WINTER TRAINING REPORT

ON
LT NETWORK STUDIES

By
P Abhishek 2K12/EE/096

Under the guidance and supervision of

Mr. Davinder Bhatia
Zonal Manager (KPM-Z-509)
TATA Power Delhi Distribution Limited

Department of Electrical Engineering

Delhi Technological University, New Delhi-110042
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

The undersigned certify that the winter training project entitled LT NETWORK
STUDIES submitted by P. Abhishek to the Zonal Manager (Z-509), TATA Power
Distribution Limited, in partial fulfillment of requirement for the winter training
program certification at TATA Power Delhi Distribution Limited. The project was
carried out under special supervision and within the time frame prescribed by the
program.
We found the student to be hardworking, skilled, and ready to undertake any
commercial and industrial work related to their field of study.

………………………………
Mr. Davinder Bhatia
Zonal Manager, Z-509

LT NETWORK STUDIES 2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my deepest and sincere gratitude to my mentor

Mr. Davinder Bhatia, Zonal Manager (ZM) of KPM-Z-509, for his insightful advice,
motivating suggestions, invaluable guidance, help and support in successful
completion of this project and also for his constant encouragement and advice
throughout my training program.
The facilities provided by various departments at TATA Power Delhi Distribution
Limited throughout the training program are also equally acknowledgeable.
I am also grateful to my parents and all my friends for their help, encouragement
and invaluable suggestions. In addition to this, I would like to convey my thanks
to various people in the organization, for their invaluable help and support
throughout the period of training:
Zonal Office (KPM-Z-509):
1. Mr. Vipin Goyal
2. Mr. Girish Chander
3. Mr. Rajkumar
4. Mr. Pervez Alam
Fault Locating Cell:
1. Mr. Anuj Kumar
2. Mr. Puneet
3. Mr. Somdutt
4. Mr. Rohtash
Network Engineering Group:
1. Mr. Varun Bhatnagar
2. Mr. Sandeep Kumar Dubey
3. Mr. Anil Sharma
4. Mr. Anurag Shukla
5. Mr. Himanshu Mohanty
Maintenance and Planning Group:
1. Mr. Yogesh Gupta
2. Mr. Alok Basu
Transformer Workshop:
1. Mr. Praveen
2. Mr. Sunil

P. ABHISHEK
(2K12/EE/096)

LT NETWORK STUDIES 3
 LIST OF FIGURES
S. NO. FIG. NO. FIGURE NAME PAGE
NO.
1 1a Single line diagram of a typical power system 09
2 1b Peak demand v/s peak demand met in NCT of Delhi 10
3 1c Actual power supply position of NCT of Delhi 10
4 2a Power distribution companies in NCT of Delhi 12
5 4a Typical layout of a distribution substation 15
6 4b Power transformer 16
7 4c Instrument transformer 17
8 4d Autotransformer 17
9 4e Core type 18
10 4f Shell type 18
11 4g Bus bars 19
12 4h Insulator string 20
13 4i Oil circuit breaker 21
14 4j Air blast circuit breaker 22
15 4k SF6 circuit breaker 22
16 4l Vacuum circuit breaker 23
17 4m Capacitor bank panel 23
18 4n CG Lucy Ring Main Unit 25
19 5a Compact fault locating system 26
20 5b Compact fault locating system capacitor bank 27
21 5c Compact fault locating system control computer 27
22 5d Compact fault locating system Digi phone 28
23 5e Types of cables 28
24 5f Process flow 30
25 5g HV Teleflex method plot 32
26 5h Arc reflection method plot 33
27 5i Impulse current method plot 34
28 5j Cable route tracer 35
29 5k Cable route tracing 35
30 7a Barricading of the transformer under test 50
31 7b Extraction of oil sample 50
32 7c Oil sample under test in DGA kit 51
33 7d Result 1: Gas concentrations 51
34 7e Result 2: Roger’s ratios 52
35 7f Result 3: Duval’s triangle 52
36 7g Result 4: Final result analysis 53
37 8a An opened up 3 phase transformer 54
38 8b Megger instrument 56
39 8c Oil BDV tester 56
40 8d Oil filtration machine 58

LT NETWORK STUDIES 4
 LIST OF TABLES

S. NO. TABLE TABLE NAME PAGE

NO. NO.
1 1 All India region wise capacity 09
2 2 All India T&D and AT&C losses 36
3 3 Glance at TPDDL network 37
4 4 Overall view of the TPDDL distribution network as 37
of June 2014
5 5 Breakup of all the LT feeders as per loading 40
6 6 New scheme (Required) 41
7 7 New scheme (Not required) 42
8 8 Loading wise breakup of feeders 43
9 9 Major materials used in the scheme 44
10 10 Revenue return sheet 44
11 11 Summary - North (N) 46
12 12 Summary – North West (NW) 46
13 13 Summary – N+NW 46
14 14 Summary of power transformers in TPDDL 46
15 15 Permissible concentrations of dissolved gases in oil 49
of a healthy transformer (Transformer Union AG)
16 16 Acceptable fault gas levels 49
17 17 IEEE - C.57.104 – Roger’s ratio method 49
18 18 Minimum acceptable IR values before servicing 55
19 19 Minimum acceptable IR values after servicing 55

LT NETWORK STUDIES 5
 CONTENTS
S. NO. CONTENTS PAGE
NO.
1 Acknowledgement 3
2 List of figures 4
3 List of tables 5
4 1. Introduction 7-10
1.1. Growth Scenario: Indian power sector
1.2. Regional power systems development
1.3. All India capacity region wise
1.4. Power demand – Supply position of NCT of Delhi
5 2. Organization profile 11-12
2.1. Background
2.2. Awards and recognitions
6 3. Objective of this project 13-14
3.1. Scope of this project
3.2. Importance of this project
7 4. Zonal Office/Centre 15-25
4.1. Transformers
4.1.1. Types of transformers
4.2. Bus bars
4.3. Insulators
4.4. Circuit breakers
4.4.1. Oil circuit breaker
4.4.2. Air blast circuit breaker
4.4.3. SF6 circuit breaker
4.4.4. Vacuum circuit breaker
4.5. Capacitor bank
4.6. Ring Main Unit (RMU)
8 5. Fault Locating Cell (FLC) 26-35
5.1. Compact system
5.2. About cables
5.2.1. Essential power cable components
5.2.2. Basic requirements of healthy cable
5.2.3. Causes of cable fault
5.3. Process flow
5.3.1. Cable fault location using compact system
5.3.2. Mandatory checks before starting of test
5.4. Testing
5.4.1. Insulation resistance (IR) measurement
5.4.2. HVDC testing
5.4.3. Prelocation

LT NETWORK STUDIES 6
 5.4.4. Pin pointing
5.4.5. Fault confirmation
5.5. Cable route tracing using audio frequency
generator (AF 200)
9 6. Network Engineering Group 36-45
6.1. State wise AT&C losses
6.2. Major reasons of high technical losses on LT level
6.2.1. Unbalancing load on transformer LT side
6.2.2. Unbalancing load on LT feeders
6.2.3. High loading on existing feeders due to less no.
of feeders at substation
6.2.4. Low loading on existing feeders due to high no.
of feeders at substation
6.2.5. Large length of existing LT feeders
6.2.6. Using of bare conductor as a LT feeder
6.2.7. Sick cable
6.2.8. Faulty LT ACB’s/MCCB’s
6.2.9. Higher level of theft
6.3. Case study of Pitampura
6.3.1. For technical loss reduction on LT level
6.3.2. Discussion with zone & verification of LT feeders
load
6.3.2.1. New feeder proposals
6.3.2.2. Interconnector proposals
6.3.2.3. Shifting of NOP’s
6.3.2.4. Replacement of sick cable/de-rated cable
6.3.3. Proposed scenario
6.3.4. Benefits to costumer and government
10 7. Maintenance and Planning Group (MPG) 46-53
7.1. Process flow
7.2. Dissolved gas analysis
11 8. Transformer workshop 54-58
8.1. Transformer testing and process/steps of
transformer overhauling
8.1.1. Series lamp test
8.1.2. Megger
8.1.3. Oil BDV test
8.1.4. Interpretation of the tests
8.1.5. Transformer testing post overhauling
8.1.6. Transformer oil filtration
12 9. Conclusion 59
13 10. References 60

