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1. College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Kaul 136021, Haryana, India
(email:ua5419@yahoo.co.uk)
Abstract
Coconut palm is considered as a native of Malesia, a bio-geographical region that includes
Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Australia, New Guinea, and several Pacific Island groups. Coconut has
been recorded in archaeological excavations and epigraphic inscriptions, in Sanskrit scriptures of
religious, agricultural, and Ayurvedic importance, and in historical records as well as travelogues
of visitors from China, Arab, and Italy. Its usefulness and multiplicity of uses has earned it
epithets like “Tree of life”, “Tree of heaven”, “Tree of abundance”, and “Kalpavriksha” (a tree
that provides all necessities of life). In addition to its food value, it has health, medicinal, and
cosmetic value. Coconut occupies a special and a higher place among the many articles used in
religious offerings to Almighty God. In India no religious offer is acceptable without a coconut.
It is used in religious and social ceremonies even in areas where it is not grown. Not an inch of
the tree goes waste and all parts are put to some working use. Through its innumerable working
utilities and direct uses as food, feed, and drink, coconut has penetrated into the cultural, social,
religious, and lingual matrix of people of various countries. This paper deals with the history
through archaeological, epigraphic, and historical records and its uses and related folklore.
The term coconut refers to the seed or the Coconut palms grow throughout the tropics in a
fruit of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). band around the world from 25° North and 25°
Cocos is a monotypic genus of the family South of the equator. The palm can be found
Arecaceae. The epithet nut is a misnomer, as in Southeast Asia, Indonesia, India, Australia,
the fruit is a drupe botanically. Early Spanish the Pacific Islands, South America, Africa, the
explorers called it ‘cocos’ or ‘monkey face’ Caribbean, and the southern extremes of North
because the three indentations (eyes) on the America. The ideal growing conditions for
hairy nut resemble the head and face of a coconut palms include free-draining aerated
monkey; ‘nucifera’ means ‘nut bearing’. The soil often found on sandy beaches, a supply
spelling ‘cocoanut’ is an old fashioned form of fresh groundwater, humid atmosphere, and
of the word coconut (Pearsall, 1999). temperatures between 27°C and 30°C.
The coconut palm is one of nature’s wonder. originated from head of a dead man or from
In India, it is appropriately eulogized a dead eel (Johnson, 1921; Roosman, 1970;
as ‘Kalpavriksha’ (a mythological tree http://www.hawaiicoconuts.com/coconut-
supposed to grant all desires – “the tree folklore-history/).
that provides all the necessities of life”).
It is “Pokok seribu guna” (the tree of a Botanists place the origin of coconut palm
thousand uses) to Malays, and “Tree of in Papua New Guinea area, in some very
life” or “Tree of heaven” for a Filipino, distant past, on basis of occurrence of the
“Tree of abundance” or “Three generations nearest botanical relatives (Child, 1974).
tree” to an Indonesian. The very names Harries (1990) argues its origin in Malesia
are reflective of its uses and essentiality and stated that the distribution of Cocos
in everyday life of people in the tropics. spp. is a relic of Gondwanaland. The current
Each and every part of the palm is useful theory suggests it to be native to Malesia,
in one way or another and not even an inch a bio-geographical region roughly defined
of the tree goes waste. The coconut palm as an area that includes Southeast Asia,
is intertwined with life itself, from the Indonesia, Australia, New Guinea, and
food they eat to the beverages they drink several Pacific Island groups. The Indian
and derive almost everything necessary subcontinent and South Asia designated
to sustain the life. All the daily needs as as Hindustani center, an important region
household utensils, baskets, cooking oil, of diversity of crop plants among the
furniture, and cosmetics are made from the eight centers, has been identified as a
coconut palm. secondary center of origin of Cocos nucifera
(Randhawa, 1980).
Origin and history In the Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is
The origin of coconut palm is the subject regarded as a Polynesian introduction, first
of controversy. Indian mythology credits brought to the islands by early Polynesian
the creation of palm with its crown of leafy voyagers from their homelands in the South
fronds to the sage Vishwamitra, to prop up Pacific. One of the folk songs conveys the
his friend King Trishanku when the latter importance, indicating its introduction from
was literally thrown out of heaven by Indra Tahiti. The song runs as “Niu-ola-hiki” (O
for his misdeeds (Gandhi and Singh, 1989; life-giving coconut of Tahiti) and “Niu-
Gupta, 1991). In Vadakurungaduthurai, loa-hiki” (O far-traveling coconut). Human
Lord Kulavanangeesar is believed to have beings seem to have no role in the spread
taken the form of a coconut tree to help of coconut to various places as these can
quench the thirst of a pregnant woman. In float for very long periods, and then sprout
Kerala, Goddess Bhagavati is believed to when they lodge on the shore. This was
be the soul of the coconut tree. One of the dramatically demonstrated when coconuts
Goddess’s common epithets is Kurumba were found growing on an island created by
which means ‘tender coconut’. Folktales volcanic activity in Krakatoa in 1929–30
of all other areas narrate that coconut (Child, 1974).
Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 223
Table 1. continued
Country/
Language Names
Lao Phao, maldve, kurumba
Malay Niu, niur, nyiur
Nepalese Narival, nariwal
Persian Darakhte-nargil, darakhte-bandinj, nargil, badinj
Philippines Llubi (vasayan)
Tagalog Boko, buko, niog, niyog, ubod (palm heart)
Sinhalese Pol, pol-gass, pol-gah, pol-nawasi, tambili, polgaha
Thai Ma phrao, ma phrao on, maak muu, maphrao, má-práao, maprao, maprow
Vietnamese Cốt dừa, cot dua, dừa, dua
Europe
Armenian Hantkakan engouz, hendkakan enkoyz, hentgagan engouz
Bulgarian Kokos
Croatian Kokosova palma
Czech Kokosovník ořechoplodý
Danish Kokosnød, kokosnoed, kokospalme
Dutch Klapperboom, kokos, kokosnoot, kokosnootpalm, kokospalm
Estonian Kookospalm
Esperanto Kokoso
Finnish Kookosplamu
French Coco, cocotier, cocoyer, coq au lait, noix de coco, coutie
Galician Coco
German Kokospalme
Greek Argellia argellion, karida, karides, kokkofoinika, karýda, karida, kokofoínika, koix
Hungarian Kókuszdió, kapampangan
Dutch Coco, cocos, cocospalm, klapperboom
Italian Cocco, noce di cocco, palma del cocco
Lithuanian Riešutinė kokospalmė, riešutinis kokosas
Norwegian Kokospalme
(Bokmål)
Portuguese Cairo (coconut fiber), coco, coco da bahia, coco da India, coco-da-Praia,
coqueiro, coqueiro da Bahia (Brazil), coqueiro-da-Praia, noz de coco
Romanian Cocotier, nucă de cocos
continued
226 Coconut: history, uses, and folklore
Table 1. continued
Country/
Language Names
Russian Kokos, kokos orekhonosnmi, kokosobaia pal´ma, kokosovyj oreh, kokosovyj orjekh
Slovenian Kokos, kokosa, kokosova palma
Spanish Coco, coco de agua, cocotero, nuez de coco, palma de coco, palmera de coco
Catalan Cocoter
Swedish Kokos, kokosnöt, kokospalm
Turkish Hindistan cevizi
Upper Sorbian Wšědna kokosowa palma
Frisian Kokosnút
Slovak Kokosový orec
Americas
Eniwetok Ni
Nukuoro Nui
Guarani Mbokaja’a
New Caledonia Niu
Palau Iru, yap
Kosrae Lu
Pohnhpei Ni
Papua New Niu
Guinea
Fiji Niu
Guam Niyog
Banyak Island Nu
Western New Nu
Guinea
Kiribati Te ni
Quechua Pikwayu
Truk Ny
Tongan Niu
Hawaii Niu
Africa
Amharic Ko-’o-ko-’o-ne-te, ko-ka-se, kokas, kokonet
Lingala Kokotí
Swahili Dafu, mnazi, nazi
Sudanese Kalapa
Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 227
Written records
The current theory suggests it (coconut)
There is no reference on coconut in Vedas; to be native to Malesia, a bio-
however, several references occur in geographical region roughly defined as
post-Vedic works as epic of Mahabharata an area that includes Southeast Asia,
(3000 BC), Ramayana, Puranas, and Indonesia, Australia, New Guinea, and
Buddhist stories of Jataka. Other sources of several Pacific Island groups.
information on coconut include Ayurvedic
and agricultural treatises, historical accounts,
travelogues, and Sanskrit literature. Coconut
quietude (MP). Matsya Purana prescribes
is mentioned in the 2nd–1st century BC in the
planting of coconut among other auspicious
Mahawamsa, the historical chronicle of Sri
trees in a garden attached with a house and
Lanka. It was probably in the earlier part
considers it as a tree that brings prosperity
of this period that the coconut milk began
and increases riches (Sensarma, 1989;
to be used as an article for the sacred bath
Pandey, 1996).
of deities in temples and received agamic
sanction for its role in ritualistic practices. Various agricultural treatises such as
The coconut also found entry into domestic Kashyapiyakrishisukti (c. 800 AD),
rituals, attained sanctity as an offering to Lokapakara of Chavundaraya (c. 1025
God and stabilized itself as an object of gift AD), Vrikshayurveda of Surapala (c. 1000
to guests on occasions like marriage and AD), Vishvavallabha of Chakrapani Mishra
other ceremonies and festivals.
