SPPR 4

1. State of the Philippine Population Report 4 Theme: “Filipinos Beyond Borders: Population and
Development Dimensions of Overseas Labor Migration”

2. The fourth issue of the State of the Philippine Population Report (SPPR) that attempts to look more
deeply into the population and development dimensions of overseas labor migration.

3. Migration- The movement of people

- is one process that keeps changing the country’s population and development picture.

4. The temporary labor migrants, commonly referred to as overseas Filipino workers or OFWs, make
up the biggest number of Filipino international migrants in recent years.

5. Migration – movement of people from one geographic area to another involving a change of
residence.

6. Internal migration – movement within the boundaries of a nation.

7. Permanent migration – involves permanent settlement and immigration status in the country of
destination, often also involving change of citizenship.

8. Temporary migration - involves staying in another country only for a certain period of time for
various purposes.

9. Overseas Filipinos – all Filipino nationals abroad, including migrant workers, permanent residents
or immigrants, former Filipino citizens who are now citizens of another country, holders of non-
immigrant visas like tourists, visitors, students, medical patients, those on official missions abroad,
and descendants of Filipino nationals living overseas.

10. Temporary labor migrants (also known as guest workers or overseas contract workers) –
temporary migrants whose purpose in staying in another country is to work and send money home.
Filipino temporary labor migrants also include trainees who stay temporarily in another country to
obtain job related training.

11. Overseas Filipino workers - Filipinos temporarily out of the country to fulfill an overseas work
contract for a specific length of time or who are at home on a vacation but still have existing contracts
to work abroad. OFWs are the Filipino temporary labor migrants.

12. Irregular migrants (or undocumented or illegal migrants) - people who enter a country, usually in
search of employment, without the necessary documents and permits.

13. Forced migrants – people forced to move due to external factors, such as environmental
catastrophes, political conflict, calamities or land development projects, including refugees, asylum
seekers, and people displaced for reasons not of their own choice.

14. Family reunification migrants - people joining family members who are already migrants in
another country.

16. Return migrants - people who return to their countries of origin after having stayed in another
country for a considerable period.

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  Of the total stock estimate of overseas Filipinos in 2006, over 3.8 million or 46 percent were
temporary migrants.
 Permanent migrants made up 43 percent, and irregular migrants, 11 percent.

17. OFWs, sometimes also called overseas contract workers or OCWs, stay abroad only for the limited
duration of their job contracts, during which they send money home. They are usually hired through
a recruitment agency or through the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) in the
Philippines.

18. There are sea-based OFWs, and there are land-based OFWs.

19. Irregular or undocumented migrants include all migrants who do not possess legal papers, or if
they do, lack valid work permits.

20. As a demographic process, overseas labor migration helps shape the country’s population and
change the course of development at the individual, household, community and national levels.

21. POPULATION OUTCOMES

• Population size
• Age-sex structure
• Spatial distribution

22. DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES

• Consumption of goods and services (food, health, education, housing)
• Savings and investment
• Human capital utilization (i.e., labor)
• Physical capital utilization (land, capital, technology)
• Environmental resource utilization
• Public expenditure
• Others

23. DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES

• Income/income distribution
• Employment
• Educational status
• Health/nutritional status
• Environmental quality
• Others

24. POPULATION PROCESSES

• Fertility
• Mortality
• Migration (internal, international)

25. Age and Sex

The decennial Census of Population and Housing of the National Statistics Office (NSO), provides data
on the age, sex, and other socioeconomic characteristics of overseas Filipino workers and their
households.

26. The 2000 Census data (Ericta et al.,2003) showed that most overseas workers (24.6%) were aged
25 to 29

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27. The median age from the oldest to the youngest was 32

28. The median age was higher among the males (35) than among the females (29).

29. This is because the men were mostly in the older age brackets – the biggest proportion (22.3%)
were 45 years old and over.

30. The women, on the other hand, were mostly young, with the biggest proportion (28.8%) in the 25-
29 age group.

31. Across the country’s regions, OFWs from the Zamboanga Peninsula were the youngest, with an
average age of 26.

32. OFWs from the National Capital Region (NCR) and Southern Tagalog were the oldest – 34 years old
on the average.

33. Grouped by sex, the Central Visayas and Zamboanga Peninsula regions recorded the youngest age
for females at 24 years old; Zamboanga Peninsula also recorded the youngest age for males at 29
years old.

34. An increasing feminization of migration has been observed over the past decade. More and more
women, compared to men, are going abroad to work.

35. Traditionally, as seen from earlier NSO surveys, male OFWs always slightly outnumbered the
females. In the 2000 Census, the numbers came to almost even, with the males (50.27) just a little
over females (49.73). This translates to a ratio of 101 males to 100 females.

36. NSO’s Surveys on Overseas Filipinos (SOF) shows that there were more males than females from
1995 to 2003. However, in 2004 and 2006, females outnumbered males.