LT NETWORK STUDIES 7
 1. INTRODUCTION

India possesses one of the largest power generation capacities in the world (its
current ranking is Third) with an installed capacity of 237 GW as on Feb 2014,
which is about 4.8 percent of global power generation. The top developed
countries, viz., China & USA, Japan and Russia together consume about 60
percent of the total power generated globally. As of January 2012, it was reported
that the per capita total consumption in India to be 778 kWh.
1.1. GROWTH SCENARIO: INDIAN POWER SECTOR:
Development of Power Sector is the key to the economic development. The power
Sector has been receiving adequate priority ever since the process of planned
development began in 1950. The Power Sector has been getting 18-20% of the total
Public Sector outlay in initial plan periods. Remarkable growth and progress have
led to extensive use of electricity in all the sectors of economy in the successive
five years plans. Over the years (since 1950) the installed capacity of Power Plants
(Utilities) has increased to 89090 MW (31.3.98) from meagre 1713 MW in 1950,
registering a 52d fold increase in 48 years. Similarly, the electricity generation
increased from about 5.1 billion units to 420 Billion units – 82 fold increase. The
per capita consumption of electricity in the country also i ncreased from 15 kWh
in 1950 to about 338 kWh in 1997-98, which is about 23 times. In the field of
Rural Electrification and pump set energisation, country has made a tremendous
progress. About 85% of the villages have been electrified except far -flung areas in
North Eastern states, where it is difficult to extend the grid supply.

1.2. REGIONAL POWER SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT:

In order to optimally utilize the dispersed sources for power generation it was
decided right at the beginning of the 1960’s that the country would be divided into
5 regions and the planning process would aim at achieving regional self -
sufficiency. The planning was so far based on a Region as a unit for planning and
accordingly the power systems have been developed and operated on regional
basis. Today, strong integrated grids exist in all the five regions of the country and
the energy resources developed are widely utilized within the regional grids.
Presently, the Eastern & North-Eastern Regions are operating in parallel. With the
proposed inter-regional links being developed it is envisaged that it would be
possible for power to flow anywhere in the country with the concept of National
Grid becoming a reality during 12th Plan Period.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 8
1.3. ALL INDIA CAPACITY REGION WISE:
THERMAL
Region Nuclear Hydro RES Grand Total
Coal Gas Diesel Total

NORTHERN 35283.5 5281.26 12.99 40577.75 1620 15994.75 5729.62 63922.12

WESTERN 54069.51 9739.31 17.48 63826.3 1840 7447.5 9925.19 83038.99

SOUTHERN 26582.5 4962.78 939.32 32484.6 1320 11398.03 13127.33 58329.96

EASTERN 24727.88 190 17.2 24935.08 0 4113.12 417.41 29465.61

NORTH-EASTERN 60 1208.5 142.74 1411.24 0 1242 252.65 2905.89

ISLAND 0 0 70.02 70.02 0 0 10.35 80.37

ALL INDIA 140723.4 21381.85 1199.75 163305 4780 40195.4 29462.55 237742.90

Table 1 All India region wise capacity

*All India Installed Capacity (MW) as on 28-2-2014 Region -wise

At present energy sector suffered from power shortages aggregate of 8.5-9.8% with
the figure being higher in the northern and western regions of India. Reliable and
adequate powers to these sectors remain a major challenge for a developing
country like India.

Figure 1 a Single line diagram of a typical power system

LT NETWORK STUDIES 9
1.4. POWER DEMAND- SUPPLY POSITION OF NCT OF DELHI:
The NCT of Delhi has been facing peak demand and availability deficits over the
last few years. Peak demand deficit in the state has increased from 2% in FY 2005-
06 to 5% in 2012-13. Between 2005-06 and 2012-13, peak electricity demand
grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7%, while peak demand met at
CAGR of 6%. (See graph below)

Fig. 1 b Peak demand v/s peak demand met in NCT of Delhi

There were very minute electricity deficits in Delhi as compared to other states.
Between 2005-06 and 2012-13, electricity requirement and availability, both grew
at CAGR of 3%. (See graph below).

Fig. 1 c Actual power supply position of NCT of Delhi

LT NETWORK STUDIES 10
 2. ORGANISATION PROFILE

2.1. BACKGROUND:
North Delhi Power Limited (NDPL) is a joint venture between Tata Power
Company and the Government of the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi,
with the majority stake being held by Tata Power. It distributes electricity in
the north and northwest parts of Delhi and serves a population of about 5
million people. The company started operations on July 1, 2002, after the
unbundling of the previously established Delhi Vidyut Board. With a registered
customer base of around 1,200,000 and a peak load of around 1401 MW, the
company provides electric service throughout an area of 510 square kilometres.
NDPL has been the frontrunner in implementing power distribution reforms in
the capital city and is acknowledged for its implementation of advanced
distribution system technologies and best practices. Since privatization, the
aggregate technical and commercial (AT&C) losses in the NDPL service area
have shown a record decline. Today they stand at about 13.25%, which is a
significant reduction from a previous loss level of 54%. This decrease in loss
levels and a subsequent increase in the reliability of the network have been
made possible by the efforts of NDPL to incorporate new technologies and
innovative systems into its distribution framework.
Increasing demand for electricity and energy resource constraints at the global
level has prompted the need for significant improvements in the efficiency of
the power sector. The ability to connect renewable energy resources and
distributed generation systems as part of a total power delivery mechanism,
and use of electricity in the most efficient way based on demand-side
management concepts, are critical parts of the Smart Grid concept. The vision
of a Smart Grid is gaining credibility from pilot projects being implemented in
several different European and U.S. utilities. NDPL wants to be a front runner
in implementing the Smart Grid vision in India.
The proposed project has been identified by NDPL as a top priority and is
designed to improve the efficiency and reliability of its one-million customer
distribution system and to help provide application models for other
distribution networks in India. The Feasibility Study would develop
requirements and specifications for a smart grid implementation roadmap for
NDPL and would address a range of improvements and investments including
integrating smart meters and automated meter reading into NDPL's
distribution system as well as greater system integration with distributed
generators and other smart grid applications.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 11
 2.2. AWARDS AND RECOGNITIONS:
• Tata Power’s Singapore-based subsidiary Trust Energy Resources was
conferred the 'International Maritime Awards 2013' by the Singapore
Government. The award grants the company tax exemption for shipping
operations, besides incentives.
• Tata Power won two awards at the Power Line Award 2013: Best Performing
Private Discom' award for its Delhi distribution arm Tata Power Delhi
Distribution Limited and Runners up award for 'Best Performing Renewable
Company'.
• Trombay Thermal Power Station received Greentech Safety Award 2011 in
the gold category (in thermal power sector) for Safety Management.