(c. 1577 AD), Krishi Gita (15th century)
Among Puranas references on narikera in Malayalam, and Vrkshayurveda of
occur as a forest plant in Matsya Purana Sarangadhara show a number of references
(MP) (1000 AD), Brahmavaivarta Purana on this useful palm (Ramachandra Rao,
(BVP) (8 th century AD), and Brahma 1993; Sadhale, 1996, 2004; Ayachit, 2002;
Purana (1000–1200 AD). It is referred as Ayangarya, 2006; Kumar, 2008). Charaka
a medicinal plant and as a requirement Samhita (c. 700 BC) refers to bunches
in religious rites [Agni Purana (800–900 of coconut among the presents brought
AD) and Brahma Purana]; and an essential to the king and Sushruta Samhita (c. 400
plant for beauty, atmospheric purity, and BC) refers to narikera in madhura varga
and asavas (Aiyer, 1956; Sharma, 1996;
Mehendale, 2007).
The coconut palm is one of nature’s
wonder. In India, it is appropriately
eulogized as ‘Kalpavriksha’ (a The fossil remains indicate that the
mythological tree supposed to grant all plant evolved as far as 20 million years
desires – “the tree that provides all the ago, long before man appeared on
necessities of life”). earth.
228 Coconut: history, uses, and folklore
of India, Yemen, and China buy it and Kumbhakudwan (Kumar, 2008). Shortt
take it to their own countries where they mentioned 30 varieties grown in Travancore
manufacture sweetmeats from it” (Gibbs, during 1880s. Varieties planted for different
1929; Randhawa, 1982). purposes were known. Spon highlighted the
Laccadive small fruited form with soft, fine
Coconuts made a strong impression on but strong coir, and considered it worthy
Venetian explorer Marco Polo, 1254 to 1324
of special mention being cultivated for the
CE, when he encountered them in Sumatra,
production of fiber (Watt, 1889). In Mysore
India, and the Nicobar Islands, and called
four varieties of coconut were known, i.e.,
them “Pharaoh’s nut”. The reference to the
red, red mixed with green, light green, and
Egyptian ruler indicated Polo was aware
dark green. The red variety is reckoned as
that during the 6th century Arab merchants
somewhat better than others and is sold
brought coconuts back to Egypt probably
promiscuously (Watt, 1889).
from East Africa where the nuts were
flourishing.
Uses
Ain-i-Akbari (1590 AD) lists coconut under
dried fruits and provides rates prevailing Coconut is considered as one of the ten
at the time of Akbar, the great Mughal most useful trees in the world, and one
Emperor, as one piece to cost 4 dams and among the five Devavrikshas (God’s trees)
dry dates at the rate of 6 dams per seer known in India, providing food for millions,
(Blochman, 1989) while Jawalia et al. especially in the tropics.
(2001) lists rates of coconut kernel in 1688
The multiplicity and versatility of uses
in Rajasthan as nine seers per rupee.
of coconut tree can be best judged by an
Indonesian saying: “There are as many uses
Varieties in medieval India for the coconut as there are days in the year.”
Coconut palms are raised either for kernel, Around 83 functional uses of various parts
water, liquor or for coir only. The plants of palm listed range from food to stuffing of
tapped for liquor fail to produce quality coir in pillows, preparation of beds, ropes,
coir. In Mysore, coconut is rarely used for mats, utensils of daily use such as spoons,
extraction of wine, as this destroys the fruit, drainers, brooms, chains, toddy drawers,
and ripe fruits are considered as valuable door mats, floor mats, musical instruments,
part of the produce (Watt, 1889). furniture, cots, rosary boxes, brush, fuel,
scoops, containers, oil bottles, toothbrushes,
Krishi Gita (Agricultural Verses) in hooka-bases, neck belts and blinds for bulls
Malayalam (c. 15 th century), mentions used for plowing and oil crushing, cricket
three varieties of coconut in Kerala called bats, and various types of children’s toys
Cheruthenga with small nuts, an exotic (Watt, 1889).
cultivar, Dhruvam with more nut water, and
Gowripathra type coconut rarely seen outside Coconut palm is put to innumerable uses in
Kerala with two variants, Kannikkooran and Sri Lanka. In Dickens’ words borrowed from
230 Coconut: history, uses, and folklore
Watt (1889): “To an average Sri Lankan Coconut milk (which is approximately 17%
coconut palm calls up a wide range of ideas. fat) made by processing grated coconut
It associates itself with nearly every want with hot water or hot milk extracts the oil;
and convenience of his life. It might tempt and aromatic compounds from the fiber.
him to assert that if he was placed upon earth Coconut cream rises to the top when coconut
with nothing else whatever to minister to his milk is refrigerated and left to set. It is used
necessities than the cocoa-nut tree, he could in preparing many vegetables and meat
pass his existence in happiness and content.” dishes, imparting a distinct flavor, and as
an accompaniment to rice items like appam
(Achaya, 1998). The white, fleshy part of
As food
the nut is edible and used fresh or dried
Coconut provides five types of food products: (desiccated) in cooking. Copra, the dried
coconut water, coconut milk, sugar, oil, meat of the seed is the source of coconut
and meat. The cavity of the immature nut oil. Shredded copra is used in cakes, pies,
is filled with “water” containing sugars; candies, and in curries and sweets. When
the water has been used as a refreshing the nut is allowed to germinate, the cavity
drink since ancient times as mentioned fills with spongy mass called ‘bread’ which
by Kalidasa (380–413 AD) (Aiyer, 1956; is eaten raw or toasted in shell over fire.
