Industrial Electronics - Student Manual

EDUCATIONAL
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
MODULES
ELECTRONICS
Copyright (C) 2012

R2K Technology Educational Training Module
EDUCATIONAL
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
MODULES
R2K TECHNOLOGY
Educational Training Modules
ELECTRONICS Analog Laboratory
Electronics 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Expt. Title Date Instructor

No. Performed Signature
0 Using the Trainer
1 Transistor Switching
2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
3 SCR Phase Control
4 SCR Phase Control Above
90 Degrees
5 Triac
6 Triac Phase Control Above
90 degrees
7 UJT Triggered SCR
8 Comparator
9 Light Dependent Resistor
10 Photo Diode Sensor
Grades: Mid-Term: __________ Final: ___________
Student’s Name: ______________________________
Course and Yr. Level: __________________________
Instructor’s Name: _____________________________

USING THE INDUSTRIAL Experiment No.
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
Industrial Electronics
OBJECTIVE
To enable the user to familiarize the functions of the Industrial

Electronics Experimenter and its external components
MATERIALS
1 pc 74194 Shift Register IC

4 pcs 1KΩ 1/2W Resistor
2 pcs Tact Switch
1 unit Industrial Electronics Experimenter
1 unit Multitester
1 unit Oscilloscope
Hook-up wires (AWG#22)
DISCUSSION
The Industrial Electronic Experimenter unit is a very useful tool in

testing and simulating circuits involving the application of components
used in the field of Industrial Electronics. The experimenter is equipped
with the following hardware modules:
 Variable DC Supply (GND, positive 1 to 30 Volts, negative 1 to 30

Volts)
 Fixed DC Supply (GND, +5, -5, +12, -12 Volts)
 AC Line Source (30-0-30 Volts)
 LED Indicators (8-positions)
 Data Switches (8-positions)
 Buzzer
 Fixed Frequency Clock Generator
 Variable Frequency Clock Generator
 Stepper Motor (4-inputs)
 Relay (12 Volts)
 Seven Segment Display
 Breadboard (lines with power bus)
Installing or removing the jumper wires while the power is ON may

or may not damage some of its components. Thus, it is highly
recommended to switch OFF the power before making any changes in
the circuit connections.
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
PROCEDURES
Testing of Ground Continuity
1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the continuity test mode.
2. Attached to an appropriately stripped hook-up wire, place the one test

probe to the ground (GND) terminal of the Variable DC Supply and the
other test probe to the ground (GND) terminal of the Fixed DC Supply.
The multimeter should produce a sound indicating continuity
between the two ground terminals.
Testing of AC Line Source
1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the AC Voltmeter mode.
2. Attached to an appropriately stripped hook-up wire, place the red test

probe to one 30 volts terminal of the AC Line Source and the black test
probe to the ground (0 volt) terminal.
3. Turn the trainer ON.
4. Record the reading of the multimeter as VAC1 = ____________
5. Turn the trainer OFF.
6. Place the red test probe to the 30 volts terminal of the AC Line Source
and the black test probe to the other 30 volts terminal.
8. Record the reading of the multimeter as VAC2 = ____________
Testing of Fixed DC Supply
1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the DC Voltmeter mode.

probe to the +5 volts terminal of the Fixed DC Supply and the black test
probe to the ground (GND) terminal.
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
4. Record the reading of the multimeter as VDC1 = ________
6. Repeat procedures 2 to 5, but place the red test probe to the -5 volts,
+12 volts, and -12 volts terminals, instead.
Record the readings as VDC2 = _____

VDC3 = _____
VDC4 = ___________
Testing of Variable DC Supply
1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the DC Voltmeter mode.

probe to the positive (+) terminal of the Variable DC Supply and the black
test probe to the ground (GND) terminal.
Make sure the knob is set to its lowest value.
4. Record the reading as VMIN1 =
5. Slowly turn the knob until the maximum value is reached. Observe if the
calibrations are correct.
6. Record the maximum reading as VMAX1 = ____
8. Repeat procedures 2 to 7,but place the red test probe to the negative(-)
terminal of the Variable DC Supply, instead.
Record the readings as VMIN2 =

VMAX2 =
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
Testing of Clock Generator
1. Set the dial of the Fixed Frequency Clock Generator to 1 Hz.
2. Attached to an appropriately stripped hook-up wire, place the positive

test probe of the oscilloscope to the clock (CLK) terminal of the Fixed
Frequency Clock Generator and the negative test probe to the ground
(GND).
4. Adjust the VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV knobs of the oscilloscope until you
see a proper visual of the waveform.
Draw the waveform produced at Graph 0-A.
Graph 0-A
TIME/DIV
VOLTS/DIV
Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform.

Record it as VPP1 =
Measure the time equivalent of one whole cycle of the waveform.

Record it as tCYCLE1 =
6. Repeat procedures 2 to 5, but place the positive test probe of the

oscilloscope to the negative clock (’CLK) terminal of the Fixed
Frequency Clock Generator, instead.
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
Draw the waveform produced at Graph 0-B.
Graph 0-B
TIME/DIV
VOLTS/DIV

Record it as VPP2 =

7. Set the knob of the Variable Frequency Clock Generator to its minimum
value. Make sure the multiplier value is set to 1 Hz.

oscilloscope to the clock (CLK) terminal of the Variable Frequency Clock
Generator, instead. Draw the waveform produced at Graph 0-C.
Graph 0-C
TIME/DIV
VOLTS/DIV
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0

Record it as VPP3 =

9. Slowly turn the knob until the maximum value is reached.
Draw the waveform produced at Graph 0-D.
Graph 0-D
TIME/DIV
VOLTS/DIV

Record it as VPP4 =

10. Set the knob of the Variable Frequency Clock Generator back to its
minimum value. Switch the multiplier value to 100 KHz.
11. Repeat procedures 8 and 9, and draw the waveform produced at

Graph 0-E and Graph 0-F, respectively.
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
Graph 0-E Graph 0-F
TIME/DIV TIME/DIV
VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV
Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveforms.

Record it as VPP5 =
VPP6 =
Measure the time equivalent of one whole cycle of the waveforms.

tCYCLE6 =
oscilloscope to the negative clock (‘CLK) terminal of the Variable
Frequency Clock Generator, instead.
Draw the waveform produced at Graph 0-G, Graph 0-H, Graph 0-I, and
Graph 0-J, respectively.
Graph 0-G Graph 0-H
TIME/DIV TIME/DIV
VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
Graph 0-I Graph 0-J
TIME/DIV TIME/DIV
VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV
Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveforms.

Record it as VPP7 =
VPP8 =
VPP9 =
VPP10 =
Measure the time equivalent of one whole cycle of the waveforms.

tCYCLE8 =
tCYCLE9 =
tCYCLE10 =
Testing of Data Switches and LED Indicators
1. Place one end of an appropriately stripped hook-up wire to the Data

Switch D0, and place the other end to the LED Indicator L1.