Fig. 2 a Power distribution companies in NCT of Delhi

LT NETWORK STUDIES 12
 3. OBJECTIVE OF THIS PROJECT

The objective of this project is to study and analyse the low tension networks in
NCT of Delhi under the authority of TATA Power Delhi Distribution Limited. The
project also deals with various functional blocks of a distribution system, its
integrated planning and equipment maintenance techniques involved in the
system. Low tension networks may also be referred to as distribution networks.
Distribution networks can be further classified as
i. Primary Distribution (33 KV and above)
ii. Secondary Distribution (11 KV/ 6.6 KV/ 3.3 KV)
iii. Tertiary Distribution (400 volts 3 phase)

3.1. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT:

The scope of this project is limited to analysis of distribution networks in
north and north- west parts of Delhi which comes under the supervision of
TPDDL. Under TPDDL, all the voltage levels mentioned above are in use. But
according to TPDDL norms, primary distribution voltage levels are
considered to be transmission voltages or high tension levels and
secondary/tertiary distribution voltages are termed as distribution voltage
levels or low tension voltage levels. In this project, our discussion is
restricted low tension networks and a slight insight into high tension
networks, in terms of TPDDL norms.

3.2. IMPORTANCE OF THE PROJECT:

Determination of the placement and rating of transformers and feeders a re
the main objective of basic distribution network planning. The bus voltage
and the feeder current are two constraints which should be maintained
within their standard range. The distribution network planning is hardened
when the planning area is located far from the sources of power generation
and the infrastructure. This is mainly as a consequence of the voltage drop,
line loss and system reliability. Long distance to supply loads causes a
significant amount of voltage drop across the distribution lines. Capacitors
and Voltage Regulators (VRs) can be installed to decrease the voltage drop.
This long distance also increases the probability of occurrence of a failure.
This high probability leads the network reliability to be low. Cross-
Connections (CC) and Distributed Generators (DGs) are devices which can
be employed for improving system reliability. Another main factor which
should be considered in planning of distribution network is load growth. For
supporting this factor, transformers and feeders are conventionally

LT NETWORK STUDIES 13
 upgraded which applies a large cost. Installation of DGs and capacitors in
a distribution network can alleviate this issue while the other benefits are
gained.
In this project, analysis of a case study for network revision scheme of
Pitampura has been done. Apart from this, this project also presents some
of the aspects involved in a distribution network mentioned below:

• Zonal Office/Centre: TPDDL supervised region of Delhi has been

segregated into various development zones. Each zone has its zonal
office/centre which has to supervise various developmental and
maintenance activities related to power distribution in the region. These
activities can be of varying nature like transformer maintenance, feeder
pillar maintenance, High Voltage Distribution System (HVDS) etc.
• Fault Locating Cell (FLC): The low tension network consists of majorly
two types of conductors:
▪ Arial Bunch Conductors (ABC): LTABC/HTABC
▪ Underground Cables
The job of this department is to find out the location of fault in the
cable/conductor, if any.
• Network Engineering Group (NEG): This group/department is
responsible for all the network planning and revision schemes that needs
to be carried out in an area.
• Maintenance and Planning Group (MPG): This group/department has
the job to carry out maintenance and testing of the various power
transformers present in the TPDDL network.
• Transformer Workshop: All the maintenance, repairing and
cannibalising of Distribution Transformers under TPDDL is done in this
department/workshop.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 14
 4. ZONAL OFFICE/CENTRE

The power to be distributed to the consumers and industries is supplied by the

zonal centres according to the load demanded by the consumers. This power is
obtained by the grids that are in turn supplied by transmission companies such
as Delhi Transco Limited. This power supplied by the transmission companies is
at voltage level greater 66 KV. Transmission voltage levels in India are 132 KV,
220 KV, 440 KV etc.
Typical layout of a distribution substation is shown in the figure given below.

Fig. 4 a Typical layout of a distribution substation

LT NETWORK STUDIES 15
Further, we will be discussing some of the power components and equipment that
are used in a distribution substation.

4.1. TRANSFORMERS:
Transformer is a static machine, which transforms the potential of
alternating current at same frequency. It means the transformer transforms
the low voltage into high voltage & high voltage to low voltage at same
frequency. It works on the principle of static induction principle. When the
energy is transformed into a higher voltage, the transformer is called step
up transformer but in case of other is known as step down transformer.
4.1.1. Types of transformers:
• Power transformer
• Instrument transformer
• Auto transformer
• On the basis of working
• On the basis of structure

4.1.1.1. Power Transformer:

Fig. 4 b Power transformer

Types of power transformer:

• Single phase transformer
• Three phase transformer

LT NETWORK STUDIES 16
 4.1.1.2. Instrument Transformer:

Fig. 4 c Instrument transformers

Types of instrument transformers:

• Current transformer
• Potential transformer
4.1.1.3. Autotransformer:

Fig. 4 d Autotransformer

Types of autotransformers:
• Single phase transformer
• Three phase transformer

LT NETWORK STUDIES 17
 4.1.1.4. On The Basis Of Working:
• Step down: Converts high voltage into low voltage.
• Step up: Converts low voltage into high voltage.

4.1.1.5. On The Basis Of Structure:

Fig. 4 e Core type

Fig. 4 f Shell type

4.2. BUS BARS:

When numbers of generators or feeders operating at the same voltage have
to be directly connected electrically, bus bar is used as the common
electrical component. Bus bars are made up of copper rods operate at
constant voltage. The following are the important bus bars arrangements
used at substations:
• Single bus bar system
• Single bus bar system with sections.
• Duplicate bus bar system

LT NETWORK STUDIES 18
 Fig. 4 g Bus bars

In large stations it is important that break downs and maintenance should

interfere as little as possible with continuity of supply to achieve this, duplicate
bus bar system is used. Such a system consists of two bus bars, a main bus bar
and a spare bus bar with the help of bus coupler, which consist of the circuit
breaker and isolator.
In substations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general
maintenance and repairs. An isolating switch or isolator accomplishes this.
Isolator operates under no load condition. It does not have any specified current
breaking capacity or current making capacity. In some cases isolators are used to
breaking charging currents or transmission lines.
While opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is opened first then isolator while
closing a circuit the isolator is closed first, then circuit breakers. Isolators are
necessary on supply side of circuit breakers, in order to ensure isolation of the
circuit breaker from live parts for the purpose of maintenance.
A transfer isolator is used to transfer main supply from main bus to transfer bus
by using bus coupler (combination of a circuit breaker with two isolators), if
repairing or maintenance of any section is required.

4.3. INSULATORS:
The insulator serves two purposes. They support the conductors (bus bar) and
confine the current to the conductors. The most common used material for the
manufacture of insulator is porcelain. There are several types of insulators (e.g.
pin type, suspension type, post insulator etc.) and their use in substation will
depend upon the service requirement. For example, post insulator is used for bus
bars. A post insulator consists of a porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged cast
iron base. The hole in the cap is threaded so that bus bars can be directly bolted
to the cap.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 19
 Fig. 4 h Insulator string

4.4. CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

With the advantage of power system, the lines and other equipment operate at
very high voltage and carry high current.
The arrangements of switching along with switches cannot serve the desired
function of switchgear in such high capacity circuits. This necessitates employing
a more dependable means of control such as is obtain by the use of the circuit
breakers. A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either manually or
automatically under all condition as no load, full load and short circuit condit ion.
A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts. These contacts
can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault
occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of breaker get energized and the
moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
When contacts of a circuit breaker are separated, an arc is struck; the current is
thus able to continue. The production of arcs are not only delays the current
interruption, but is also generates the heat. Therefore, the main problem is to
distinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that it may not reach a
dangerous value.
The general way of classification is on the basis of the medium used for arc
extinction.

They can be classified into:

• Oil circuit breaker
• Air-blast circuit breaker
• Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker (SF6)
• Vacuum circuit breakers
Note: SF6 and Vacuum circuit breaker are used in 33KV distribution substation
and in Ring Main Units (RMUs).

LT NETWORK STUDIES 20
 4.4.1. Oil Circuit Breaker:
A high-voltage circuit breaker in which the arc is drawn in oil to
dissipate the heat and extinguish the arc; the intense heat of the arc
decomposes the oil, generating a gas whose high pressure produces a
flow of fresh fluid through the arc that furnishes the necessary
insulation to prevent a restrike of the arc.
The arc is then extinguished, both because of its elongation upon
parting of contacts and because of intensive cooling by the gases and oil
vapor.