Banerji, 1968). Coconut water is sterile until Sprouting seeds may be eaten like celery.
the coconut is opened (unless the coconut is
spoiled). As the nut matures, the volume of The diverse uses of coconut are best
liquid is reduced considerably and the taste exemplified in cuisine of Kerala. It is used
turns brackish. In ancient Tamil country, in vegetable dishes such as aviyal, kalan,
a drink called munir relished by women olan, and pulisseri. Aviyal is a dish of soft
was made up equally of green coconut vegetables like green bananas, drumsticks,
water, sugarcane juice, and fresh neera various beans and even green cashew nut
(Arokiasami, 1972). Coconut water is used cooked in coconut milk and then tossed with
in the making of the gelatinous dessert ‘Nata some fresh coconut oil in sour curd. Kalan is
de coco’ that became popular in Japan and a similar preparation in which green bananas
earned for Filipinos a number of jobs. BVP are used while white pumpkin and dried
records an interesting observation that the beans are used in olan (Prakash, 1961).
coconut water stored in a brass container
turns alcoholic (Sensarma, 1989). Coconut chutney forms an essential
accompaniment of many snack foods such
Nutmeat of immature coconuts is like custard as idli, dosai, pessarattu, and vadai. A
in flavor and consistency, and is eaten or number of sweet confections are prepared
scraped and squeezed through cloth to yield with coconut milk and copra. Goa has two
a ‘cream’ or ‘milk’ used on various foods. confections: Biblinica, a dessert of egg yolk
It is cooked with rice to make Panama’s flour and coconut milk and Dos de Grao,
famous ‘arroz con coco’; it is also cooked prepared with besan (gram flour), ground
with taro leaves or used in coffee as cream. coconut, and sugar baked together.
Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 231
In Sri Lanka, coconut is used to prepare many kinds of creams and lotions today.
special dishes. Kiribath, rice cooked The oil is also used extensively in the
in coconut milk, is part of nearly every production of detergents and soaps. It is
ceremonial occasion. Kawum (sweet oil rich in glycerin and used in making soaps,
cakes) and other special snacks are also shampoos, shaving creams, toothpaste
popular at special events. lotions, lubricants, hydraulic fluid, paints,
synthetic rubber, plastics, margarine, and
Apical buds of adult plants are edible and in ice cream. The industrial process for
are known as “palm-cabbage” (though making soap was patented in 1841 that
harvest of this kills the tree); the interior of required a cheap source of oil as coconut
the growing tip is called “heart-of-palm” oil (Harries, 1978). From 19th century until
and is considered a rare delicacy. Harvesting 1960, copra, the dried kernel of coconut,
this also kills the tree. Hearts-of-palm are became the most important source of
normally eaten in salads; such a salad is vegetable oil in international markets as oil
sometimes called “millionaire’s salad”. In was used in manufacture of soaps, candles,
addition to the above delicacies, coconut is and explosives.
used widely in cuisine of various countries
for preparation of vegetarian dishes (http:// The cosmetic industry incorporates coconut
www.vegparadise.com/highestperch58. oil in the manufacture of lipstick, suntan
html). lotion, and moisture creams. Coconut oil is
included in shampoo and shaving creams for
its excellent moisturizing ability as well as
Cooking oil
its ability to produce abundant lather.
Dried meat of coconut becomes copra and
is processed for oil. In India, people make a
Drinks and liquor
vegetarian butter called ‘ghee’ from coconut
oil; it is also used in infant formulations. Pulastya, an ancient sage and author of one
Coconut oil has been used as a cooking of the original smrities (Hindu canons) has
medium in South India and Southeast enumerated 12 kinds of liquors of which
Asia since ancient times. It is of course narikelaja or coconut liquor is prepared
primary culinary fat in Kerala. Coconut oil from toddy or milk mixed with plantains,
is extensively used as a hair oil and body ripe Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis),
oil, for burning wicked oil lamps, and as and the drug Indrajiva. Kalidasa refers in
lubricant. It has medicinal properties and his poems about the coconut liquor and
is used in cosmetics. its profuse use by men and women during
Gupta period (Datta, 2000). The Hindu
scripture, Vishnudharam Sutra (100–300
Cosmetics
AD) refers to narikelasava prepared from
Coconut oil has been used for centuries in juice of coconut and also to prohibition
hair care and skin products. Its moisturizing against usage by Brahmans of ten kinds of
and softening properties are exploited in intoxicating drinks prepared from various
232 Coconut: history, uses, and folklore
Coconut sugar
plant parts including that from coconut
(Prakash, 1961; Sensarma, 1989). The cloudy liquid is easily boiled down to
syrup, called jaggery, coconut molasses, or
Coconut flower cluster, on incision provides dhiyaa hakuru and then crystallized into a
a sweet juice which when fresh and not rich dark sugar, almost exactly like maple
fermented is used for breakfast and dinner in sugar. Sometimes it is mixed with grated
Kiribati, an island nation in central tropical coconut for candy as te kamamai in Kiribati
Pacific Ocean. Left standing, it ferments and ‘addu bondi’, in the southernmost atoll,
quickly into a beer with alcohol content up Addu Atoll. Boiled toddy, known as jaggery,
to 8%, called toddy in India and Sri Lanka; with lime makes a good cement (Mittre,
tuba in Philippines and Mexico; and tuwak 1991).