3. Set the Data Switch D0 to HI. The LED should light up.
5. Repeat procedures 1 to 3, but place the ends of the hook-up wire to the
Data Switch D1, and LED Indicator L2.
Repeat procedures all the way to Data Switch D7 and LED Indicator L8.
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
Testing of Seven Segment Display
1. Place one end of an appropriately stripped hook-up wire to the Data

Switch D7, and place the other end to the seven segment display
Segment a.
3. Set the Data Switch D7 to HI. The topmost segment of the display should
light up.
5. Repeat procedures 1 to 4, but place the other end of the hook-up wire
to the seven segment display Segment b.
Repeat procedures all the way to Segment h.
6. Repeat the procedures 1 to 5 for the other seven segment display.
Testing of Relay
1. Place one end of an appropriately stripped hook-up wire to the +12 volts
terminal of the Fixed DC Supply, and place the other end to the Relay
terminal B.
2. Place one end of another appropriately stripped hook-up wire to the

ground (GND) terminal of the Fixed DC Supply, and place the other end
to the Relay terminal A.
4. The relay should produce a clicking sound.

ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
Testing of Buzzer
1. Place one end of an appropriately stripped hook-up wire to the +12 volts
terminal of the Fixed DC Supply, and place the other end to the positive
(+) terminal of the Buzzer.
2. Place one end of another appropriately stripped hook-up wire to the

ground (GND) terminal of the Fixed DC Supply, and place the other end
to the negative (-) terminal of the Buzzer.
4. The buzzer should produce a sound.
Testing of Stepper Motor
V1
5V
+V
V2
5V
+V
R2 R3
1k 1k R1 R4
S1
1k U1 1k
74LS194
CP D3
S2 D2
S1 D1
S0 D0
J1 D
DSR Q3
DSL Q2 C
Q1
MR Q0 B
A
Schematic Diagram 0-A

ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
1. Construct the circuit shown in Schematic Diagram 0-A on the

breadboard.
2. Connect node A of Schematic Diagram 0-A to terminal A of the Stepper

Motor.
Connect node B of Schematic Diagram 0-A to terminal B of the Stepper

Motor.
Connect node C of Schematic Diagram 0-A to terminal C of the Stepper

Motor.
Connect node D of Schematic Diagram 0-A to terminal D of the Stepper

Motor.
4. Click Tact Switch S1. What happens to the Stepper Motor?
5. Click Tact Switch S2. What happens to the Stepper Motor?
Questions
1. Are all ground terminals connected?

______________________
2. What is the difference between the Clock (CLK) and Not Clock (‘CLK)
terminals?
3. Are all Data Switches and LED Indicators functional?

_____________________________________________
4. Are all the segments of the Seven Segment Display functional?

________________________________________________
5. Did the Relay produce a clicking sound?

_______
ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTER 0
6. Was the Buzzer functional?

_____
7. Was the Stepper Motor functional?

_______
8. Are the calibrations of the Variable DC supply accurate?
9. Are the calibrations of the clock generator accurate?

Experiment No.
TRANSISTOR
SWITCHING 1
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to observe the switching characteristics of a Bipolar Junction

Transistor (BJT)
2. To be able to trigger a Relay using a BJT
MATERIALS
1 pc 2N2222 Transistor
1 pc 10KΩ Potentiometer
1 pc 610Ω 1/2W Resistor
1 pc 10KΩ 1/2W Resistor
1 pc LED
1 unit Multimeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
R1
610
D1
R2
10k Q1 + V1
2N2222A 12V
R3
10k 50%

Experiment No.
TRANSISTOR
SWITCHING 1
RLY1
12VSPDT
R2 BZ1
+
10k Q1 + V1
R3 2N2222A 12V
10k 50%
-
Schematic Diagram 1-B
DISCUSSION
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-layer

semiconductor device consisting of either two n- and one p-type layers of
material (NPN) or two p- and one n-type layers of material (PNP).
It has three terminals: the emitter (E), collector (C), and base
(B). There are three common configurations of a transistor: the common-
base, common-emitter, and common-collector. The symbol and
construction of the BJT is shown in Figure 1-A.
Figure 1-A. The symbol and construction of the BJT

Experiment No.
TRANSISTOR
SWITCHING 1
The transistor has three operating regions: the Active, Cutoff,

and Saturation regions. The operating regions of the BJT are shown in
Figure 1-B.
Figure 1-B. The operating regions of BJT
In the Cutoff Region, the operating conditions of the transistor

are zero input Base current (IB), zero output Collector current (IC), and
maximum Collector-Emitter voltage (VCE), which results in a large
depletion layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore in
this region, the BJT is switched fully OFF.
In the Saturation Region, the transistor will be biased so that the

maximum amount of Base current (IB) is applied, resulting in maximum
Collector current (IC) and minimum Collector-Emitter voltage (VCE) drop,
which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and
maximum current flowing through the transistor. Thus in this region, the
BJT is switched fully ON.
The Active Region is the region normally employed for linear

(undistorted) amplifiers. In this region, the Collector-Base junction is
reverse-biased, while the Base-Emitter junction is forward-biased.
Experiment No.
TRANSISTOR
SWITCHING 1
A Relay is an electrically operated switch that allows one circuit to

switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first.
Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field
which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current
can be ON or OFF so relays often have two switch positions: one
terminal is normally closed, and one terminal is normally open. This
makes the relay function as a Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) switch.
PROCEDURES

breadboard.
2. Check the connections and make sure to set the potentiometer to the
lowest value.
4. Set the multimeter in its voltage reading and place the test probes
between the Collector and Emitter terminals of the transistor.
Slowly adjust the potentiometer until the multimeter indicates 3 volts.
Gather the required data on Table 1-A.
Table 1-A
Collector-
Base Current VR1 + VD1 Mode of
Emitter Voltage (VCE/VCC)*100
(IB) Operation
(VCE)
3 volts
6 volts
9 volts
10 volts
5. Repeat procedure 4, setting the Collector-Emitter voltage (VCE) to 6
volts, 9 volts, and 12 volts.

Experiment No.
TRANSISTOR
SWITCHING 1
7. Construct the circuit shown in Schematic Diagram 1-B on the

breadboard.
8. Check the connections and set the potentiometer to the lowest value.
10. Set the potentiometer to maximum value.
11. Slowly adjust the potentiometer until the buzzer produces a sound.
Measure the Collector-Emitter voltage (VCE) at this condition. Record it

as:
VCE = ____
QUESTIONS
1. What are the characteristics of the BJT when operating at the Saturation
Region?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
At Saturation, what is the function of the BJT?