Fig. 4 i Oil circuit breaker

4.4.2. Air blast circuit breaker:

Fast operations, suitability for repeated operation, auto re-closure, unit
type multi break constructions, simple assembly, and modest
maintenance are some of the main features of air blast circuit breakers.
A compressors plant necessary to maintain high air pressure in the air
receiver. The air blast circuit breakers are especially suitable for
railways and arc furnaces, where the breaker operates repeatedly. Air
blast circuit breakers is used for interconnected lines and important
lines where rapid operation is desired.
High pressure air at a pressure between 20 to 30 kg/cm2 stored in the
air reservoir. Air is taken from the compressed air system. Three hollow
insulator columns are mounted on the reservoir with valves at their
basis. The double arc extinguished chambers are mounted on the top of
the hollow insulator chambers. The current carrying parts connect the
three arc extinction chambers to each other in series and the pole to the

LT NETWORK STUDIES 21
 neighboring equipment. Since there exists a very high voltage between
the conductor and the air reservoir, the entire arc extinction chambers
assembly is mounted on insulators.

Fig. 4 j Air blast circuit breaker

4.4.3. SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Fig. 4 k SF6 circuit breaker

In such circuit breaker, sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6) gas is used as the

arc quenching medium. The SF 6 is an electronegative gas and has a
strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The SF 6 circuit breaker have
been found to a very effective for high power and high voltage service.
SF6 circuit breakers have been developed for voltage 115 KV to 230 KV,
power rating 10 MVA.
It consists of fixed and moving contacts. It has chamber, contains SF6
gas. When the contacts are opened, the mechanism permits a high
pressure SF 6 gas from reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption
chamber. The moving contact permits the SF 6 gas to let through these
holes.
LT NETWORK STUDIES 22
 4.4.4. Vacuum Circuit Breaker

Fig. 4 l Vacuum circuit breaker

Vacuum circuit breakers are circuit breakers which are used to protect
medium and high voltage circuits from dangerous electrical situations.
Like other types of circuit breakers, vacuum circuit breakers literally
break the circuit so that energy cannot continue flowing through it,
thereby preventing fires, power surges, and other problems which may
emerge. These devices have been utilized since the 1920s, and several
companies have introduced refinements to make them even safer and
more effective.
4.5. CAPACITOR BANK:

Fig. 4 m Capacitor bank panel

LT NETWORK STUDIES 23
The load on the power system is varying being high during morning and evening
which increases the magnetization current. This result in the decreased power
factor. The low power factor is mainly due to the fact most of the power loads are
inductive and therefore take lagging currents. The low power factor is highly
undesirable as it causes increases in current, resulting in additional losses. So in
order to ensure most favorable conditions for a supply system from engineering
and economic point of view, it is important to have power factor as close to unity
as possible. In order to improve the power factor come device taking leading power
should be connected in parallel with the load. One of the device can be capacitor
bank. The capacitor draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralize
the lagging reactive component of load current.
Capacitor bank accomplishes following operations:
• Supply reactive power
• Increases terminal voltage
• Improve power factor

4.6. RING MAIN UNIT (RMU):

A standard piece of switchgear in distribution systems comprising of

switches for switching power cable rings and of switches in series with fuses
for the protection of distribution transformers. RMU: Ring Main Unit. RMU
is used for H.T. side. RMU is having 3 no. of switches (Circuit Breakers or
Isolators or LBS), it is used for two inputs with mechanical or electrical
interlock and one outgoing to the load. Either one input with two outgoings.
RMU used for redundancy feeder's purpose.
Ring main unit is used in a secondary distribution system. It is basically
used for an uninterrupted power supply. Alongside, it also protects your
secondary side transformer from the occasional transient currents.
Depending on your applications and loading conditions you can use a
switch fuse combination or a circuit breaker to protect the transformer. This
transformer connected to the switch fuse/ circuit breaker is called your T
off. In a common arrangement you have Load break switches on both the
sides of your T off. Ring main Units come in standard ratings of
11/22/33 kV, 630/1250 A, 21 KA/3 seconds.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 24
 Fig. 4 n CG Lucy Ring Main Unit

LT NETWORK STUDIES 25
 5. FAULT LOCATING CELL (FLC)
This department has the responsibility to find out the location of a cable fault
using various apparatus /compact system. Apart from this, underground cable
route tracing is also done by the job. All these activities are discussed in detail as
shown below.
5.1. COMPACT SYSTEM:
• Compact instrument is used for underground cable fault location.
• The system is supplied by SEBAKMT GERMANY.
• It uses most modern technology for cable testing, fault pre-location &
fault location.
• It is operated by software so operation is very simple.
• Compact System is a latest technology, is a self-contained cable testing
system.
• It is incased in a small instrument with relatively light computer aided
system.
• Exact pre-location of the fault can be found using new method i.e. Arm
plus.
• The system provides an easy method for testing, adjusting surge
voltages and capacitor charging and discharging time.

Fig. 5 a Compact fault locating system

LT NETWORK STUDIES 26
 Fig. 5 b Compact fault locating system capacitor bank

Fig. 5 c Compact fault locating system control computer

LT NETWORK STUDIES 27
 Fig. 5 d Compact fault locating system Digi phone

5.2. ABOUT CABLES:

There is now considerable switch over in favor of underground cables
from overhead lines. In metropolitan cities it is not feasible to have
transmission and distribution with overhead lines due to non-availability
of land for laying overhead lines. Overhead lines mar the aesthetic of city
sky line. On the other hand underground system is preferred as it is
unaffected by abnormal weather conditions, storms, tree falling, tree
touching, snow fall and foreign objects.

Fig. 5 e Types of cables

LT NETWORK STUDIES 28
 5.2.1. Essential power cable components:
• Conductor: Either Copper or Aluminium is used.
• Insulation: The insulation used for power cables can be PAPER
or cross linked poly-ethylene (XLPE)
• SHEATH / ARMOUR
• FILLERS
• OUTER SHEATH
5.2.2. Basic requirements of healthy cables:
• Electrical continuity from one point to another point.
• Continuity of insulation between Core to core and core to earth.
Loss of any of these condition result in cable fault to OPEN CIRCUIT
and SHORT CIRCUIT or EARTH FAULT.
5.2.3. Causes of cable fault:
• Mechanical damage
• Damaging of sheath or insulation - External agents.
• Sheath corrosion- due to chemical action
• Vibration- due to heavy traffic on road
• Thermal damage- Increase in thermal Resist. Of soil, hot pipe
• Operational Problem
• Cable deterioration- due to overloading
• Joint deterioration- migration of semi fluid compounds from
joints, electrical tracking along the insulation owing to poor stress
control.
• Terminal defects
• Poor workmanship - joints
• Manufacturing defect - cracked lead sheath

LT NETWORK STUDIES 29
5.3. PROCESS FLOW:

Fig. 5 f Process flow

5.3.1. Cable fault location using compact system:

Steps involved in location of faults:
• Testing
• Pre-Location
• Pinpointing
• Confirmation and Retesting if necessary
• Recording
5.3.2. Mandatory checks before starting of test:
• Ensure that both cable ends are isolated and discharged.
• Ensure & Note the PTW is being taken by Zonal B/D staff before
starting the testing
• Safeguard the testing leads from adjacent live lines/instruments.
• Ensure the safety all working personals for cable fault detection.
• Check all earthing connections.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 30
5.4. TESTING:
5.4.1. Insulation resistance (IR) measurement:
• IR measurement is done by using MEGGER.
• Phase to phase & phase to ground is tested using 5 KV megger
for 1 minute/or till reading stabilizes.
• Min. IR value for healthy phase is 50 Mohm (11 KV), 100 Mohm
(33 KV), 500 Mohm (66 KV).
5.4.2. HVDC Testing:
• High Voltage DC testing (Pressure Testing) is done only after IR
values are not found satisfactory.
• Each phase is tested for 5 min. w.r.t. ground & other phases
grounded at 6.5 KV (11 KV cable), 19.5 KV (33 KV), 38 KV (66
KV).
• The leakage current pattern is observed during the testing period
(shown graphically in compact System).
• If the leakage current has a rising trend, the cable is faulty & if
downward trend, cable may become healthy.
• By testing faulty phase(s) is detected.
5.4.3. Prelocation:
Test Conducted from one end to ascertain the location of the fault
i.e. The fault distance from the cable testing end in meters.
Methods of Pre-Location:
• HV Teleflex or pulse echo/TDR: Suitable measuring pulses are
transmitted into the cable. The pulses pass along the cable at a
propagation Velocity that is dependent on the type of cable. Parts
of the transmitted pulse are reflected whenever the electrical
characteristics of the cable change or change in impedance of
cable and travel back to the source, where they are shown on the
display.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 31
 Fig. 5 g HV teleflex method plot

• Arc Reflection Method (Arm plus):

▪ Reference Curve: Initially a small pulse of the magnitude
of 200V/2KV is injected in to the cable and the
characteristic is captured in the CRO. This curve is the
Reference curve.
▪ Fault Curve: Then by means of a surge generator a high
voltage surge is injected into the cable. When it reaches the
fault point, it causes breakdown and arcing takes place.
When fault becomes a short circuit with very low resistance
the impulse return through earth and automatically a
second pulse is launched by surge generator. It reaches
up to the fault point and return back like a pulse echo as
the fault is still seen as a low resistance. It then triggers
oscilloscope to give a trace of pulse echo on opposite
direction at fault point.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 32
 Fig. 5 h Arc reflection method plot

• Impulse Current Method: HV Capacitors are charged and then

discharged through the faulty cable. The high voltage surge
travels along the cable and after a certain time lapse, the fault
ionizes and arcs produced and return back to the source. The
return wave is a captured through the linear coupler which is
attached to the earthing lead.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 33
 Fig. 5 i Impulse current method plot

5.4.4. Pin pointing:

• Surging: Surge voltage is more than B.D. voltage. The HV
capacitors are charged and then discharged through the cable.
The high energy gets dissipated at the point of fault, resulting in
a loud sound or bang which is detected using a seismic sensor
(pick up coil) or Digi phone. The acoustic signal is converted into
an electric voltage and given to the receiver where it is amplified.
• The magnetic signal is detected by means of a ferrite antenna in
the sensor and then amplified by the receiver.
• The magnitude of the acoustic signal and magnetic signal is
displayed on the receiver.
• At the fault point maximum acoustic signal & maximum
magnetic signal is received at minimum signal amplification.

5.4.5. Fault confirmation:

Whenever there is no indication of fault on cable or on joint when
exposed after digging. Then fault confirmation carried out.

5.5. CABLE ROUTE TRACING USING AUDIO FREQUENCY GENERATOR

(AF 200):
In the cables if 2 cores are short-circuited at other end and audio
frequency signal or current is passed through the cable, a magnetic field
is produced around the cable. This signal is detected with a search coil

LT NETWORK STUDIES 34
 whose output is fed into a suitable receiver/amplifier and presented as
an audible tone in headphones and as a signal strength in DB in the
receiver (FLE-10).

Fig. 5 j Cable route tracer

Fig. 5 k Cable route tracing

LT NETWORK STUDIES 35
 6. NETWORK ENGINEERING GROUP (NEG)

This group is responsible for electrification, planning and commissioning of

electrical networks in north and north-west parts of Delhi. In this project, a case
study of Pitampura for reduction of technical losses on LT level has been
discussed.
Definition of AT & C Losses
Aggregate Technical and Commercial Losses (AT & C Losses) is nothing but the
sum total of technical loss, commercial losses and shortage due to non-realisation
of total billed amount:
{(Total Energy Input LESS Energy Realised)/ Total Energy Input}*100
Where, Energy Realised is Sale of Energy * Collection Efficiency
Definition of Distribution losses
Distribution Losses (Technical + Commercial Losses) is nothing but the difference
between energy supplied at the Input Points and Energy Billed to Consumers in
percentage terms for a particular period:
(Energy Input less Energy Billed to Consumers in kWh/Energy Input in
kWh)*100
All India T&D and AT&C losses
Financial year wise status of AT & C, T & C Losses are as under:
Year T & D Losses (%) AT & C Losses (%)

2003-04 32.5 34.8

2004-05 31.2 34.3
2005-06 30.4 33.0
2006-07 28.7 30.6

2007-08 27.2 29.5

2008-09 25.5 27.4
2009-10 25.4 26.6
2010-11 24.0 26.2
Table 2 All India T&D and AT&C losses

LT NETWORK STUDIES 36
6.1. STATE WISE AT & C LOSSES:
Electricity is a concurrent subject and the responsibility of sub-transmission and
distribution segment and reduction of Aggregate Transmission and Commercial
(AT&C) losses in distribution network rest with the State Government and Power
Departments/Utilities. Government of India acts as a facilitator in supplementing
the efforts of States to provide power to consumers in an improved manner.

S. No Particulars Unit TPDDL

1 Area Sq. KM 510

2 Customer Density(As of Mar,13) Nos./Sq. KM 2447

3 Total Registered Customers(As of Mar,14) Million 1.3

4 Peak Demand(YTM FY 14)* Delhi Peak Demand MW 5789*

Table 3 Glance at TPDDL network

*Recorded on 10th July 2014

S. No. Items TPDDL
1 No. of 66/11kV & 33/11kV Substations 66
2 No of Power Transformers 171
3 EHV Capacity 3393
4 EHV Cable Length/Line Length Laid(KM) 625
5 No. of 66 & 33kV Feeders 195
6 No. of Distribution Transformers 5162
7 Distribution Transformers Capacity (MVA) 5293
8 No of 11kV feeders 1054
9 11KV Cables laid (Kms) 1774
10 11KV line laid (Kms) 2397
11 Total No. of LT feeders 8032
12 LT Lines laid (Kms) 6062
Table 4 Overall view of the TPDDL distribution network as of June 2014

LT NETWORK STUDIES 37
6.2. MAJOR REASONS OF HIGH TECHNICAL LOSSES ON LT LEVEL:
6.2.1. Unbalancing load on Transformer LT side: Previously, some of the
transformer were unbalanced causing high neutral current
producing high losses. This unbalancing is due to unequal
distribution of load on the three phases. Let us take an example of
balance transformer of capacity 400 KVA having equal current in
three phases suppose R – 250 Amp, Y – 250 Amp, B – 250 Amp then
current in neutral N – 0 Amp. Now load on same
6.2.2. Unbalancing load on LT feeders: Previously, some of the LT feeder
were high loaded & some LT feeders having less loading fed from
same DT is main reason on production of LT losses.
For example A 630kVA DT having 4 LT feeders A, B, C & D having
following loadings:-
▪ Feeder A having loading 150 Amp.
▪ Feeder B having loading 250 Amp.
▪ Feeder C having loading 100 Amp.
▪ Feeder D having loading 70 Amp.
This shows unequal loadings of LT Feeders of a DT .Unloading due
to unequal load allocation on LT feeders.
6.2.3. High loadings on existing feeders due to less no. of feeders at
substation: In substation where low no of feeders exists but actual
requirement of feeders is more due to high load growth of the area.
For example A substation having 3 No’s of LT feeders but actual
requirement of the area is 4 No’s of LT feeder.
6.2.4. Low loadings on existing feeders due to high no. of feeders at
substation: In substation where large no’s of feeders exists but
actual requirement of feeders is more due to high load growth of the
area. For example A substation having 4 No’s of LT feeders but
actual requirement of the area is 3 No’s of LT feeder.
6.2.5. Large length of existing LT feeders: In area where LT feeder having
large length also one of the reason of the AT & C losses on the
distribution lines. Average length of the one LT feeder is approximate
is 300-500 meters.
6.2.6. Using of bare conductor as a LT feeder: High level of theft was
increases due to using of LT bare conductor. It is easier for the
peoples to theft the electricity direct from the bare conductor.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 38
 6.2.7. Sick Cable: Sick cable or underrated cables are also one of the
reason of the AT & C losses. Many portion of the feeder consisting
sick cable having multiple joints or de-rated cable.
6.2.8. Faulty LT ACB’s/MCCB’s: During Fault or overloading of a LT
feeder, LT ACB’s/MCCB’s not tripped and sometimes LT-ACB burns.
This is also one of the reason for increase in the Technical losses.
6.2.9. Higher Level of theft: High level of theft were due to mainly Non-
Installation of Temper Proof meter & Non-Installation of Temper
Proof meter.