37. POEA records show that during the period 2000-2005, females made up over 70 percent of the
newly hired OFWs.

38. In 2006, six out of ten newly hired overseas workers were females.

39. Education
 Majority of OFWs are at least college graduates (64%).
 A considerable number are only high school graduates (31%).
 Some finished only grade school (5%).
 This shows that while some may get lucky to get overseas jobs even with only an elementary
or high school education, those with higher education are still favored.
 A study conducted by the Italian government showed that most of the Filipino domestic
workers in Italy are college degree holders and some even have a doctorate degree (PhD).

40. The surge in overseas employment in recent years saw the emergence of certain types of
occupations. Whereas before, it was mostly nurses and doctors who went to work abroad, now there
are seamen, domestic helpers, and entertainers. Of late, there has also been an increasing demand
for caregivers.

41. Laborers and unskilled workers (which include domestic helpers) make up the biggest percentage
of OFWs – 33 percent in 2004, and 32 percent in 2003.

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42. Trade and related workers, and plant and machine operators were also considerable in number
during these years.

43. Female OFWs outnumbered males in several occupational categories, such as: professionals,
clerks, service and sales workers, and laborers and unskilled workers.

44. Significant sex differences are apparent with the males more likely to predominate in the
production sector, and the females in the service and professional/technical occupational groups.

45. In seven of the top ten destinations of Filipino overseas workers in 2002, women predominate.

46. In most of these countries, women work as domestic helpers, as in Hong Kong, Kuwait, Singapore
and Italy.

47. In Hong Kong, where 93 percent of all Filipino contract workers are women, Filipinos are the largest
group of foreign domestic workers.

48. In Japan, where women make up 53 percent of OFWs, they are mostly in entertainment jobs.

49. Nursing and health-related jobs are the most common jobs of Filipino women in the United
Kingdom.

50. The Philippines is the UK’s top source of nurses.

51. Various migration tracking tools indicate that in 2006, most of the OFWs came from the regions in
Luzon, specifically NCR and CALABARZON (Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal and Quezon).

52. A lot of OFWs also came from Central Luzon.

53. The other regions have smaller shares of OFWs, with the Caraga Region in Mindanao putting in
the smallest share.

54. POEA (Philippine Overseas Employment Administration) is the government agency under the
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) that regulates the overseas employment industry.

55. Its records show a steady increase in the number of deployed OFWs from 1998 to 2006, only
dipping slightly in 2003 then rising again and reaching 1,062,657 in 2006.

56. The Middle East has been the top region of destination since 2001 although there is an increasing
number of Filipinos opting to go to Southeast Asia.

57. POEA classifies the type of deployment as either:

land-based
sea-based

58. Sea-based deployment is usually specified when discussing the spatial distribution of overseas
Filipinos, as seafarers normally do not stay only in the country of employment but sail as well to other
territories.

59. The Philippines is regarded by maritime groups worldwide as the top supplier of merchant marine
crew, providing at least a quarter of the world’s global fleet.

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60. NSO tracks the distribution of temporary labor migrants using a different grouping of the places of
destination. Figures for 2004-2006 show Asia with the most number of Filipino migrant workers,
accounting for 78.3 percent of all OFWs in 2006.
It should be noted that this number covers all OFWs spread over the different Asian regions, including
East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Central Asia, and Western Asia, which is the Middle East. (POEA
classifies the Middle East separately from Asia.) Among the Asian regions, Western Asia has the biggest
share (45.8% in 2006).

61. Filipino migrant workers in the Americas (which includes the United States) and Europe comprise
only a small percentage of Filipino labor migrants (9.5% and 9.2%, respectively in 2006).

62. Saudi Arabia is undoubtedly the top destination country for Filipino contract workers in the past
six years.

63. Coming in second and third in 2006 are the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, respectively.

64. One of the likely reasons why the Middle East is a popular destination for temporary contract
workers may be because many states in the region do not tax foreign workers.

65. A typical OFW sends home the bigger part of his/her salary in the form of remittances.

66. Remittances refer to money sent by overseas Filipinos to benefit their families, relatives, and
communities in their country of origin.

These are sent either through formal channels

- Banks
through informal or non-bank channels
- door-to-door and courier services
- traditional Filipino practice of padala (sending the money through a fellow Filipino who is
going home)
67. In the Philippines, the major remittance-recording government agency is the Bangko Sentral ng
Pilipinas (BSP) since most of the remittances pass through the banking system.

68. The BSP records monthly flows, and also has a recording system for remittances within the Balance
of Payments (BOP). The BOP is a summary of a country’s financial transactions with the rest of the
world (Association of Foundations, 2005).

69. The annual Survey on Overseas Filipinos by the NSO provides information on remittances that
come into the country from the months of April to September. It is the only migration tracking tool
that keeps tab of remittances passing through nonbank channels, and records them according to the
senders’ sex, occupations abroad, and other variables.