________________
2. What happens to the voltage across R1 and D1 as you increase the

value of the potentiometer?
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. What are the characteristics of the BJT when operating at the Cutoff
Region?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Experiment No.
TRANSISTOR
SWITCHING
1
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
At cutoff, what is the function of the BJT?

_______________________________________________
4. What is the importance/significance of the Relay in the circuit?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
Experiment No.
SILICON-CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER 2
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to learn to test an SCR using an analog ohmmeter

2. To be able to observe the DC characteristics of an SCR
MATERIALS
1 pc S2003LS3 SCR
1 pc LED
1 pc Tact Switch (Normally Open)
1 pc Tact Switch (Normally Closed)
1 unit Oscilloscope
1 unit Analog Multimeter
1 unit Digital Multimeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
D1
R1 LED1
470
V1 + R3
12V 20k 40%
SCR1
S2003LS3
R2
100K

Experiment No.
SILICON-CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER 2
D1
R1 LED1
S1 470
V1 +
12V
S2
SCR1
S2003LS3
R2
100K
DISCUSSION
A Silicon-controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a controlled rectifier

constructed of a silicon semiconductor material with a third terminal for
control purposes. Silicon was chosen because of its high temperature
and power capabilities.
The basic operation of the SCR is different from that of an

ordinary two-layer semiconductor diode in that a third terminal,
called a gate (G), determines when the rectifier switches from the
open-circuit (OFF) to short-circuit (ON) state. It is not enough simply
to forward-bias the anode-to-cathode region of the device. It is widely
used as a switching device in power control applications. It can control
loads by switching on and off up to many thousand times a second. It
can switch on for variable lengths of time duration, thereby delivering
desired amount of power to the load. The schematic diagram symbol and
the construction of an SCR are shown in Figure 2-A.
Figure 2-A
Experiment No.
SILICON-CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER 2
Essentially the SCR acts like a switch. Ideally, it remains OFF

(voltage blocking state), or appears to have an infinite impedance until
both the anode (A) and gate (G) terminals have suitable positive
voltages with respect to the cathode (K) terminal. The SCR then
switches ON and current flows and continues to conduct without further
gate signals.
Ideally, the SCR has zero impedance in conduction (ON) state.

For switching OFF or reverting to the blocking state, there must be no
gate signal and the anode current must be reduced to zero. Current can
flow only in one direction.
The switching action of the gate takes places only when:

• SCR is forward biased
• Suitable Positive voltages is applied between the gate to cathode
The gate can only trigger or switch ON the SCR, it cannot
switch it off. Alternatively, the SCR can be switched off by applying
negative voltage to the anode.
PROCEDURES
Testing the SCR using an Analog Multimeter
1. Set the dial of the Analog Multimeter to x1 ohm
2. Place the red test probe to the cathode terminal (K) of the SCR and the
black test probe to the anode terminal (A).
3. Move the black probe so that it touches both the anode (A) and gate (G)
terminals. The needle of the analog multimeter should deflect.
Experiment proper

breadboard.
2. Check the connections and make sure to set the potentiometer to its
maximum value.

Experiment No.
SILICON-CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER 2
4. Measure the voltage across the anode (A) and cathode (K) terminals of
the SCR.
Record the reading as VAK1 = _______
5. Slowly adjust the potentiometer until the LED lights up.
6. Measure the voltage across the anode (A) and cathode (K) terminals of
the SCR.
Record the reading as VAK2 = _________
8. Place the ammeter in series with the pin 3 of the potentiometer and the
gate terminal (G) of the SCR. Make sure to set the potentiometer to its
maximum value.

breadboard.
11. Press normally closed tact switch (S1) and hold. Observe what happens
to the LED.
12. Release S1 and observe what happens to the LED.
13. Press normally open tact switch (S2) and observe what happens to the
LED.
QUESTIONS
Testing the SCR using an Analog Multimeter
1. What happens to the needle of the multitester when the black test probe
touches the gate terminal (G) of the SCR? Explain.
Experiment No.
SILICON-CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER 2
TEACHER’S MANUAL
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. How can you determine if the SCR is functional or not?
____________________________________________________
Experiment proper
1. What happens to the anode-to-cathode voltage (VAK) and gate current

(IG) as the potentiometer value is slowly decreased?
_______________________________________________________
2. Assume that the value of the potentiometer is decreased to the point that
the SCR is activated and the LED lights up. Will the LED turn off if the
value of the potentiometer is increased?
________________________________________________________
3. When S1 was pressed and held, did the LED light up? Why?
________________________________________________________
4. What happened to the LED when S2 was released? Why?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________.
CONCLUSION
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
Experiment No.
SCR PHASE
CONTROL 3
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to observe the operation and waveforms of an SCR driving a

resistive load
2. To be able to determine the electrical characteristics of an SCR with an
AC source
MATERIALS
1 pc S2003LS3 SCR
1 pc 270Ω 6W Resistor
1 pc 86K Ω 1/2W Resistor
1 pc LED
1 unit Oscilloscope
1 unit Multimeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
R1
270 6W
V1
R4
2K
60 Hz
R3
500k 40%
SCR1
S2003LS3
R2
86K

Experiment No.
SCR PHASE
CONTROL 3
DISCUSSION
As discussed in the previous experiment, a Silicon-controlled

Rectifier (SCR) is a three-terminal device to control rather large currents
to a load.
An SCR acts very much like a switch. When it is turned ON, there
is a low-resistance current flow path from anode to cathode; then it acts
like a closed switch. When it is turned OFF, no current can flow from
anode to cathode; then it acts like an open switch.
If the supply voltage is ac, the SCR spends a certain portion of the
ac cycle time in the ON state and the remainder of the time in the OFF
state. The amount of time spent in each state is controlled by the
gate. As the name suggests, the SCR is a rectifier, so it passes current
only during positive half-cycles of the ac supply.
The popular terms used to describe how an SCR is operating are

Conduction Angle and Firing Delay Angle.
▪ Conduction Angle is the number of degrees of an ac cycle

during which the SCR is turned ON.
▪ Firing Delay Angle is the number of degrees of an ac cycle

that elapses before the SCR is turned ON.
The Firing Delay Angle and Conduction Angle always total 180°.
An SCR is fired by a short burst of current into the gate.

When the SCR fired, the supply voltage is applied to the load. The load
voltage then follows the supply voltage through the rest of the positive
half cycle, until the SCR again turns OFF. Before the SCR fires, the
entire supply voltage is dropped across the SCR terminals, and the load
sees zero voltage. After the SCR fires, the entire supply voltage is
dropped across the load, and the SCR drops zero voltage. The SCR
behaves just like a fast-acting switch.
PROCEDURES

breadboard.
Experiment No.
SCR PHASE
CONTROL 3
maximum value.
3. Set the multimeter to AC voltmeter.
4. Connect point A to the 30 volts terminal of the AC Line Source and

connect point B to the GND terminal.
5. Place the oscilloscope probes across the load resistor (RL).
7. Adjust the potentiometer until a waveform appears on the oscilloscope.

