL
Vr  , provided Vr  V p
fC
Peak Rectifier : Conduction Interval

VP cost   VP  Vr

Hence t is small

wt 
2
Coswt   1   ...
2!
 t  
2
VP 1    VP  Vr

 2 
2Vr
 t 
VP
When Vr<<Vp, the conduction angle will be small
Deduction
Average Diode Current –During Conduction
iD  iC  iL
iDav  iCav  I L
iCav  iDav  I L

During Charge Qsupplied  icav t

iCav  iDav  I L
During Discharge Qlost  CVr
Qsupplied  Qsupplied  icav t  CVr
Average Diode Current –During Conduction
Qlost  Qsup plied  CVr  icav t
VP T VP T
Vr   CVr 
CR R

 iDav  I L t
VPT
R
1 2Vr T 2Vr
t  
2f VP 2 VP
VP T T 2Vr 
 iDav  I L  
R  2 VP 
2 VP  2VP 
iDav   I L  iL 1   
2Vr R  Vr 
VP
Vr  VP  iDav  I L
 Deduction

• As waveform of is almost right angle r

triangle
Vr  VP
iD max  2iDav
 Observations
• Diode current flows for short interval and
must replenish the charge lost by the
capacitor. Discharge interval is long &
discharge is through high resistance
rD  RL
• Maximum diode current
CdVi
iD   iL
dt Assuming that i L is almost constant  I L &
CR  T

 2V p 
iD max  iL 1  2   2iDav

 Vr 
 Example N0 3-9
Consider a peak rectifier fed by a 60 Hz
sinusoidal having a peak value of Vp =
100 V. Let the load resistance R =10 k
Ohms.
(a) Find the value of the capacitance C that
will result in peak to peak ripple of 2 V
(b) Calculate the fraction of the cycle during
which the diode is conduction
(c) Calculate the average and peak value of
the diode current.
 Example 3.9

100Sin260t
10k

• Find value of C for Vr=2V (peak to peak)

VP 100
C   83.3F
Vr fR 2  60  10 4

• Find fraction of cycles that diode conducts

2Vr
t   0.2radian
VP
0.2
• => Diode conducts 2
100  3.18% of cycle
 Solution Exp 3-9
• Find iD max & i Dav

 2VP 
iDav  I L 1   
 Vr 
VP 100
IL    10mA
R 10000
 2  100 
iDav  101     324mA
 2 
imax  2iDav  648mA
 Full wave peak Detector
In full wave rectifier, the capacitor
discharge for almost T/2 time interval. that
mean ripple frequency is twice the input,
so V 
V P
r
2 fCR

 VP 
iDav  I L 1   
 2Vr 

 VP 
imax  2iDav  I L 1  2 
 2Vr 
 Applications

• Peak Rectifier – Peak detector is used for

– Detecting the peak of the an input signal for

signal processing systems

– Demodulator for amplitude modulated (AM)

signals
.
 Rectifier Circuits

Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier Bridge Wave

Rectifier
 Rectifier Circuits

Half Wave Rectifier Full/Bridge Wave Rectifier

 Voltage Regulator _ The Zener Diode
+ +

Vo V
o
- -

Vz  Vzo  rz I z
R r (Vs min – VZO - rz I z min )
Vo  Vzo( )  VS ( z ) - I L(rz ||R) R 
R  rz R  rz (I z min  I L max )

Vo rz
Line Regulation  VZ
Vs (rz  R) where I L max 
RL
ΔVo
 - (rz ||R)
Load Regulation ΔI L
 Precision Half Wave Rectifier

• Normal Diodes VD= 0.7v are used for rectifier of

input of much larger amplitude then VD

• For smaller signals detection, demodulation or

rectification Operational Amplifiers (Op Amp) are
used
 Wave form Generation Limiting
Clamping
• Limiter Circuit
– Vo is limited between two levels – upper (L+)
and lower (L-) thresholds
Figure 3.33 Applying a sine wave to a limiter can
result in clipping off its two peaks.
Figure 3.34 Soft limiting.
 Wave form Generation
Limiting / Clamping
• Double Limiter
– Clips off both negative & positive peaks
• Single Limiter
• Clips off only one side of the input peak
• Application
– Limits the inputs to operation Amplifier to a limit
lower than the breakdown voltage of transistors
of input stage of operational Amplifier

– Half / Full Rectifier for Battery Charger

– Threshold and limiting
Figure 3.35 A variety of basic limiting circuits.
Figure E3.27
 Solution Ex 3-27
(a)  5  vi  5  vo  vi
(b) VI  5 Vo D2 Conduct, D1 cut - off
 10  1
vR    v  5   vi  5
10  10 
i
2
1
vo  5  v R  vi  2.5
2
(c ) vi  5 V D1 Conducts & D2 is off
 10  1
vR    vi  5  vi  5
10  10  2
1 1
vo  vi  5  5  vi  2.5
 
D C Restorer

• The output waveform will have its lower

peak “Clamped” to O V therefore known
as “Clamped Capacitor”

• Output waveform will have a finite average

value & is entirely different and unrelated
to the average value of the input waveform
 Application
6
 2v
4
TXR
 4v
0v
4v

DC
Restorers
Figure 3.36 The clamped capacitor or dc restorer with
a square-wave input and no load.
Figure 3.37 The clamped capacitor with a load
resistance R.
Figure 3.38 Voltage doubler: (a) circuit; (b) waveform
of the voltage across D1.
P3-105 (e)
P3-105 (g)
P3-105 (f)
 The Voltage Doubler
 VP -

C1  
D1 VD1 2VP
VP sin t 