70. Annual remittance data show the increasing trend in the remittances from US$5.5B in 1997 to
about US$12.8B in 2006, or an average of almost a billion US$/month.

71. From 1975 to 2006, BSP’s records show that the country’s banking system has received a total of
US$104.75B worth of remittances from overseas Filipinos. In 2006 alone, a total of almost US$12.8B
were sent through bank channels.

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72. One important piece of information we get from SOF data is the amount of remittances sent in by
male as against female OFWs.

73. Total remittances sent by all male OFWs each year are naturally bigger than the total for the
females since there are more male than female OFWs.

74. But even the average remittance per individual OFW is also bigger among males than females. In
2004, for instance, average remittance for the year per male OFW was PhP93,613.00, whereas the
average per female OFW was only PhP51,410.00.

75. The Asian Development Bank (ADB, 2004) conducted several surveys to find out more about
Filipino migrants’ remittances.

76. In the Philippine OFW surveys, findings revealed that OFW respondents, on the average, sent $340
monthly.

77. While remittance amounts varied, the most frequent amount mentioned was $182. Of the OFWs
surveyed, 65 percent sent money through banks, 20 percent used door-to-door channels, and 6
percent sent their money through money transfer agencies. On the average, 60 percent of the
respondents’ income was remitted to the Philippines.

78. After more than three decades, the Philippines has emerged as one of the major labor-sending
countries worldwide, supplying a variety of workers and professionals to more than 200 countries.

79. Laws that Protect Migrants’ Rights

Article II, Section 18 says that the “State affirms labor as a primary social economic force. It shall
protect the rights of workers and promote their welfare.”

80. Article XIII, Section 3 declares that the “State shall give full protection to labor, local or overseas,
organized or unorganized, and promote full employment and equality of employment opportunities
for all.”

81. Laws have been enacted to flesh out these provisions. Among them are the Magna Carta for
Filipino Migrant Workers (RA 8042) and the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act.

82. Labor migration laws and policies

The 1974 Labor Code
The policy of promoting overseas employment began with the issuance of the Presidential Decree 442
or the Labor Code of 1974 - Under this law, it became state policy to ensure the careful selection of
Filipino workers for overseas employment to protect the good name of the Philippines abroad.

83. PD 442 also recognized the vital role of the private sector in the recruitment and placement of
workers, locally and overseas (Article 25).

84. The Labor Code provided for the creation of the government machinery to institutionalize the
overseas employment program.
The agencies created under this code were the National Seamen Board, the Bureau of Employment
Services, and the Overseas Development Board.

85. Republic Act 8042 or the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995

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Republic Act 8042 was enacted in June 1995 to concretize the government’s commitment to protect
the rights and promote the welfare of migrant workers, their families, and other overseas Filipinos in
distress. It also provides the framework for government action in dealing with difficulties faced by
Filipinos abroad.

86. RA 8042 was prompted by the national furor over the execution of Flor Contemplacion, a domestic
worker in Singapore, who many Filipinos believed was innocent despite her conviction for the deaths
of her Singaporean ward and another Filipino domestic worker.

87. RA 8042 is anchored on the following policy guidelines:

• Uphold the dignity of Filipino migrant workers.
• Migrant workers should be provided with sufficient and relevant social, economic, and legal
services.
• The State does not promote overseas work as an instrument to sustain economic growth.
• There is equality of individuals, regardless of gender, before the law and in nation building.
• There is a need to institute an effective mechanism to ensure that the rights and interests of overseas
Filipinos are adequately protected and safeguarded.
• There should be full participation and representation of Filipinos abroad in democratic decision-
making processes.
• The possession of skills is the ultimate protection of all migrant workers.
• There should be recognition of the role of NGOs as partners in the rights and welfare of Filipino
migrant workers.

88. The law provides for the following:

• The deployment of workers in countries that ensure protection, including the banning of deployment
if necessary.
• Providing support and assistance to overseas Filipinos, whether legal or in an unauthorized situation.
• Imposing stiff penalties for illegal recruiters.
• Free legal assistance and witness protection program for victims of illegal recruitment.
• The institution of advisory/information, repatriation, and reintegration services.
• The establishment of the Migrant Workers and Other Overseas Filipinos Resource Centers in
countries where there are large numbers of Filipinos.
• The creation of the Legal Assistant for Migrant Workers Affairs (now the Office of the Undersecretary
for Migrant Workers Affairs) and the Legal Assistance Fund.

89. Among countries of origin in Asia, the Philippines is considered topnotch in passing migration-
related laws. These include:
1. The Overseas Absentee Voting Act of 2003. This gives qualified overseas Filipinos the
right to vote in national elections. Its first implementation, in the May 2004 national elections,
revealed the strengths and weaknesses of the mechanisms and processes in the electoral exercise.
Among the issues raised were the restrictive provisions on voter qualifications and a limitation in the
electoral mechanism that prevent wider voter participation.
2. The Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003. This law established the policies and
institutional mechanism to provide support to trafficked persons.