Likewise, adjust the VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV knobs of the oscilloscope
until you see a proper visual of the waveform.
8. Measure the voltage across VRL.
8. Given different values of Firing Delay Angles at Table 3-A, solve for
their corresponding time values using the formula:
( θ / 360° ) = ( t / (1 / freq) )
where: θ = firing delay angle
t = time equivalent of θ
freq = frequency used (in this case, 60 Hz)
Record the answers on Table 3-A.
Table 3-A
Firing Delay Time
Firing Delay Angles Equivalent
VRL
(Calculated/Measured)
15°
30°
60°
Experiment No.
SCR PHASE
CONTROL 3
9. Draw the waveforms produced at 15, 30, and 60 degrees at Graph 3-A,
3-B, and 3-C, respectively.
Graph 3-A Graph 3-B
TIME/DIV= 2mS TIME/DIV= 2mS

VOLTS/DIV= 2V VOLTS/DIV= 2V
Graph 3-C
TIME/DIV= 2mS
VOLTS/DIV= 2V
11. Remove the oscilloscope probes from the Load Resistor (RL) and place
them across the anode (A) and cathode (K) terminals of the SCR.
12. Given similar values of Firing Delay Angles at Table 3-B, copy their
corresponding time values from Table 3-A.
Experiment No.
SCR PHASE
CONTROL 3
Record the answers on Table 3-B.
13. Adjust the potentiometer according to the solved time values, and
measure the corresponding voltage across the anode (A) and cathode
(K) terminals of the triac (VAK).
Record the readings on Table 3-B.
Table 3-B
Firing Delay Time
VAK
15°
30°
60°
14. Draw the waveforms produced across the main terminals of the triac at
15, 30, and 60 degrees at Graph 3-D, 3-E, and 3-F, respectively.
Graph 3-D Graph 3-E
TIME/DIV= 5mS TIME/DIV= 5mS

VOLTS/DIV= 2V VOLTS/DIV= 2V
Experiment No.
SCR PHASE
CONTROL 3
Graph 3-F
TIME/DIV= 5mS
VOLTS/DIV= 2V
QUESTIONS
1. What happens to the voltage across the anode and cathode terminals of
the triac (VAK) as you increase the Firing Delay Angle?
__________________________________________________________
__________________
2. What happens to the Firing Angle Delay as you vary the potentiometer
connected to the Gate terminal (G) of the SCR?
__________________________________________________________
________________________________ _
3. As you vary the potentiometer connected to the Gate terminal (G) of the
SCR, what is the maximum Firing Delay Angle that the circuit is capable
of having? Is it above or below 90°?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
SCR PHASE Experiment No.
CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES 4
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to construct a circuit that would increase the firing delay of a

SCR
2. To be able to observe the characteristics of a SCR with higher firing
delay
MATERIALS
1 pc S2003LS3 SCR
1 pc 0.022μf Capacitor
1 unit Oscilloscope
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
R1
270 6W
V1
R4
2K
60 Hz
R3
500k 40% A
G SCR1
S2003LS3
R2
C1
86K K
0.022uF

CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES 4
DISCUSSION
The simplest method of improving gate control is to add a

capacitor at the bottom of the gate lead resistance. The advantage of
this circuit is that the firing delay angle can be adjusted past 90
degrees.
This can be understood by focusing on the voltage across the

capacitor. When the AC supply is negative, the reverse voltage across
the SCR is applied to the RC triggering circuit, charging the capacitor
negative on the top plate and positive on the bottom plate. When the
supply enters its positive half cycle, the forward voltage across the SCR
tends to charge the capacitor in the opposite direction. However, the
voltage build-ups in the new direction until the negative charge is
removed from the capacitor plates. Since the capacitor must now charge
to a higher voltage, triggering is delayed past the 90 degree point. The
larger the potentiometer resistance, the longer it takes to charge the
capacitor and the later the SCR fires.
PROCEDURES
1. Recall the procedure on Experiment 2 and test the SCR using the
analog multitester if it is functional.

breadboard.
minimum value.
4. Set the multitester to the voltage AC range. Place the positive test probe
to the anode terminal (A) and place the negative test probe to the
cathode terminal (K) of the SCR.
6. Slowly adjust the potentiometer until the reading of the voltmeter climbs
to a steady value.
Record the reading as VAK = ___________

CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES 4
8. Set the potentiometer back to its minimum value.
Place the positive test probe of the oscilloscope to the anode terminal
(A) and the negative test probe of the oscilloscope to the cathode
terminal (K) of the SCR.
10. Slowly adjust the potentiometer until a waveform appears on the

oscilloscope. Likewise, adjust the VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV knobs of
the oscilloscope until you see a proper visual of the waveform.
Adjust the potentiometer until the waveform goes beyond the 90 degree
firing delay angle point. The waveform should not appear as a full sine
wave.
11. Draw the waveform produced at Graph 4-A.
Graph 4-A
TIME/DIV= 5mS
VOLTS/DIV= 2V
13. Place the oscilloscope probes across the load resistor (RL) and make
sure to set the potentiometer to its minimum value.
15. Repeat procedure 10.

CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES 4
16. Draw the waveform produced at Graph 4-B.
Graph 4-B
TIME/DIV= 5mS
VOLTS/DIV= 2V
QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of the capacitor in the circuit?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. When the waveform produced across the anode and cathode terminals
of the SCR (VAK) and across the load resistor (VRL) is a full sine wave,
the SCR is in what state?
_____________
CONCLUSION
___________________
Experiment No.
TRIAC
5
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to observe the AC characteristics of a TRIAC

2. To be able to compare the results of this experiment to the results of
Experiment No. 3
MATERIALS
1 pc Q4004L4 Triac
2 pcs 820Ω 1/2W Resistor
1 unit Oscilloscope
1 unit Multimeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
R1
270 6W
R2
820
V1
R4
60 Hz 20k 40%
R3 Q1
820 Q4004L4
DISCUSSION
Experiment No.
TRIAC
5
A Triac is a three-terminal device used to control the average

current flow to a load. A triac is different from an SCR in that it can
conduct current in either direction when it is turned on. The schematic
symbol of a triac is shown in Figure 5-A, along with the names and letter
abbreviations of its terminals.
Anode 2 (A2)
or
Main Terminal 2 (MT2)
Gate (G)
Anode 1 (A1)
or
Main Terminal 1 (MT1)
Figure 5-A. Schematic symbol and

terminal names of a triac
When the triac is turned OFF, no current can flow between the
main terminals no matter what the polarity of the externally applied
voltage. The triac therefore acts like an open switch.
When the triac is turned ON, there is a very low resistance current
flow path from one main terminal to the other, with the direction of flow
depending on the externally applied voltage. In this condition, the triac
acts like a closed switch.
The firing instants at which a triac switches from the blocking to

conducting state are controlled by the gate trigger-control circuit, like
an SCR. A triac can fire on both the positive and negative half-cycles.
PROCEDURES

breadboard.
minimum value.
Experiment No.
TRIAC
5
3. Use the 30 volts terminal of the AC Line Source as the voltage supply of
the circuit. Make sure to connect the circuit to the GND (0 volt) terminal.
4. Place the oscilloscope probes across the load resistor (RL).
6. Adjust the potentiometer until a waveform appears on the oscilloscope.