6.3. CASE STUDY OF PITAMPURA

6.3.1. For technical loss reduction on LT level
Before studying of the LT-network in system all data of the subject
network is extracted with help GIS (Geographical Information
system).All network analysis done with the help Network Analysis
Software.
Methodology:-
In the system three networks created in the Network Analysis
software.
• Base-1 Network (Existing Network).
• Base-2 Network (Existing Network in addition to this under
execution proposals, yet to be started proposals & 2 years load
growth of the subject area).
• Planned Network after 2 years of planning (Base-2 Network with
2 years load growth & and all new proposals).
Base-1 Network (Existing Scenario) of Pitampura:-
Base-1(Existing Scenario) prepared in the system giving following
information’s:-
• Zone Pitampura is having 74 no. of Distribution Transformers.
• Zone Pitampura is having 284 no. of LT feeders.
• LT feeders are primarily of LT ABC.
• Some LT feeders are of LT Cable & LT Bare conductor.

Base-2 Network (Existing Network with considering proposals and

YTS schemes) of Zone-Pitampura:-

LT NETWORK STUDIES 39
 • Based upon summer’13 peak load, analysis was done on LT
network and found that 50 no. of feeders are overloaded (> 250
amperes).
• Load growth for Zone 530 is 4 % (calculated from 11 kV feeder
peak loading).
• After applying load growth for two years, 58 no. of feeders are
found overloaded (> 250 amperes).
• Technical loss (with load growth) in LT NW including service lines
is assessed as 994 KW (3.273%).

Existing NW with Peak

Existing NW with Peak Load – 2013 and Two
Parameter
Load of 2013 Years Load Growth
(4% Each Year)

No. of LT Feeders 284 284

< 50 Amperes 72 68
50 - 100 Amperes 54 45
100 - 200 Amperes 84 83

200 - 250 Amperes 24 30

> 250 Amperes 50 58
Total Load (kW) 28052 30375

Losses 3.006 % (843 KW) 3.273 % (994 KW)

Table 5 Breakup of all the LT feeders as per loading

Losses:-
1. Base-1 Network 3.06%(843KW)
2. Base-2 Network 3.27%(994KW)

LT NETWORK STUDIES 40
 6.3.2. Discussion with Zone & verification of LT feeders load:
A joint discussion done with the zonal representatives to verify the
loadings of the LT feeders in BASE-1 Network & BASE-2 Network.
Planned Network in the Network Analysis Software:
After discussion with zonal representatives, modifications done in
the LT Feeder Loadings.
A planned network prepared in the system contains following types
of the proposals:-
• New Feeder proposal
• Interconnector proposal
• Shifting on NOP’s
• Replacement of Sick cable/De-rated cable.
6.3.2.1. New Feeder proposals: New LT feeders are proposed for relief of
the existing overloaded feeders with new ACB’s .Generally New
LT feeders are proposed in mid of the existing overloaded
feeders, to bifurcate the loading of the existing feeder.
The major advantages of ABC are:-
▪ Total elimination of faults on LT lines
▪ Improved reliability
▪ Avoidance of Theft by direct tapping
▪ Avoidance of Overloading of Distribution transformer
6.3.2.2. Interconnector proposals: In this type of proposals load of an
overloaded feeder is shifted to a low loaded feeder by using an
interconnector.
For example if an overloaded feeder having loading of 280 Amps
and one unloaded feeder nearby this overloaded feeder having
loading of 60 Amps. In this case we are creating an
interconnector between both of them & load shifted to unloaded
feeder by changing suitable NOP.
6.3.2.3. Shifting of NOP’s: In this type of proposals, two feeders touching
each other not electrically, only physically (NOP between them)
one feeder is overloaded and another is under loaded. By using
shifting of NOP’s we can shift load of overloaded feeder on under
loaded feeder.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 41
 6.3.2.4. Replacement of Sick cable/de-rated cable: In this type of
proposals, for best utilization of existing feeders, sick portion &
de-rated portion of the cable is replaced with the required
capacity of cable or conductor.

6.3.3. Proposed Scenario:

• No. of LT feeders found overloaded – 58
Breakup of Proposals for mitigating overloading problem are given below-
Proposals No's
New Feeder 19
Interconnectors 11
Total 30
Table 6 New scheme (Required)

Proposal No's
NOP Changes 13
NOP Changes after execution of proposal given
7
against other feeders
Revive faulty feeder 1
Work executed 3
BOQ already available in proposed DT scheme 2
Proposal not required 2
Total 28
Table 7 New scheme (Not Required)

After execution of proposals, Technical loss in LT NW including

service lines would be 734 KW (2.437 %).

LT NETWORK STUDIES 42
 Contribution of proposals for Reduction in Technical Losses.
• New Feeders 35%
• Interconnectors 27%
• NOP Changes 23.5%
• Other Proposals 13.5%
After execution of above mentioned proposals, loading wise breakup of
feeders would be as given below:-

Existing NW with
Peak Load – 2013
Parameter and Two Years Load Planned NW (2015)
Growth (4% Each
Year)

No. of LT Feeders 284 310

< 50 Amperes 68 59
50 - 100 Amperes 45 37
100 - 200 Amperes 83 167
200 - 250 Amperes 30 47
> 250 Amperes 58 0
Total Load (kW) 30375 30115
Losses 3.27%/994KW 2.44%/734KW
Table 8 Loading wise breakup of feeders

LT NETWORK STUDIES 43
 Major Material Description Unit QTY
ACB LT 400A EA 17
ACB LT 800A EA 4
CABLE 1.1KV AL 1X300 SQMM UNAR M 156
CABLE 1.1KV AL 1X630 SQMM UNAR XLPE M 165
CABLE 1.1KV AL 4CX300 SQMM XLPE ARM M 1465
CABLE ABC 1.1KVXLPE 3X150+1X150+1X16SQMM M 2420
POLE PCC 11 M LONG EA 2
POLE PCC 9 M LONG 160 KG EA 22
Table 9 Major materials used in the scheme

PIONEERING STEPS TAKEN FOR

Name of the Proposal REDUCTION OF TECHNICAL LOSSES
ON LT LEVEL IN PITAMPURA

Calculation

Saving in Technical Losses 260 KW

Saving in Technical Losses

39 KW
including LLF

Saving in Units 341640 Units(in KWH)

Purchase Cost per unit 5.45 Rs.