90. The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) oversees the establishment of remittance facilities and
supervises the remittance operations of banks and their affiliates and subsidiaries. The BSP is also
responsible for recording remittances.

91. In order to encourage OFWs to send their remittances through the banking system, the BSP, in
managing remittances, aims at:

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(1) lowering the cost of transacting with banks;
(2) reducing the time it takes to deliver the money to the recipients; and
(3) strengthening the security of the transactions.

92. The BSP has issued a number of circulars to make it more attractive for OFWs to remit through
banks:
• Circular No. 534 helps promote efficient and competitively priced remittance services by requiring
banks and financial institutions to post their charge rates and delivery time for various remittance
products, as well as their directory of remittance centers.
• Circular No. 522 provides OFWs with the option to maintain foreign currency deposits, and enables
rural/ cooperative banks to service OFWs’ foreign exchange remittances.
• Circular No. 564 helps promote access to services of for- mal financial institutions even among
beneficiaries residing in remote areas.

93. Alternative mechanisms for sending money:

G-Cash
SmartPadala
cash cards

94. The BSP also encourages overseas Filipinos and their families to save, as well as invest in
government securities, bonds, and small, medium and micro enterprises. Together with OWWA and
the Economic Resource Center for Overseas Filipinos (ERCOF), it has launched the Financial Literacy
Campaign which informs OFWs and their beneficiaries of investment and business opportunities to
put their remittances into.

95. The DOLE (Department of Labor and Employment) is the primary government agency mandated
to promote employment opportunities, develop human resources, protect workers and promote their
welfare, and promote industrial peace at home and abroad.

96. In 1982, the functions of the Overseas Employment Development Board and the National Seamen
Board, created under the 1974 Labor Code, were consolidated by Executive Order 797 into a single
organization, the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA).

97. POEA’s mandate focused on the determination, formulation, review, and implementation of labor
market development activities, employment standards, regulation and licensing of private
recruitment agencies.

98. There are now more than a thousand government-licensed recruitment and manning agencies in
the Philippines (and an undetermined number of unlicensed ones) that match workers with foreign
employers. Recruitment and manning agencies are mainly responsible for finding jobs for aspiring
land-based migrant workers and seafarers, respectively.

99. Recruitment agencies charge migrant workers “placement fees” for the service they provide.
Manning agencies are not supposed to charge placement fees as the principal or employer assumes
these fees, but there are cases of violations.

100. Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA), to oversee operations pertaining to the
welfare of overseas workers and their families through the welfare fund.

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101. While POEA handles all the processes and requirements up until the departure of migrants,
OWWA assumes responsibility for the workers’ welfare while they are employed abroad. POEA and
OWWA are both under the DOLE.

102. Also within the DOLE are services and offices for international labor affairs.
 International Labor Affairs Services under which are the Philippine Overseas Labor Offices
(POLOs) located in 34 countries, mostly in Asia and Middle East where significant numbers of
Filipinos are employed. The POLO acts as the DOLE’s operating arm in administering and
enforcing international labor policies and programs in these countries.

103. The Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) is likewise mandated to provide support, particularly in
diplomatic and foreign relations affecting migrant workers abroad.

104. Under RA 8042, the Office of the Undersecretary for Migrant Workers’ Affairs (OUMWA) was
created in the DFA to help ensure the protection and promotion of the welfare and dignity of overseas
Filipinos. OUMWA coordinates with various sectors — elected officials, other government agencies,
OFWs and their families, mass media, private organizations, international organizations, NGOs and
religious groups – in assisting Filipino nationals.

105. A Consular Assistance Division (CAD) in the DFA, under Section 899 of the 1995 DFA Rules and
Regulations, handles all matters pertaining to assistance to Filipino citizens abroad, including seamen
and contract workers.

106. The Commission on Filipino Overseas (CFO), a separate agency under the Office of the President,
handles programs and services for permanent emigrants. Its tasks include, among others: establishing
a data bank on Filipino emigrants; assisting in the formulation of national policies and measures
affecting overseas Filipinos; formulating an integrated program and undertaking special projects to
promote the interest and welfare of Filipino migrants; and serve as a forum for preserving and
enhancing the social, economic and cultural ties of overseas Filipinos with their motherland.

107. To ensure the development of quality human resource particularly for labor export, the
government has institutionalized training institutions to conduct, monitor, and coordinate skills
development programs.
 Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)
 National Maritime Polytechnic (NMP)

108. Five chapters in the current Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan for 2004-2010 are
devoted to overseas employment, noting the rising number of overseas workers and their huge dollar
remittances. Overseas employment was attuned to the four strategies of:
1. employment generation
2. employment preservation
3. employment enhancement
4. employment facilitation

109. Applicants for skilled or semi-skilled jobs are required to submit authenticated certificates from
the TESDA.

110. Professionals are required to submit proof of completion of the requisite course from the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED).