Likewise, adjust the VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV knobs of the oscilloscope
until you see a proper visual of the waveform.
7. Given different values of Firing Delay Angles at Table 5-A, solve for
their corresponding time values using the formula:
( θ / 360° ) = ( t / (1 / freq) )
where: θ = firing delay angle
t = time equivalent of θ
freq = frequency used (in this case, 60 Hz)
Record the answers on Table 5-A.

measure the corresponding values voltage across the Load Resistor
(VRL).
Record the readings on Table 5-A.
Table 5-B
Firing Delay Time
VRL
(Calculated/ Measured)
30°
45°
60°
Experiment No.
TRIAC
5
9. Draw the waveforms produced at 15, 30, and 60 degrees at Graph 5-A,
5-B, and 5-C, respectively.
Graph 5-A Graph 5-B
TIME/DIV= 2mS TIME/DIV=2mS

VOLTS/DIV= 2v VOLTS/DIV=2V
Graph 5-C
TIME/DIV=2mS
VOLTS/DIV=2V
11. Remove the oscilloscope probes from the Load Resistor (RL) and place
them across the main terminals of the triac (MT1) and (MT2).
12. Given similar values of Firing Delay Angles at Table 5-B, copy their
corresponding time values from Table 5-A.
Record the answers on Table 5-B.

Experiment No.
TRIAC
5
measure the corresponding voltage across the main terminals of the triac
(VMT1-MT2).
Record the readings on Table 5-B.
Table 5-B
Firing Delay Time
VMT1-MT2
30°
45°
60°
14. Draw the waveforms produced across the main terminals of the triac at
15, 30, and 60 degrees at Graph 5-D, 5-E, and 5-F, respectively.
Graph 5-D Graph 5-E
TIME/DIV=2mS TIME/DIV=2mS
VOLTS/DIV= 2V VOLTS/DIV=2V
Experiment No.
TRIAC
5
Graph 5-F
TIME/DIV=2mS
VOLTS/DIV=2V
QUESTIONS
1. What happens to the voltage across the main terminals of the triac (VMT1-
MT2) as you increase the Firing Delay Angle?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. What happens to the Firing Angle Delay as you vary the potentiometer
connected to the Gate terminal (G) of the triac?
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. As you vary the potentiometer connected to the Gate terminal (G) of the
triac, what is the maximum Firing Delay Angle that the circuit is capable
of having? Is it above or below 90°?
________
4. Based on your collected data on both Experiment 3 (SCR Phase

Control) and this experiment, what is the difference between the SCR
and the triac?
__________________________________________________________
________________________
Experiment No.
TRIAC
5
6. Is it possible to make the triac function as an SCR? If yes, explain how.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
TRIAC PHASE Experiment No.
CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES 6
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to construct a circuit that would increase the firing delay of a

triac
2. To be able to observe the characteristics of a triac with higher firing delay
MATERIALS
1 pc Q4004L4 Triac
2 pcs 820Ω 1/2W Resistor
1 pc 22μf Electrolytic Capacitor
1 unit Oscilloscope
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
R1
270 6W
R2
820
V1
R4
60 Hz 20k 40%
R3 Q1
820 Q4004L4
+
C1
22uF

CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES
TEACHER’S MANUAL
6
DISCUSSION
The simplest method of improving the gate control of a TRIAC is to add

capacitor at the bottom of the gate lead resistance. The capacitor charges
through the resistor R1 and R2 during the delay angle portion of each half cycle.
During a positive half cycle, MT2 is positive with respect to MT1, and the
capacitor charges positive on its top plate. When the voltage at the capacitor
builds up to a value large enough to deliver sufficient gate current (IGT) through
a resistor R3 to trigger the triac, the triac fires.
During a negative half cycle, capacitor charges negative on its top plate.
Again, when the voltage across the capacitor gets large enough to deliver
sufficient gate current in the reverse direction through the resistor R 3 to trigger
the triac, the triac fires.
The charging rate of the capacitor is set by the resistor R2. For large R2,
the charging rate is slow, causing a long firing delay and small average load
current. For small resistance R2, the charging rate is fast, the firing delay angle
is small, and the load current is high.
PROCEDURES

breadboard. See to it that the triac is tested and is functional before use.
maximum value.
3. Set the multitester to the voltage AC range. Place the positive test probe
to the main terminal 2 (MT2) and place the negative test probe to the
main terminal 1 (MT1) of the triac.
5. Slowly adjust the potentiometer until the reading of the voltmeter climbs
to a steady value.
Record the reading as VMT1-MT2 = ________

CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES 6
7. Set the potentiometer back to its minimum value.
Place the positive test probe of the oscilloscope to the main terminal 2
(MT2) and the negative test probe of the oscilloscope to the main
terminal 1 (MT1) of the triac.
9. Slowly adjust the potentiometer until a waveform appears on the

oscilloscope. Likewise, adjust the VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV knobs of
the oscilloscope until you see a proper visual of the waveform.
Adjust the potentiometer until the negative half cycle of the waveform
goes beyond the 90 degree firing delay angle point. Both the positive and
negative half cycle of the waveform should be visible.
10. Draw the waveform produced at Graph 6-A.
Graph 6-A
TIME/DIV=5mS
VOLTS/DIV=2V
12. Place the oscilloscope probes across the load resistor (RL) and make
sure to set the potentiometer to its maximum value.
14. Repeat procedure 9.

CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES 6
15. Draw the waveform produced at Graph 6-B.
Graph 6-B
TIME/DIV=5mS
VOLTS/DIV=2V
QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of the capacitor in the circuit?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Compare the collected data on both Experiment 4 (SCR Phase Control

Above 90 Degrees) and this experiment.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. In your own opinion, which component is more versatile: the SCR or the
TRIAC? Defend your answer.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
CONTROL
ABOVE 90 DEGREES 6
CONCLUSION
__________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Experiment No.
UJT-TRIGGERED
SCR 7
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to observe the characteristics of Unijunction Transistor

2. To be able to construct a circuit that would be able to trigger an SCR
MATERIALS
1 pc 2N2646 UJT
1 pc S2003LS3 SCR
1 pc 0.001μf Electrolytic Capacitor
1 pc LED
1 unit Oscilloscope
1 unit Digital Multimeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
V1
12V
+V
R1 R2
100K 150
R4
500k 40%
B2
Q1
E 2N2646
B1
C1
.001uF R3
27

Experiment No.
UJT-TRIGGERED
SCR 7
V1
12V
+V
D1
R5 LED0
470
R1 R2
100K 27
R4
500k 40% B2
Q1
E 2N2646
B1 SCR1
S2003LS3
C1
.001uF R3
150
DISCUSSION
A Unijunction Transistor is not a thyristor, this device can trigger

larger thyristors with a pulse at base B1. A unijunction transistor is
composed of bar of N-type silicon having a P-type connection in the
middle shown in Figure 7-A-a. The connections at the ends of the bar
are known as bases B1 and B2; the P-type mid-point is the emitter. With
the emitter disconnected, the total resistance RBBO is the sum of RB1
and RB2 as shown in Figure 7-A-b. The intrinsic standoff ratio η is the
ratio of RB1 to RBBO. It varies from 0.4 to 0.8 for different devices. The
schematic symbol is Figure 7-A-c.
Figure 7-A
Experiment No.
UJT-TRIGGERED
SCR 7
The UJT turns on when the emitter is more positive than B1 by

several volts. When it does, the resistance between B1 and B2
decreases and the current from B1 flows through both B2 and the
emitter. The UJT remains on if the current between B1 and E (called the
holding current) stays above a certain level. It turns off when the holding
current drops 0.
Figure 7-B shows that as the emitter voltage (VE) increases, the
emitter current (IE) increases up to a peak point (IP, VP). Beyond the peak
point, the emitter current (IE) increases as the emitter voltage (VE)
decreases in the negative resistance region. The voltage reaches a
minimum at the valley point (IV, VV). The resistance of RB1 is lowest at the
valley point and is called the Saturation Resistance.
Figure 7-B
PROCEDURES
1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the Ohmmeter mode.
2. Place the positive test probe to the base 1 terminal (B1) of the UJT and
the negative test probe to the base 2 terminal (B2). The multimeter
should give a high resistance value reading.
Record the reading as RB1B2 =
3. Reverse the positions of the positive and negative probes of the

multimeter, placing the positive test probe to the base 2 terminal (B2) of
the UJT and the negative test probe to the base 1 terminal (B1). The
multimeter should give a high resistance value reading.
Experiment No.
UJT-TRIGGERED
SCR 7
Record the reading as RB2B1 = __________________
the negative test probe to the emitter terminal (E). The multimeter
Record the reading as RB1E = _____________________
the negative test probe to the emitter terminal (E). The multimeter
Record the reading as RB2E = _______________
6. Place the positive test probe to the emitter terminal (E) of the UJT and
should give a low resistance value reading.
Record the reading as REB1 = _____________ FIGURE 6

should give a low resistance value reading.
Record the reading as REB2 = __________
For a clearer reference of procedures 2 to 7, refer to Figure 7-C below.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7-C
Experiment No.
UJT-TRIGGERED
SCR 7

breadboard.
minimum value.
11. Place the positive test probe of the oscilloscope to the emitter terminal
(E) of the UJT and the negative test probe to the ground (GND).
Draw the waveform produced at Graph 7-A.
Graph 7-A
TIME/DIV=50uS
VOLTS/DIV=2V
12. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the Voltmeter mode.
the negative test probe to the ground (GND).
Record the reading as VE =
Continue to monitor the value of the emitter to ground voltage (VE)

throughout the next procedure. Take note of any changes.
14. Place the positive test probe of the oscilloscope to the base 2 terminal
(B2) of the UJT and the negative test probe to the ground (GND).
Experiment No.
UJT-TRIGGERED
SCR 7
Draw the waveform produced at Graph 7-B.
Graph 7-B
TIME/DIV=50uS
VOLTS/DIV=2V
15. Place the positive test probe of the oscilloscope to the base 1 terminal
(B1) of the UJT and the negative test probe to the ground (GND).
Draw the waveform produced at Graph 7-C.
Graph 7-C
TIME/DIV=50uS
VOLTS/DIV=.2V
16. Repeat procedures 11, 14, and 15, but this time vary the potentiometer
and observe what happens to the waveform. There will be no need to
draw.

Experiment No.
UJT-TRIGGERED
SCR 7

breadboard.
maximum value.
21. Slowly decrease the resistance value of the potentiometer until the LED
lights up.
QUESTIONS
1. What happens to the waveforms produced at procedures 10 to 12 when

the potentiometer is varied?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. What happens to the charging time of the capacitor when the

potentiometer is varied?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. At procedure 11, what happens to the voltage across the capacitor?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4. At procedure 21, what is the function of the UJT in making the LED light
up? Explain.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
5. Did the UJT trigger the SCR to activate?
CONCLUSION
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Experiment No.
COMPARATOR
8
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to construct a comparator circuit

2. To be able to observe the characteristics of a comparator circuit
MATERIALS
1 pc UA741 Operational Amplifier

1 pc 1N4001 Silicon Diode
1 pc 1.8KΩ 1/2W Resistor
3 pcs 7.2KΩ 1/2W Resistor
1 pc LED
1 unit Multimeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
R1
+ B1
7.2k
12V
+
+ B2 IC1
12V R2 V1 UA741
7.2k R3
8V 1k
+V
D1

Experiment No.
COMPARATOR
8
R1 +V V1
+ B1 1V
7.2k
12V
+
+ B2 IC1
R2 UA741
12V
7.2k R3
1k
D1
R1
+ B1
10K
12V
+
+ B2 IC1
R2 UA741
12V
5K
R3
1k
+V V2 +V
12V
V1
12V
D1
R4
5K
IC2
R5 UA741
10K
Schematic Diagram 8-C

Experiment No.
COMPARATOR
8
DISCUSSION
A Comparator circuit accepts input of linear voltages and provides a

digital output that indicates when one input is less than the second. The output
signal of a comparator circuit is digital signal that stays at a high voltage level
when the non-inverting (+) input is greater than the voltage at the inverting (-)
input and switches to a lower voltage level when the non-inverting input voltage
goes below the inverting input voltage.
There are generally three types of comparator circuits: the inverting,

non-inverting, and the window comparators.
Figure 8-A. Non-inverting and Inverting Comparator
Non-inverting Comparator
In Non-inverting Comparator the reference voltage is applied to the

inverting input and the voltage to be compared is applied to the non-inverting
input as shown in Figure 8-A. Whenever the input voltage (VIN) goes above
the reference voltage (VREF), the output of the OPAMP swings to positive
saturation (+VSAT), and vice versa. As long as VIN is less than the reference
voltage, the output remains at a low voltage level but if the reference voltage is
higher than the reference voltage, the output voltage remains high voltage level.
What happens is that, the difference between the VIN and VREF, (Vin -
Vref) will be a positive value and is amplified to infinity by the OPAMP. Since
there is no feedback resistor (Rf), the OPAMP is in open loop mode and so the
voltage gain (Av) will be close to infinity. So the output voltage swings to the
Experiment No.
COMPARATOR
8
maximum possible value (+VSAT). Remember the equation Av = 1 + (Rf/R1).