Saving in Purchase Cost (for

18.62 Rs. Lac
units saved)
Total cost of scheme 88.64 Rs. Lac
% revenue return 21.01 %
Pay Back Period 4.76 Years
Table 10 Revenue return sheet

LT NETWORK STUDIES 44
 6.3.4. BENEFITS TO CUSTOMER & GOVERNMENT:

6.3.4.1. Benefits to customers

• Reliable Power Supply: Due to balance load on all LT feeders,
no more breakdown occurs due to overloading of feeders. In
this scheme N-1 of all LT feeders are also take, In case of
failure of any LT Feeder load shifted to this LT Feeder is
shifted to another feeder by changing NOP.
• Quality of Power Supply: Due to balance supply to consumer
no more low voltage problems & and voltage fluctuations to
consumer.
• Safety Issues: Many safety issues related to consumers is
also linked with this scheme. For example conversion of LT-
Bare conductor to LT-ABC or LT cable.
• Future Considerations: This study is done by considering
future load growth of concerned area. In future when an
applicant applied for a connection, sufficient margin
available on the network.
6.3.4.2. Benefits to Company /Government:
After implementation of this scheme huge savings to
Company/Govt. as given below:
▪ AT & C Loss Reduction: After implementation of this scheme
AT & C losses of subject area is reduced from 3.27% to 2.44
%. It gives saving of Rs. 21.01 Lacs per year
▪ Capital Expenditure: Rs. 88.64 Lacs
▪ Payback Period: 4.76 Years

LT NETWORK STUDIES 45
 7. MAINTENANCE AND PLANNING GROUP (MPG)

This group/department has the job to carry out maintenance and testing of the
various power transformers present in the TPDDL network. The power transformer
summary of TPDDL is shown below.
KV MVA NO. OF
TRANSFORMERS
11/6.6 5 1
33/6.6 10 2
33/11 1464 72
66/11 145 7
66/33 100 2
Total 1724 84
Table 11 Summary - North (N)

KV MVA NO. OF
TRANSFORMERS
33/11 166 9
66/11 1570 70
66/33 200 4
Total 1936 83
Table 12 Summary - North West (NW)

KV MVA NO. OF
TRANSFORMERS
11/6.6 5 1
33/6.6 10 2
66/33 300 6
66/11 1715 77
33/11 1630 81
Total 3660 167
Table 13 Summary - N+NW

S. NO. SYSTEM MVA NO. OF PTR PERCENTAGE (%)

1 NW 1724 84 47.1
2 N 1936 83 52.9
Table 14 Summary of power transformers in TPDDL

LT NETWORK STUDIES 46
7.1. PROCESS FLOW:

• Maintenance scheduling: Department decides how many times and

when, should a transformer be sampled for maintenance.
• On load tap changers: If there is non-uniformity in the output voltage of
the transformer then it is adjusted using on load tap changers (OLTC) .
• Tan( ) of transformer: For transformers operating at voltage levels below
33 KV, Tan( ) of only transformer needs to be calculated. For
transformers operating at voltage levels greater than 33 KV, Tan( ) of
insulator bushings cannot be neglected; hence, Tan( ) of both the
transformer and the insulator bushing needs to be found out
experimentally.
• Insulation resistance (IR): Ideally, insulation resistance of an insulator
must be infinite since the purpose of the insulation is to block current
flow between the copper and the core. But in practice, it is not possible.
If the IR value is less than a minimum standard value, it indicates that
the insulation has deteriorated.
• Polarization index (PI): PI is a variation of the IR test. It is the ratio of IR
measured after voltage has been applied for 10 minutes (R10) to the IR
measured after one minute (R1), i.e. PI = R10/R1.

7.2. DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS:

Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) is the study of dissolved gases in transformer

oil.
Insulating materials within transformers and electrical equipment break
down to liberate gases within the unit. The distribution of these gases can
be related to the type of electrical fault, and the rate of gas generation can
indicate the severity of the fault. The identity of the gases being generated
by a particular unit can be very useful information in any preventative
maintenance program.
The collection and analysis of gases in an oil-insulated transformer was
discussed as early as 1928. Many years of empirical and theoretical study
have gone into the analysis of transformer fault gases.
DGA usually consists of sampling the oil and sending the sample to a
laboratory for analysis. Mobile DGA units can be transported and used on
site as well; some units can be directly connected to a transformer. Online
monitoring of electrical equipment is an integral part of the smart grid.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 47
 The remaining diagnostic tools have a more effective diagnostic accuracy
rate. They involve more calculation and therefore aren’t always the first
choice. However, these tools can offer superior results and there are now
more automated means of calculating these results. Many DGA toolkits
today provide some or all of these diagnostic tool results with their reports
on the gas data.
The ratios that make up the first three methods are listed below. The process
for each method uses a subset of these ratios with diagnosis of fault type
based on the fit of each ratio result to a specific range of values. One
important point to remember when using ratio-based diagnostic tools is that
minimum gas levels are required, and are generally defined in the guides,
for the ratio analysis to be considered valid. The ratios are as follows:
Ratio 1 (R1) = CH4/H2
Ratio 2 (R2) = C2H2/C2H4
Ratio 3 (R3) = C2H2/CH4
Ratio 4 (R4) = C2H6/C2H2
Ratio 5 (R5) = C2H4/C2H6
The Rogers (IEEE) and Basic Gas Ratios (IEC) methods utilize ratios R1, R2
and R5 which are implemented by the process listed above. The Rogers
method evolved from the Doernenburg method and the Basic Gas Ratios are
an improvement over the Rogers method. The research that led to the
changes in each case was to better correlate specific ratio value ranges for
fault types with databases of inspected cases of transformer failures.
The final ratio-based method is the Duval Triangle. The Triangle method
was developed empirically in the early 1970’s. It is based on the use of 3
gases (CH4, C2H4 and C2H2) corresponding to the increasing energy levels
of gas formation. One advantage of this method is that it always provides a
diagnosis, with a low percentage of wrong diagnoses. The triangle method
plots the relative % of the 3 gases on each side of the triangle, from 0% to
100%. The 6 main zones of faults are indicated in the triangle, plus a DT
zone (mixture of thermal and electrical faults). Approximately 200+
inspected cases in service were used to develop the Triangle. An example of
the Triangle method is below:
If, for example, the DGA results are:
CH4 = 100 ppm First calculate: CH4+ C2H4 + C2H2 = 300ppm
C2H4 = 100 ppm Then calculate the relative % of each gas:
C2H2 = 100 ppm Relative % of CH4 = 100/300 = 33.3 %
Relative % of C2H4 = 100/300 = 33.3 %

LT NETWORK STUDIES 48
 Relative % of C2H2 = 100/300 = 33.3 %
These values are the triangular coordinates to be used on each side of the
triangle. To verify that the calculation was done correctly, the sum of these
3 values should always give 100%, and should correspond to only one point
in the triangle. Fig. 7 f shows a graphical plot of the Duval Triangle utilizing
data from an actual transformer with a poorly grounded part.
Typical results of DGA, as per the standards, have been tabulated as shown
below.