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111. There are clinics and hospitals accredited by the Department of Health (DOH) where the
applicants can go for medical and physical checkups.

112. After receiving their visas from the host country, which means their entry has been approved,
overseas job applicants must attend a Pre-departure Orientation Seminar (PDOS) that will brief them
on the laws, customs, and practices of host countries, their rights and obligations under the
employment contracts, and how they will adapt to the overseas situation.
OWWA-accredited institutions, recruitment agencies, and certified trainers administer the orientation
sessions for would-be overseas workers. Some recruitment agencies have their own in-house pre-
departure orientation facilities; some NGOs have specialized in orientation courses for those in
vulnerable occupations.

113. Section 28 of the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipino Act of 1995 calls for the country-team
approach to ensure comprehensive welfare, support, and rescue services for overseas workers.

114. “One Country Team Approach” (OCTA), Filipino officers, representatives, and personnel posted
abroad, regardless of their mother agencies, act as one team in their country of assignment under the
leadership of the ambassador.

115. The DOH sees to it that general health services are provided to Filipinos working abroad. It usually
sends health workers to areas where health risks are high due to widespread diseases.

116. Section 15 of RA 8042 states that OWWA is responsible for the repatriation of workers in cases
of war, epidemic, disasters and calamities, natural or man-made, and similar events.

117. In cases where the employer or recruitment agency cannot be located or identified, all costs
attendant to repatriation shall be borne by the OWWA.

118. Welfare programs are being implemented not only for overseas workers but also for their
families. These include:
1. Social Security Program, which provides replacement income for workers in times of
disability, sickness, maternity, and old age;
2. Medicare Program, at present administered by the Philippine Health Insurance Corp.
(PhilHealth) through the Overseas Workers Program;
3. Workers’ Development, include periodic on-site training such as computer and cooking
lessons, foreign language tutorials, livelihood projects, and gender-related activities;
4. OFW E-Card Program, a permanent identification card for all OFWs to use in dealings with
various government and private activities/programs;
5. Pag-ibig Overseas Program, aimed at giving Filipino workers, immigrants, and naturalized
citizens the opportunity to save for their future and the chance to obtain a housing loan;
6. OWWA Voluntary Membership On Site, which encourages undocumented workers and
other workers like entertainers and domestic helpers to become regular members of OWWA and
receive the benefits given to legal workers who are OWWA members; and
7. Retirement Program, which offers retirement benefits for former Filipinos and qualified
foreigners who would like to spend their retirement years in the Philippines.

119. The National Reintegration Center for OFWs was established pursuant to RA 8042, Section 17 of
which prescribes the establishment of a re-placement and monitoring center, and Executive Order
446, which authorizes the Secretary of DOLE to oversee and coordinate the implementation of various
initiatives to enable OFWs to productively rejoin the mainstream of Philippine society.

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120. The center was designed to be a “one-stop center” of reintegration for OFWs and their families.
It also serves as a “service networking hub” for coordinating and facilitating the delivery of services by
various stakeholders and service providers. Within this hub of services, the multi-faceted reintegration
needs of OFWs and their families, including the development of their communities, should be
addressed.

121. The center uses a threefold thrust of personal, community, and economic reintegration. It
develops, implements, and evolves progressive reintegration programs attuned to the needs of the
OFWs, their families and their communities in order to maximize the benefits of migration to
development.
1. Personal Reintegration – This program provides services such as: job assistance for local
overseas placement; technical assistance for self-employment through entrepreneurship
development; access to credit/micro finance for livelihood projects utilizing the migrants’
skills and expertise; counseling in business or savings mobilization schemes; and psychosocial
counselling, preferably with the support and cooperation the Family Circles.
2. Community Reintegration – This includes the Classroom Galing sa Mamamayang Pilipino
Abroad (CGMA). In line with the “Brain Gain” thrust and in cooperation with government
agencies like the Department of Trade and Industry and the Philippine Retirement Authority,
this program encourages OFW returnees and Filipino migrants who are still abroad to invest
their savings in the development of small and medium enterprises and/or high-impact
community-based projects in their communities or LGUs.
3. Economic Reintegration – This program networks, links up with and gets the cooperation of
financial institutions and other entities for the identification or development of
entrepreneurial opportunities or investment portfolios that will encourage increased earning,
saving and investing among OFWs. The reintegration center likewise encourages stakeholders
and service providers to develop and offer easier-to-use, faster, safer and price-competitive
remittance schemes or packages to encourage OFWs to transfer funds to their families in the
Philippines through formal channels.

122. A network of OFW families and their dependents known as the “Family Circles” was established
to help empower families, facilitate repatriation of OFWs when the need arises, and provide
psychosocial services to returning workers for a smoother reunion with their families.

123. The Kabayanihan or the Kabayan-Bayani-Bayanihan program is an integration of the welfare and
social program packages for overseas Filipinos at work sites abroad and in the Philippines.