in Indonesia and Malaysia. In Kerala, toddy
is also called kallu, madhu, neera or just
coconut palm wine. After a few weeks, it Medicinal uses
becomes vinegar. Coconut fenny is a distilled Medicinal value of coconut has been known
product from coconut toddy (Sekar and in India since ancient times (Chiovenda,
Mariappan, 2007). ‘Arrack’ is the product 1921, 1923). Sushruta Samhita (c. 400 BC)
after distilling fermented toddy and is a mentions narikera in madhura varga and
common spirituous liquor consumed in the asavas (Sharma, 1979). Coconut is used
East. Ruku raa is an extract from the young in Ayurveda in the following afflictions:
bud and a very rare type of nectar collected. It in chronic fever [Vaidyamanorama – VD,
is used as morning break drink in the islands 800–1000 AD]; acid gastritis [(Cakradatta
of Maldives and reputed for its energetic – CD, 1055 AD); VD]; parinam sula (CD);
power thus keeping the “raamen” (nectar cracks in feet (Vrndamadhava – VM); in
collector) healthy and fit for more than 80 or hemicrania (VM); gravels (Bhavaprakasa);
90 years of age. Palm wine has a special place worms (VD); wound (VD); and vomiting
in traditional celebrations and ceremonies (Charaka Samhita, 700 BC) (Sharma,
such as marriage, burial, and settlings. 1996).
Alcoholic beverages do not play a role in the Coconut water, flowers, oil, milk, and ash of
formal rituals of Sri Lanka, being condemned coir have medicinal uses. At present, coconut
by Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism alike. is used in folk medicine, Ayurveda, Siddha,
Alcohol is, however, a ubiquitous part of Tibetan, and Unani systems of medicine. It
men’s social gatherings, where beer, toddy possesses anthelmintic, antidotal, antiseptic,
(fermented palm nectar), arrack (distilled aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal,
palm nectar), and kassipu (an illegally depurative, diuretic, hemostat, pediculicide,
Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 233
used in medication, for example, in eczema tonic for those recovering from diseases
(with garlic segments crushed in the oil) such as chicken pox.
or anointing burns [with hariali grass
(Cynodon dactylon) infused in it]. Coconut The extra virgin coconut oil and coconut
oil mixed with dry powdered leaves of milk are easily and quickly assimilated by
santha buthi (found in Jammu region) the body because of the short- and medium-
cures burnt body part (Khanna, 1985). A chain fatty acids, and are not stored as
paste made with powdered ratan jot leaves fat in the body like that of the long-chain
is also very effective in curing burns. triglycerides of animal products.
Curry leaves boiled in coconut oil make
Ash from the mature shell of the fruit is
an excellent hair tonic to stimulate hair
mixed with lime and applied on ringworm
growth and bring back hair pigmentation
(Chaudhuri and Pal, 1991). The husk fiber
(Khanna, 1985). In Karnataka, coconut oil
ash of coconut fruit is used to cure old cases
and milk are used in pre- and post-delivery
of piles. The patient has to take this ash first
care. The indigenous practice uses coconut
thing in the morning along with curd. One
oil during pre-delivery edema and rice teaspoon is taken for the number of days
cooked in milk with sugar or jaggery for equal to the years of affliction.
increasing milk secretion (Nagnur et al.,
2006). Coconut sugar is classified as a low glycemic
index food and is considered to be healthier
Studies have indicated that the people who than traditional white and brown sugar. It
used the coconut oil on a daily basis have can be used as a 1:1 sugar substitute for
a higher metabolic rate and retained a lean coffee, tea, baking, and cooking. Coconut
body mass and the women do not suffer the sugar has high mineral content and is a rich
typical symptoms of menopause. Studies source of potassium, magnesium, zinc, and
have shown that populations in Polynesia iron. In addition to this it contains vitamins
and Sri Lanka, where coconuts are a diet B1, B2, B3, and B6. Compared to brown
staple, do not suffer from high serum sugar, coconut sugar has twice the iron, four
cholesterol or high rates of heart disease. times the magnesium, and over 10 times the
Coconut toddy is believed to be good for amount of zinc.