GAS LESS THAN 4 YEARS 4-10 YEARS >10 YEARS

IN SERVICE (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Hydrogen 10/150 200/300 200/300
Methane 50/70 100/150 200/300
Acetylene 20/30 30/50 100/150
Ethylene 100/150 150/200 200/400
Carbon Monoxide 200/300 400/500 600/700
Carbon Dioxide 3000/3500 4000/5000 9000/12000
Table 15 Permissible concentrations of dissolved gases in the oil of a healthy transformer
(Transformer Union AG)

GAS IEEE-C.57.104 IEC-60599

Hydrogen 100 60-150
Methane 120 40-110
Ethane 65 50-90
Ethylene 50 60-280
Acetylene 35 3-50
Carbon Monoxide 350 540-900
Carbon Dioxide 2500 5100-13000
Table 16 Acceptable fault gas levels

CH2/C2H4 CH4/H2 C2H4/C2H6 CHARACTERISTIC FAULT

<0.1 0.1-1.0 <1.0 No fault; unit normal
<0.1 <0.1 <1.0 Low energy density arcing
0.1-3.0 0.1-1.0 >3.0 Arcing- high energy density discharges
<0.1 0.1-1.0 <3.0 Low temperature thermal fault
<0.1 >1.0 1.0-3.0 Thermal fault<700◦ C
<0.1 >1.0 >3.0 Thermal fault>700◦ C
Table 17 IEEE-C.57.104 - Roger's ratio method

LT NETWORK STUDIES 49
 Fig. 7 a Barricading of the transformer under test

Fig. 7 b Extraction of oil sample

LT NETWORK STUDIES 50
 Fig. 7 c Oil Sample under test in DGA kit

Fig. 7 d Result 1: Gas concentrations

LT NETWORK STUDIES 51
 Fig. 7 e Result 2: Roger's ratios

Fig. 7 f Result 3: Duval's triangle

LT NETWORK STUDIES 52
 Fig. 7 g Result 4: Final result analysis

LT NETWORK STUDIES 53
 8. TRANSFORMER WORKSHOP

This department carries out activities related to transformer overhauling or

repairing and associated activities. Various steps are involved in the above
activities that have been listed down below:
• Transformer testing and process/steps of transformer overhauling
• Transformer testing post overhauling
• Failure analysis of transformers
• Transformer oil filtration

Fig. 8 a An opened up three phase transformer

LT NETWORK STUDIES 54
8.1. TRANSFORMER TESTING AND PROCESS/STEPS OF TRANSFORMER
OVERHAULING:
Before the start of Overhauling, Transformers are tested to analyze its
healthiness. Tests such as Series Lamp test, Megger are done, Oil BDV is
also checked.
8.1.1. Series lamp test:
This test is also known as Continuity test and is done to check the
healthiness of windings. Instruments used in this test are 230 volts
single phase supply, 40W lamp and shorting lead. 230 volt single
phase supply is fed between each phase of HV winding one-by-one
with a 40W lamp in series. The corresponding phase of LV winding
is shorted.
Deductions: The lamp must glow only when the LV winding is
shorted. If the lamp glows when LV winding is not shorted, it
indicates a short circuit in the winding. If the lamp does not glow
when LV winding is shorted, it indicates open circuit in the winding.
8.1.2. Megger:
The test voltage for performing the IR check is as follows:
HT-E: 5000V
LT-E: 1000V
HT-LT: 5000V
Minimum acceptable values for all distribution transformers are
shown below:

Windings Minimum acceptable IR value

before servicing (MΩ)
HV-LV 12
HV-E 12
LV-E 1.5
Table 18 Minimum acceptable IR values before servicing

Windings Minimum acceptable IR

values after servicing (MΩ)
HV-LV 15
HV-E 15
LV-E 5
Table 19 Minimum acceptable IR values after servicing

LT NETWORK STUDIES 55
 Fig. 8 b Megger instrument

8.1.3. Oil BDV test:

Oil present in transformer is re-used depending upon the following
criterion: BDV of oil is checked with an apparatus as shown below;
it is a motorized apparatus in which the voltage is applied between
two electrodes. The gap between the electrodes is 2.5 mm. The
electrodes are fitted in a pot, which is filled with oil and left still for
10minutes. Six consecutive readings are taken with an interval of
at least 5 minutes in each reading. The average reading must be
greater than 30 KV.

Fig. 8 c Oil BDV tester

LT NETWORK STUDIES 56
8.2. INTERPRETATION OF THE TESTS:
• If the IR values of transformer are less than acceptable limit, the core -
coil assembly is washed with hot oil. This process is known as “hot oil
bathe”. It cleanses the winding from all sorts of dirt, sludge, moisture etc.
which improves the IR values. Further the transformer is subjected to
hot oil filtration with new oil to improve its IR values.
• If the BDV of oil is lower than 30 KV and if it does not possess the
desirable properties as mentioned in the previous section, the oil is
changed.
• Hot oil bathe is generally preferred for all the transformers.

8.3. TRANSFORMER TESTING POST OVERHAULING:

After the complete overhauling and hot oil filtration, turns ratio test and
magnetic balance test is done on transformer to ascertain and to check if
any faults have retained in the transformer untraced. In magnetic balance
test, when single phase supply is applied to the centre phase the other phase
voltages should be almost equal. When the supply is applied to extreme
phases, centre phase voltage should be approximately 60%-80% and the
voltage of other extreme phase should be correspondingly 40% -20% of the
supply voltage.

8.4. TRANSFORMER OIL FILTRATION:

Transformer oil filtration is necessary to reduce its moisture and gaseous
content. Over a period of time moisture enters the transformer and reduces
the BDV of transformer oil and other metallic impurities from inside the
transformer tank wall, traces of paper insulation, sludge etc. also forms a
part of transformer oil. During transformer oil filtration all types of foreign
impurities are filtered in different stages. After that oil is heated to 60-70◦ C
and made to sprinkle in a chamber which is under vacuum. Reduction in
gaseous content, water vapor and impurities results in significant increase
of BDV of oil. If the transformer oil is acidic in nature, it can also be made
to pass through a chamber which is filled with perforated alumina to reduce
its acidity.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 57
 Fig. 8 d Oil filtration machine

LT NETWORK STUDIES 58
 9. CONCLUSION
Now from this report we can conclude that electricity plays an important role in
our life. We are made aware of how the distribution of electricity is done. We also
came to know about the various parts of the Substation system. Through this
report, we learn about power system apparatus and equipment like transformers,
circuit breaker, ring main units etc.
FLC department contributed to our knowledge by making us aware of various
causes of faults in cables and conductors and how to locate those faults. We also
learned to successfully trace route of an underground cable and upload it into
GIS.
NEG helped us understand the basic concepts of LT network planning and
scheming. The analysis of case study indulges us into following conclusions:
1. Reduction in Technical Losses of LT feeders: The Over loading of LT
Network has almost been removed for the subject area and forced outage
of LT network have been on least.
2. Safety:-Safety of consumers is also increased by removing Bare
Conductors/Multiple Jointed conductors/Cables near to consumer’s
premises.
3. Reliability:-Reliability of network is also increased by creating backup of
existing LT feeder’s .Current carrying capacity of existing network is also
increased by replacing existing sick cables, de-rated cables & conductors.
4. Overload Mitigation of DT: - Some LT feeders of Overloaded DT’s is shifted
to on nearest low loaded DT’s. Which also help in overload mitigation of LT
feeders as well as DT’s.
MPG and transformer workshops are the places that taught us the intricate
details, structure and testing of transformers, both single phase and three phase.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 59
 10. REFERENCES

1. Selectivity Analysis in Low Voltage Power Distribution Systems with Fuses &
Circuit Breakers, Paper No. 2008-PSPC-224, Marcelo Valdes, PE, Cindy Cline,
Steve Hansen, and Tom Papallo.
2. Seba KMT manual: Small cable test and fault location system for vehicle
installation.
3. Planning of distribution networks for medium and low voltage, Iman Ziari.
4. Tata Power-Distribution: Application for Distribution Licence: Case No 90 of
2014- Public Hearing.
5. A training report on Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation limited, Prateek
Agarwal, Babu Banarasi Das Northern Institute of Technology, Lucknow.
6. Serveron White Paper: DGA Diagnostic Methods.
7. Distribution Simulation Package for Low Voltage Distribution Network,
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research / ISSN: 2250–
3005, R. Chitra, R. Neelaveni.
8. Distribution system, Wikipedia.
9. Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy, C. L. Wadhwa
10. Power System Analysis, John J. Grainger and William D. Stevenson, Jr.
11. Electrical Power Systems, C. L. Wadhwa.

LT NETWORK STUDIES 60