124. There are other government programs that aim to benefit OFWs and other Filipinos. These
include:
• Lingkod sa Kapwa Pilipino or Link for Philippine Development (LINKAPIL) – facilitates the transfer of
contribu- tions, grants, and assistance from Filipinos and other donors overseas to support projects
in livelihood development, education, health and welfare, small-scale infra- structure, and
technology and skills transfer.
• Balik Scientist Program of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) – allows foreign-based
Filipino science and technology experts to return to or reside in the Philippines, and share their
expertise to help accelerate the country’s scientific, agroindustrial, and economic development.
• Livelihood Program for OFWs – delivers the economic component of the Comprehensive OFW
Reintegration Program. It provides entrepreneurial development services and credit facilities to
OFWs, their families, and organizations.
• OFW Groceria Project – provides livelihood and self- employment opportunities to OFWs and their
families through the establishment of 1,000 grocery stores nationwide.

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125. In partnership with Microsoft, DOLE, through OWWA, has inaugurated the facilities for “Tulay”
(bridge), a program that gives IT training and technology access to OFWs and their families. Two
computer training centers for OFWs and their families have been set up at the OWWA offices in Metro
Manila and in Cebu City.

126. The Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) disseminates information to job
seekers through the local government units.

127. United Nations and other international policy instruments

Refugees, asylum seekers, or victims of violations of political and civil rights are protected in the 1951
Convention and the 1967 Protocol on the Status of Refugees. Protective measures for people who
were compelled to leave their homelands as a consequence of violations of economic, social and/or
cultural rights came much later.

128. Commitments to migrants’ rights were made at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna
(1993), the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo (1994), the World
Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen (1995), and the World Conference on Women in
Beijing (1995).

129. Other international conventions recognizing the rights of migrants include:

 the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social, and
Cultural Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Convention on the Rights of the Child, ILO Forced Labor
Convention (No. 29), ILO Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize
Convention (No. 87), ILO Equal Remuneration Convention (No. 100), ILO Discrimination
(Employment and Occupation) Convention (No. 111), ILO Minimum Age Convention (No. 38),
Migration for Employment Convention (No. 97), Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions)
Convention (No. 143), and International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All
Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families.

130. International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members
of Their Families - was adopted in December 1990 and put into force in October 2003 after 20
countries ratified it. As of October 2005, it had been ratified by 34 countries and signed by 15
countries.

131. The Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 mandates that the “State shall deploy
overseas Filipino workers only in countries where the rights of Filipino migrant workers are protected.”
The government recognizes any of the following as a guarantee on the part of the receiving country
that overseas Filipino workers will be protected and their rights are upheld:
1. It has existing labor and social laws protecting the rights of migrant workers.
2. It is a signatory to multilateral conventions, declarations, or resolutions relating to the
protection of migrant workers.
3. It has concluded a bilateral agreement or arrangement with the government protecting the
rights of overseas Filipino workers.
4. It is taking positive, concrete measures to protect the rights of migrant workers.

132. Bilateral labor agreements (BLAs) can be an effective way to regulate the recruitment and
employment of foreign short- and long-term workers between countries. They can take the form of
formal treaties or less formal memoranda of understanding, or even very informal practical
arrangements, such as between national employment agencies of two countries.

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133. Bilateral labor agreements
Today, overseas Filipino workers can be found in 194 countries in the world. However, since the
overseas employment program began in 1974, the Philippines has been able to reach bilateral labor
agreements with only 13 countries, 12 labor-receiving countries, and one labor-sending country. It
has not been able to enter into such agreements with the largest labor- receiving countries of overseas
Filipino workers, particularly Saudi Arabia and Japan.

134. The bilateral labor agreements between the Philippines and other countries may be classified
into two broad categories:
the labor recruitment and special hiring agreements; and the labor, employment, and manpower
development agreements.

135. Labor recruitment agreements focus on the terms and conditions concerning the employment
and mobilization of Filipino workers or the exchange of trainees. The bilateral agreements with
Norway, the United Kingdom, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Taiwan, and Switzerland are largely
recruitment agreements. Examples of labor, employment, and manpower agreements are those with
Libya, Jordan, Qatar, Iraq, Kuwait, and the Commonwealth of Northern Marianas Islands (CNMI).

136. In social security, the Philippines has signed bilateral agreements with only eight countries. These
are Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Canada and its independent province of Quebec, France, the United
Kingdom, the Netherlands, Spain, and most recently, South Korea.

137. In 2000, the Social Security System of the Philippines reported that relative to the implementation
of the agreements, 260 Filipino claimants were granted benefits, 192 (74 percent) of which were from
Canada.

138. The Philippines is the largest supplier of seafarers in the world. There are about 200,000 Filipino
seafarers working on board international vessels representing 20 percent of actively employed
seafarers in ocean-going vessels. Japan is the biggest employer of Filipino seafarers, accounting for an
estimated 25 percent of the 200,000 Filipino seamen deployed yearly.