health particularly for eyesight and also
serves as a sedative. It is also a mild laxative
relieving constipation. It is prescribed as a Agricultural uses
Various parts of coconut are used in
agricultural work. Coconut oil is mixed
The cloudy liquid is easily boiled with pulses to control insect attack on pulses
down to syrup, called jaggery, coconut during storage. Coconut water is a novel
molasses, or dhiyaa hakuru and then culture medium for the biotechnological
crystallized into a rich dark sugar, production of Schizophyllan. Caplins and
almost exactly like maple sugar. Steward (1948) recognized the value of
water from the immature coconut as a
Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 235
growth promoter in in-vitro tissue culture. in proteins and sugar; not more than 4–5 lbs/
In Sri Lanka, the robes discarded by monks animal/day should be given, as butter from
are made into wicks, which are soaked in milk will have a tallow flavor. Cake being
coconut lye before they are lit. These burn deficient in calcium, should be fed together
bright light and emit strong smell that repels with calcium-rich foods.
rice pests (Pereira, 1993; Ahuja and Ahuja,
2008). Water divination
The coco peat (coir) traditionally was used During ancient times a number of plants
as a fertilizer for the gardens of indigenous including various palms growing in specific
peoples. Coir dust (coco peat) has been used type of areas have been used as indicators
commercially as a renewable resource to of occurrence or presence of a water source
save wetlands (Hume, 1949). Today, this around. Coconut plant also serves this
fertilizer is mainly used on golf courses. As purpose. Kalidasa mentions besides coconut
a fertilizer for indigenous populations, coco palm all other palms such as palmyra, date
peat is not used much. The vascular strands palm, talipot palm, and the areca nut palm
have been used for weaving into ropes and (Aiyer, 1956). Later on various agricultural
dry individual strands for brooms; yarns treatises – Lokopakara by Chavundaraya
are woven together to make fishing nets, (c. 1025 AD) and Vishvavallabha (c. 1577
bags, and mats. Nowadays, because of the AD) – also have mentioned about water
decreasing availability of coconuts and the divination with similar indications stating
increasing availability of western goods, the presence of well grown palmyra palm
many indigenous peoples are turning to and coconut tree along an anthill as an
industrial materials. indicator of availability of groundwater at
a depth of twenty cubits below at a distance
Coir pith waste thrown by the coir industry of six cubits to the north of such trees
can be converted into good manure by (Sadhale, 2004; Ayangarya, 2006). Similar
spreading it in the cattle shed and removed views are also expressed in Vrkshayurvaeda
everyday and filled in compost pit. Coir pith of Sarangadhara Samhita (Ramachandra
soaks urine and dung keeping cattle clean Rao, 1993)
and overcomes menace of lice. Coir pith
gets converted into good manure within
Role in industry
90 days (Prakash, 2000). It is also used for
horticultural purposes and has replaced the In 1840, on the occasion of Her Majesty
peat moss. Queen Victoria’s marriage for the general
illumination, Price’s Candle Company
introduced a cheap candle that required no
Feed
snuffing and was composed of a mixture of
The leftover fiber from coconut milk stearic acid and cocoa-nut stearine. These
production is used as livestock feed. Cake candles were comparatively cheap, and
residue is used as cattle fodder as it is rich people received the new composite candles
236 Coconut: history, uses, and folklore
with great favor, resulting in rapid growth 1982). Unopened flowers protected by
of the manufacture (Jackson, 1890). sheath were often used to fashion shoes and
caps, and even as a kind of pressed helmet
The development of dynamite from for soldiers. Opened flowers provide a good
nitroglycerine between 1846 and 1867 had honey for bees.
the remarkable effect of turning a once
discarded by-product of soap manufacture, In the Philippines, rice is wrapped in coconut
glycerin, into the more profitable side of the palm leaves for cooking and subsequent
business and expanded the demand for copra storage called puso. Milk of immature
at the time of World War I (Anonymous coconut was used in the traditional mural
1912). The importance of coconut was paintings. It is mixed with calcium carbonate
highlighted in World War II when Japan and obtained to consistency of cow’s milk
took control of all major coconut-producing and is used to coat walls that serve as bright
countries (Janick and Paull, 2008). white background and also as the white
pigment in murals (Nayar et al., 1999).
Other uses
Coconut itself has been used as currency
The coconut is widely used in the Maldives and also in heraldry. Until the early 1900s,
and the “Dhivehi Odi” built of coconut a whole coconut was the accepted form of
timber was used for inter island transport. currency in the Nicobar Islands, just North
Dried half coconut shells are used as the of Sumatra in the Indian Ocean. In the South
bodies of musical instruments, including Pacific, pieces of coconut shell carved into
the Chinese yehu and banhu, along with coin-like spheres served as currency. At
the Vietnamese dan gao and Arabo-Turkic present there is a coconut currency in Kauai
rebab. Babarnama refers to ‘Hindinut’ in Hawaiian Islands. Kauai Alternative
being used for making black spoons, guitar Resource Management Agency (KARMA)
bodies, husk ropes for ships and boats, and issues an account number credited with an
chords for sewing boat seams and compares initial 40 CCs (the equivalent of 40 coconuts
the taste of coconut water with that of date
or approximately 4 hours of labor) which
palm cheese and considers or treats its taste
one can keep on account or receive in paper
as acceptable (Beveridge, 1921; Randhawa,
currency. In addition, coconut appears on
the currency notes of Maldives.