139. The Philippine government’s efforts have resulted in the signing of bilateral maritime transport
and merchant shipping agreements with eight countries: Iran (1975), Cyprus (1984), Liberia (1985),
Bangladesh (1989), Vietnam (1992), Norway (1999), Netherlands (2000), and Brunei (2003).

140. Since 2000, the Philippines has signed bilateral agreements on the recognition of seafarers’
certificates with 31 countries.

141. In some countries, migrant women experience discrimination in the labor market. Many find
themselves in a situation of “brain waste” when they have to take jobs that are way below their
educational and professional qualifications.

142. Filipinos overseas face varied health conditions (Pelaez, 2006). Migrants, like citizens of host
countries, are exposed to diseases and outbreaks in the country of employment (such as the Steven
Johnson’s Syndrome and the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome or SARS), which they can even bring
home to their own country. (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific,
2006).

143. There are reported cases of Filipinos in other countries who have contracted HIV/AIDS. Almost
35 percent of Filipinos currently living with HIV/AIDS are overseas contract workers. The HIV/AIDS

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issue leaves both the migrants and their country of origin at a disadvantage. To the individual worker,
in addition to the health and social implications, having HIV/AIDS means losing the chance to earn
income. At the macro level, a high HIV/AIDS prevalence among overseas workers will be felt by the
economy in terms of reduced remittances (HAIN, 2000b).

144. In the State of World Population Report 2006, it was pointed out that the increasing feminization
of international migration has opened doors to a new world of greater equality for women, and relief
from oppression and discrimination that limit freedom and stunt potential. Yet women migrants are
among the most vulnerable to human rights abuses—both as migrants and as females. Their hard
work deserves recognition, and their human rights need protection (United Nations Population Fund,
2006).

145. The abuses that Filipino women suffer as migrant workers were pushed into national
consciousness with the violence that gripped three women contract workers (Opiniano, 2004a). Two
of these women died: entertainer Maricris Sioson died in Japan, and Singapore-based domestic helper
Flor Contemplacion was executed. Their cases have spawned a national outcry to look at the welfare
of female temporary contract workers. Policies pertinent to the feminization of Filipino overseas
migration have been formulated as a result of these cases, but Filipino migrant women in various parts
of the world continue to be subjected to violence and abuses (Estopace, 2007).

146. Reproductive rights abuses and risks among OFWs include rape, sexual harassment and
exploitation, and exposure to sexually transmitted infections and HIV/ AIDS – in most cases of which,
the victims are women.

147. The most direct outcome of overseas employment on the migrant’s family is the increased
income.
Increased incomes have led to increased consumption. Remittances were used for items such as: daily
expenses and basic subsistence needs (meaning food, clothing, and health care), house construction
or renovation, and major items such as land, cattle, or consumer durable goods (Scalabrini Migration
Center, 2007; Asian Development Bank, 2005; Cruz, 1990; Asian Migrant III, 1990; Puri and Ritzema,
1990 cited in United Nations, 2002). This also means a change in lifestyle (Aban et al, 1988).

148. When one of the parents leave, then the parent who is left behind has to take on the tasks and
roles of the one who migrated, in addition to his/her own responsibilities. This is called solo parenting,
and it has led to major changes in traditional gender roles and relationships (Cruz, 1990).
“housebands”- Filipino men with wives working abroad

149. Temporary overseas migration of parents results in the creation of seasonal orphans.. Studies of
children with migrant parents vary in their findings. One study (Cruz, 1987) found that children of
migrant workers have learned to adjust to their parents’ absence. The study also found that children
of migrants and non-migrants were similar in their values, attitudes, and behaviors, indicating that the
migrants’ children are able to cope with their situation.

150. The mother who is a migrant worker is faced with the challenge of being both a migrant and a
transnational mother. A study of Filipina domestic workers in Italy (Basa and De la Rosa, 2005) showed
that these women, who regard themselves as “distant mothers,” have varied reasons for their decision
to work as domestic workers.

151. Another important issue that has not been subjected to analysis is the economy of women’s
jobs. Even before the Beijing+5 World Conference on Women, women’s rights activists had been
pushing for the economization or monetization of household or domestic work. They argue that if

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women temporary contract workers are paid a certain amount for their services, that amount should
become the standard for measuring women’s household work. The nonprofit group Visayan Forum
Foundation is also lobbying for such rights and benefits for Philippines based domestic workers
(UNFPA, 2006).

152. Remittances sent in by overseas workers are translated into the country’s net factor income from
abroad (NFIA). This amount is added to the gross domestic product (GDP) to generate the gross
national product (GNP).

153. Dollar inflows contribute to the country’s gross international reserves (GIR) which insulate the
local economy from foreign exchange fluctuations (Pelaez, 2006).

154. “Structural unemployment” or the persistence of high unemployment rates due to the “failure
to absorb the seemingly large labor surplus” in the country, and the failure to create jobs amid
episodes of GDP growth. Unemployment continues to grow even with episodes of rising overseas
labor migration flows.