The extra virgin coconut oil and The coconut tree occupies a central place in
coconut milk are easily and quickly the present-day Maldives national emblem.
assimilated by the body because of the Coconut appeared in heraldry after the
short- and medium-chain fatty acids, explorations of the 16th century. It occurs
and are not stored as fat in the body on shield of Glasgow of Montegrennan
like that of the long-chain triglycerides (Kank, 1963). In Fijian National Flag, in the
of animal products. coat-of-arms are three sugarcanes, a coconut
palm, a dove with an olive branch, and a
Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 237
him a coconut. In South Indian temples good fortune and prosperity. Lakshmi,
the priests will not accept offerings of a the Goddess of prosperity is often
devotee, without a coconut. Coconut is one depicted holding a coconut. In most
of the most common offerings in temples; parts of India, coconut is worshiped as
it is broken and placed before the Lord and goddess of learning (Saraswati) (Gupta,
later distributed as prasad. Similarly at 1991; Ahuja et al., 2001a). It is also
weddings and other auspicious occasions a associated with Lord Shiva, Ganesha,
coconut is placed at the pandal erected for and Bhadrakali.
the ceremony (Gupta, 1991).
Coconut symbolizes Saraswati, the Goddess
Its resemblance to human head suggests its of learning and in Odisha, learning process
substitution for human sacrifice to mother of children is initiated after the religious
Goddess as for Ambhabhavani. During the ritual called Khadichhuana held on Ganesh
annual Adi festival of Sri Mahalakshmi Chaturthi (in August/September). Children
Amman temple at Mettumahadanapuram carry a painted coconut door to door, singing
in Karur district, coconuts are broken on prayer songs of Saraswati; they collect
the heads of the devotees by the temple money and give to their teachers as a mark
priests. In the Temple Town Palani, before of respect and devotion (Ghose et al.,
going for the worship of God Murugan, 2000). Coconut is considered as a symbol
at the foothills of Palani Hills, a coconut of Shiva because of its three black spots;
is broken for Lord Ganesha. Coconut is Shiva (Trayambaka-Rudra) has three eyes
used at the time of Kaveri River worship (Gupta, 1991).
at Tiruchirappalli.
At the beginning of any auspicious task
The Kols of Madhya Pradesh universally or a journey, people smash coconuts to
offer coconut as it symbolically represents the propitiate Ganesha – the remover of all
human skull. They offer coconut to Goddesses obstacles. They also break coconuts in
and Gods such as Kalimai, Kheramai (most temples or in front of idols in fulfillment
frequently worshiped by Kols), Maridevi of their vows. The breaking of coconut
(Goddess of epidemics), Shardamai (chief of symbolizes the breaking of one’s ego (evil
pantheons), Baghdeo, and Hardul Baba, and force). The juice within, representing the
all worships at the village shrine. Coconut is inner tendencies (vaasanas, lust) is offered
the chief offering to Shardamai at her temple along with the white kernel – the mind, to
at Maihar (Griffith, 1946). In tantric practices, the Lord (http://in.answers.yahoo.com/
coconuts are sometimes used as substitutes for question/index?qid=20091230053909A
human skulls. A5zj7n).
oil, soap, etc. It takes in even salty water Festivals associated with coconut
from the earth and converts it into sweet The coconut, an ever-popular fruit of
nutritive water that is especially beneficial the tropics is celebrated in a special
to sick people. festival Pesta Kelapa at Tomborungus
in the northern district of Kudat. The
Taboos and beliefs festival highlights the coconut industry and
recognition of its significant contribution
Coconut is religiously so significant that to the social and economic welfare of the
the Hindus neither cut this tree nor do they rural folks. Its launching date coincides with
use its wood for fuel. In Tamil Nadu, the World Coconut Day and a host of exciting
uprooting of coconut sapling is considered activities are lined up for visitors including
equivalent to killing one’s own son (Chettiar, the highly entertaining coconut shoe race,
1973; Ahuja et al., 2001b). squeezing coconut milk competition,
food and drink exhibition, and handicraft
“If crack appears on the trunk within ten displays.
years, the planter would die.” Possibly due
to this belief it became a custom in Odisha to The Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club
of New Orleans traditionally throw hand
get coconuts planted by the oldest member
decorated coconuts – the most valuable
of the family (Ghose et al., 2000).
of all Mardi Gras souvenirs – to parade
For the eastern African tribe Wanika, revelers. The “Tramps” began the tradition
cutting down a coconut tree is equivalent in ca. 1901. In 1987 a “coconut law” was
signed by Governor Edwards exempting
to murdering a parent. These taboos and
from insurance liability any decorated
beliefs prevailing in far and near places
coconut handed from a Zulu float.
indirectly enforce and teach conservation
of this economically important plant.