155. Another study (Ang, 2006) says that agricultural development, too, is being hit by continued
overseas migration overseas, calling this “capital-rich underdevelopment.”

I156. nternational migration necessarily comes with some loss of human resources. When this loss
involves large numbers of skilled and educated members of the workforce, it is referred to as brain
drain.

157. There are cases, although they are few, where overseas Filipinos used the skills they gained
abroad to engage in productive activities and businesses here (Opiniano and Castro, 2006) -Brain gain

158. Remittances, serve as financial counterpart to migration, which can offset some of the outlays
and losses that may be associated with the loss of skilled workers (Burgess and Haksar, 2005).

159. The main reason for the rapid population growth is continued high fertility (UNFPA, 2005).

160. The total fertility rate (TFR) or the average number of children born to a woman in her
reproductive years was 6.0 per woman in 1973.

161. This had declined to 3.7 in 2003, but this is still among the highest in East and Southeast Asia.
South Korea and Thailand had already reached replacement fertility by 2000.

162. Rapid population growth puts heavy strains on the capacity of families and governments to
provide health, education and employment opportunities and services to its members given their very
limited resources.

163. The Philippines has a young population, with the biggest segment in the 0-14 age bracket. Half
the population is below age 21. This implies a high dependency burden with a large number of
dependent members being supported by the working-age population.

164. In 2004, the ratio was 69 persons in the dependent ages (below 15 and over 60) for every 100
members of working age (15-60). This may look good supposedly, but in reality, only 67 percent of
the economically productive ages in 2004 were in the labor force, and 13 percent of them were
actually unemployed. Thus, the realistic dependency ratio is 187 dependents per 100 employed
Filipinos, or almost two dependents per one economically productive worker (Raymundo, 2004).

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165. The Philippines’ elderly population is growing faster now than years ago. And the rate it is growing
is faster than the growth rate of the total population. From a 2.26 percent growth rate in 1990, the
average growth rate of the elderly population during the past decade has gone up to 3.64 percent.

166. This led some people to worry about the onset of the so-called “demographic winter” or an
ageing population. Population experts agree, however, that a demographic winter is still a very distant
scenario, if it will even happen at all, in the Philippines.

167. “Demographic winter” refers to the population condition when the elderly make up the biggest
bracket of the population. This happens when there are very few new babies getting added to the
population base due to extremely low fertility rates. Meanwhile, the population members in the other
age groups are getting old and moving up to the top elderly bracket.

168. Demographic bonus or demographic dividend is the opportunity for increased economic growth
that a country achieves when there are more people gainfully employed, and per capita income
becomes higher, as a result of moderated population growth, managed fertility, and less young
dependents. Theoretically, the Philippines should now be reaping its demographic bonus because
many of the children born during the periods of high fertility (1970s and 1980s) are now in the labor
force.

169. The United Nations Population Fund in the Philippines offers the following observation on
demographic bonus: It is called a demographic bonus in the sense that given the same population size
and the same output per worker, a population with a higher proportion of working ages, if fully
employed, would achieve a higher per capita income than if there were a smaller proportion of
working ages due to past and current high fertility (UNFPA, 2005).

170. The demographic dividend would have been delivered through the following mechanisms:
- improving the labor supply, increasing savings, and
- improving the human capital.

171. The Feminization of Migration

 Women’s migration has raised both gain and pain. It is good for the women that they are
migrating on their own rather than as part of family migration because this suggests greater
freedom and choice. Migrant women workers are also empowered economically because they
get a higher income and they can send home remittances for which they are highly
appreciated by their families.
 The feminization of international migration is a major population and development issue that
should be seriously considered in population and development policies. From a population
perspective, this involves building quality female resources responsive to global demand for
female labor. This should include the creation of an enabling environment for women to be
able to exercise their human rights, including reproductive rights (such as achieving their
fertility goals).

172. The high unemployment rate in the country is indicative of a related issue that local economists
call “jobless growth” (Lanzona 2001, cited in Opiniano, 2004). This means that even if the domestic
economy grew, the employment situation has not improved. This condition can be attributed to the
following factors:
a. Labor force participation may be growing more rapidly than in the past, but
unemployment is increasing even faster because that part of the population that is ready to work

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also increases. Thus, jobless growth can be attributed to the higher rate of population growth,
without a corresponding increase in the number of jobs for new labor force entrants.
b. Even if there was increasing economic growth in the country, it has not led to many
more jobs because growth is ultimately trace able to an upturn in labor productivity.
c. Fluctuations in employment in each economy may be affected by the country’s business
cycle. While employment rises during a slowdown and lessens during a boom, the unemployment
rate is expected to fluctuate around an average that is determined by socio-demographic, political
and institutional factors

173. “great escape” market pertains to the jobs and opportunities abroad that OFWs seek so as to
provide for their families.

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