Coconut in festivals
Balinese women are not allowed to touch
In Manipur, on the day of Idd festival
the plant. Often the plant is perceived as a women take at least one fruit of coconut
masculine plant, and it is believed that if along with other eatables to their parents’
the women touch the palm they will lose home (Ahmed and Singh, 2007). In the
their fertility. tribal festival in Madhya Pradesh, the
Gonds celebrate the festival of Meghnath,
Irrespective of their religious affiliation,
believed to be supreme God. Coconut
fishermen of India often offer it to the rivers along with lemon and turmeric are offered
and seas in the hope of having bountiful to Meghnath through the priest. Similarly
catches. Fishing communities along the Gonds celebrate the festival of Bidri in the
peninsular coasts believe in appeasing the beginning of the calendar year. Bhimsen is
sea God (Lord Varuna) with offerings of the presiding deity of the festival. Coconut
coconut during the monsoon. is offered to the deity (Kurup, 1970).
Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 241
saplings but in case of mango and jackfruit a common food source. On the other hand,
it is otherwise. food allergies to coconut are considered
rare in Australia, UK, and USA. As a result,
Drury (1873) also recorded that some of the commercial extracts of coconut are not
fibrous roots are cut away. Cutting of roots currently available for skin prick testing in
is considered to cure sterility in coconut Australia or New Zealand. Despite a low
(Mohanty et al., 2008). Cutting of some prevalence of allergies to coconut in USA,
fibrous roots at the time of transplanting and the US Food and Drug Administration
placing manure, together with little salt, in (FDA) began identifying coconut as a
the pit has been practiced (Watt, 1889). tree nut in October 2006. Based on FDA
guidance and federal US law, coconut must
Agni Purana (800–900 AD) and Lokopakara
be disclosed as an ingredient.
(c. 1025 AD) mention ordinary salt as the
best manure for date palm and coconut trees Coconut-derived products can cause
(khajuranarikela-vanadhirvivadardhnam) contact dermatitis. They can be present in
(Chaudhuri and Pal, 1991; Ayangarya, 2006). cosmetics including some hair shampoos,
Krishi Gita recommends transplanting moisturizers, soaps, cleansers, and hand
on saline soils as in salt affected lands, washing liquids (http//www.allergy.org.au/
and definitely termite incidence is not conten/view/171/137).
substantial (Kumar, 2008). The relevance
of this practice is corroborated in Khanar
Discussion
vachan as “Narkel gache nun mati, shigro
shigro bandhe anti.” Vishvavallabha (c. An Arab proverb epitomizes coconut’s
1577 AD) also recommends use of salt and usefulness: “If humans were to appear on
plain water everyday (Sadhale, 2004). the Earth with no more than a coconut palm,
they could live quite happily and contented
A Tamil proverb, “Oru kurumabaiyai for all eternity.”
kollarudhu, onpathu thennai nattathirku
camam” – The killing of a kurumbai (an Coconut originated in Southeast Asia –
insect that feeds on coconut flowers) is Melanesia. The greater number of coconut
equivalent to planting of nine coconut trees – types in this region with their numerous
conveys the local knowledge about the extent local names, uses, and unique insect and
of damage caused due to insect attack. crab associations attest a long presence,
making this region the center of diversity
and also assumed as the center of origin.
Disadvantages
The archaeological remains and philological
Coconuts can be very damaging when they evidences also corroborate this region as
fall on people, automobiles, and houses. center of origin.
They have been known to cause fatalities.
Coconut has played an important role
Coconut can be a food allergen. It is a top in the development and economy of
five food allergy in India where coconut is coastal areas in India. Kosambi (1972)
244 Coconut: history, uses, and folklore
attributes the development of these areas and work that went hand in hand with it is
to the introduction of coconut. It was being lost. However new means are being
being propagated on the east coast in mid developed to utilize by-products as in
1st century BC and reached the west coast production of energy, fuel, etc.
a century later. He further elaborates the
role in economy: “The western coastal strip In 2008, another use was added to numerous
could not have been so profitably cleared uses of coconut. Virgin Atlantic, a long-haul
of its dense forest, let alone settled with its airline, flew a Boeing 747 jumbo jet from
present crowded population, without this London to Amsterdam using renewable
bio-fuel composed of babassu (palm) oil
tree and heavy commodity production based
and coconut oil. No modifications were
on its exploitation in full.”
made to either the aircraft or its engines to
Coconuts and their edible products, such enable the flight to take place (http://cocos.
as oil and milk, have suffered from the arecaceae.com/index.html).
repeated misinformation because of a study
The coconut plant seems to be a God given
conducted in the 1950s using hydrogenated
gift in the shape of a long-term distillation
coconut oil. Science has also come to the
plant that stands in the sun like a hermit and
fore to explain the role of coconut in health
distils salt water from its roots to remove
of people. Though coconut oil is very high
salts and imparts its own sweetness in the
in saturated fat (87 percent) in its unrefined,
water, accumulated drop by drop in the
virgin state, it is actually beneficial, largely
hard chest, which is sterile, can be and has
because of its high content of lauric acid
been used as intravenous application in
(almost 50 percent) which has potent anti-
times of emergency and will remain as the
viral and anti-bacterial properties. Recent
Kalpavriksha as was termed by sages.
studies have considered coconut oil as a
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