When the VIN goes below VREF, the reverse occurs.
Inverting Comparator
In the case of an Inverting Comparator, the reference voltage is applied

to the non-inverting input and voltage to be compared is applied to the inverting
input as shown in Figure 8-A. Whenever the input voltage (VIN) goes above
the (VREF), the output of the OPAMP swings to negative saturation (-VSAT),
and vice versa.
Here the difference between two voltages (VIN – VREF) is inverted and
amplified to infinity by the OPAMP. Remember the equation Av = -Rf/R1. Since
there is no feedback resistor, the gain will be close to infinity and the output
voltage will be as negative as possible (-VSAT).
Window Comparator
A Window Comparator compares an input signal to a “low” and a “high”

reference voltage level (VREF LOW and VREF HIGH), respectively, and outputs a
logic low level if it falls between these two reference levels. If the input is higher
than VREF HIGH or lower than VREF LOW, the output goes to logic high. One of
the OPAMPs is used for comparing the input to VREF HIGH while the other
OPAMP is used for comparison with VRef Low.
PROCEDURES

breadboard.
2. Set the Variable DC Supply to positive 8 volts.
Connect the 8 volts Variable DC Supply to the non-inverting terminal

(V+) of the OPAMP. Check the connections.
4. Slowly adjust the Variable DC Supply towards the minimum value.
At what voltage did the LED light up?
Record it as VS =
Experiment No.
COMPARATOR
8
5. Calculate the reference voltage using this formula:
VREF = VSR2 / (R1 + R2)

Record it as VREF =

breadboard.
8. Set the Variable DC Supply to its minimum value.
Connect the Variable DC Supply to the inverting terminal (V-) of the

OPAMP. Check the connections.
10. Slowly adjust the Variable DC Supply towards positive 8 volts.
12. Construct the circuit shown in Schematic Diagram 8-C on the

breadboard.
13. Set the Variable DC Supply to its minimum value.
Connect the Variable DC Supply to the circuit as shown in Schematic

Diagram 8-C. Check the connections.
15. Slowly adjust the Variable DC Supply towards positive 8 volts.

At what voltage did the LED turn off? ______

Experiment No.
COMPARATOR
8
17. Calculate the Reference Voltages (VREF) from the values recorded on
procedure 15.
VREF1 =
VREF2 =
QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between Schematic Diagram 8-A and

Schematic Diagram 8-B?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Based on your observations, does the output voltage of the OPAMP

change as you vary the applied input voltage?
____
3. What type of voltage comparator circuit operates in a way that it

produces a positive response when the applied input voltage is between
the inverting and non-inverting voltage references? Explain its operation.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
__________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Experiment No.
LIGHT DEPENDENT
RESISTOR 9
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to observe the characteristics of an LDR

2. To be able to construct a circuit application of an LDR
MATERIALS
1 pc Light Dependent Resistor
1 pc UA741 Operational Amplifier
2 pcs 10KΩ 1/2W Resistor
1 pc LED
1 unit Multimeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
V1
12V
+V
R1
610
R2
D1
564 lux
R3
5k Q1
2N2222A

Experiment No.
LIGHT DEPENDENT
RESISTOR 9
V1
12V
+V
RLY1
12VSPDT
R1 R3
50k 7.2k
IC1
UA741 R5
+
+ 20k Q1
2N2222A BZ1
-
R2 R4
1000 lux 7.2k
DISCUSSION
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or photoresistor is a resistor

whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. In
other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. It can also be referred to as
a photoconductor or CdS device, from "cadmium sulfide," which is the
material from which the device is made and that actually exhibits the
variation in resistance with light level.
LDRs are very useful especially in light or dark sensor circuits.

Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as
1MΩ. But when they are illuminated with light, resistance drops
dramatically.
PROCEDURES
1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the Ohmmeter mode.

Experiment No.
LIGHT DEPENDENT
RESISTOR 9
2. Cover the face of the LDR and measure the resistance across it.
Record it as R1 =
3. Expose the LDR to a strong light source and measure the resistance
across it.
Record it as R2 =

breadboard. Check the connections.
6. Cover the LDR.
Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the DC Voltmeter mode and
measure the voltage across the collector (C) and emitter (E) terminal of
the transistor.
Record the reading as VCE1 =
7. Expose the LDR to a strong light source.
Measure the voltage across the collector (C) and emitter (E) terminal of
the transistor.

breadboard. Check the connections.
11. Cover the LDR and observe what happens.
12. Uncover the LDR and expose it to a strong light source. Observe what
happens.

Experiment No.
LIGHT DEPENDENT
RESISTOR 9
14. Interchange the places of the LDR and resistor R1.
15. Repeat procedures 10 to 13.
QUESTIONS
1. In the circuit shown in Schematic Diagram 9-A, what happens to the

collector to emitter voltage (VCE) when the LDR is covered?
_____________________________________________.
2. Based on the value of VCE1, at what region is the transistor operating and
what is its behavior?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. In the circuit shown in Schematic Diagram 9-A, what happens to the

collector to emitter voltage (VCE) when the LDR is exposed to a strong
light source?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4. Based on the value of VCE1, at what region is the transistor operating and
what is its behavior?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_
Experiment No.
LIGHT DEPENDENT
RESISTOR 9
5. Explain the operation of the circuit shown in Schematic Diagram 9-B.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
6. What happens to the circuit operation when the LDR and resistor R1 is
interchanged? Explain.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to construct a circuit that would be able to switch a TTL IC

2. To be able to observe the characteristics of a photodiode
MATERIALS
1 pc Phototransistor
1 pc 76192 Counter IC
1 pc 74248 Decoder IC
1 pc 74194 Shift Register IC
1 pc 7432 OR Gate IC
1 pc 7408 AND Gate IC
1 pc 7404 NOT Gate IC
2 pcs LED
1 unit Multimeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
V1
5V
+V
R2 R4
560 230
D2
R3 R1 LED0
230 10k 40%
D1 Q1
LED0

Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
V1
5V
+V
R4
230
Q1
D2
R3 LED0
230
R2
560
D1
LED0
R1
10k 40%
V2
5V
+V
V1
5V
+V
U1A U2A
R4
1k
U1B U3A U4
R3 74LS194 STEPPER
1k CP D3 MOTOR
R1 R2 D2
S1 D1 TERMINAL
1k 1k S0 D0
U3B J2 D
U2B DSR Q3 C
DSL Q2
Q1 B
MR Q0 A
D1
DIODE Q1
J1
D0 U1C
D1
DATA SWITCHES
Schematic Diagram 10-C

Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
V3
12V
Gnd +V
DISP1
abcdefg.
RLY1 4
12VSPDT
2 3
5
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
RBO
74LS248
V1
+
5V U2
+V 1
RBI
BZ1
LT
A0
A1
A2
A3
U3B
-
R5
10k Q1
2N2222A
V4
5V
+V
U4A
Q0
Q1
Q2
Q3
TCD
TCU
74LS192
U1
CPD
CPU
D0
D1
D2
D3
MR
PL
S2
U3C R6 R7
1k 1k
R1
R2 U3A
1k
1k
R4
1k Q2
D1
R3 LED1
1k V2
CP1 Q1
CP2 Q2
Variable Clock
Generator
Schematic Diagram 10-D
DISCUSSION
A phototransistor is an ordinary transistor that has been modified in two

ways: (1) there is a transparent window so that light can shine on the junctions,
and (2) the structure has been modified to maximize the light capture area.
Base current is formed by light photons striking the junction. The phototransistor
converts received power to a collector current. Phototransistors have a non-
zero collector current known as dark current when the device is in absolute
Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
darkness. This current is very temperature dependent and is about 100nA at

room temperature. The existence of this current limits the minimum static light
level that can be reliably detected. A pulsating light is more easily detected
since a changing collector current can be differentiated from a static
background.
The symbol of a phototransistor is shown in Figure 10-A, and has two

arrows pointing towards it. But other phototransistor symbols show a jagged
arrow, such as the symbol used in Schematic Diagrams 10-A to 10-D. Both
versions of the phototransistor symbol are acceptable and understood.
Figure 10-A
Phototransistors are operated in their active region, although the base

connection is left disconnected because it is not required. The base of the photo
transistor would only be used to bias the transistor so that additional collector
current was flowing and this would mask any current flowing as a result of the
photo-action. For operation the bias conditions are quite simple. The collector of
an n-p-n transistor is made positive with respect to the emitter or negative for a
p-n-p transistor.
The light enters the base region of the phototransistor where it causes
hole electron pairs to be generated. This mainly occurs in the reverse biased
base-collector junction. The hole-electron pairs move under the influence of the
electric field and provide the base current, causing electrons to be injected into
the emitter.
PROCEDURES

breadboard.
2. Make sure LED D1 is facing towards the face of the phototransistor and
the potentiometer is set to its minimum value.
Cover the phototransistor.

Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
Observe what happens to LED D2.
4. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the DC Voltmeter mode and
measure the voltage across the collector (C) and emitter (E) terminals of
the phototransistor.
5. Remove the cover or expose the phototransistor to a light source.
6. Measure the voltage across the collector (C) and emitter (E) terminals of
7. Slowly adjust the potentiometer until it reaches its maximum value.
9. Cover the phototransistor.
Measure the voltage across the collector (C) and emitter (E) terminals of

breadboard.
12. Make sure LED D1 is facing towards the face of the phototransistor and
the potentiometer is set to its minimum value.
Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
14. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the DC Voltmeter mode and
measure the voltage across the collector (C) and emitter (E) terminals of
15. Remove the cover or expose the phototransistor to a light source.
17. Slowly adjust the potentiometer until it reaches its maximum value.
19. Cover the phototransistor.
Measure the voltage across the collector (C) and emitter (E) terminals of
21. Construct the circuit shown in Schematic Diagram 10-C on the

breadboard.
Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
Schematic Diagram 10-C is a circuit that simulates the operation of an

automated sliding door. It involves three input variables:
A - Human presence
B - Door in closed position
C - Door in open position
A visual representation is shown in Figure 10-B.
A A
C B
A A
Figure 10-B
Its operation is set by two output conditions: the opening motion (Op),
and the closing motion (Cl). It is defined by the truth table below:
A B C Op Cl Door Status
0 1 0 1 1 Door is closed
1 1 0 1 0 Door is opening
1 0 0 1 0 Door is opening
0 0 0 0 1 Door is closing
1 0 1 0 0 Door is closed
0 0 1 0 1 Door is closing
23. Follow the truth table above, using the following parameters within
Schematic Diagram 10-C:
If A is 0, the phototransistor is covered.

If A is 1, the phototransistor is exposed to the light of LED D1.
If B is 0, Data Switch D0 is set to LO.

If B is 1, Data Switch D0 is set to HI.
Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
If C is 0, Data Switch D1 is set to LO.

If C is 1, Data Switch D1 is set to HI.
Observe the movement of the stepper motor as you follow the truth table.
25. Construct the circuit shown in Schematic Diagram 10-D on the

breadboard.
26. Make sure LED D1 is facing towards the face of the phototransistor.
28. Remove the cover from the phototransistor and expose it to the light of
LED D1.
Observe what happens to the seven segment display.
29. Repeat procedure 28 until the seven segment display reaches the
number nine (9).
Observe what happens.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the operation of Schematic Diagram 10-A? Explain.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. What is the operation of Schematic Diagram 10-B? Explain.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Experiment No.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
SENSOR 10
3. In Schematic Diagram 10-D, what happens to the phototransistor when

it is exposed to light?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
4. In Schematic Diagram 10-D, what happens to the phototransistor when

it is covered?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Industrial Electronics - Student Manual

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Industrial Electronics - Student Manual

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

EDUCATIONAL

Copyright (C) 2012

Expt. Title Date Instructor

Grades: Mid-Term: __________ Final: ___________

Student’s Name: ______________________________

Course and Yr. Level: __________________________

Instructor’s Name: _____________________________

To enable the user to familiarize the functions of the Industrial

1 pc 74194 Shift Register IC

The Industrial Electronic Experimenter unit is a very useful tool in

 Variable DC Supply (GND, positive 1 to 30 Volts, negative 1 to 30

Installing or removing the jumper wires while the power is ON may

Testing of Ground Continuity

2. Attached to an appropriately stripped hook-up wire, place the one test

Testing of AC Line Source

1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the AC Voltmeter mode.

2. Attached to an appropriately stripped hook-up wire, place the red test

3. Turn the trainer ON.

4. Record the reading of the multimeter as VAC1 = ____________

5. Turn the trainer OFF.

7. Turn the trainer ON.

8. Record the reading of the multimeter as VAC2 = ____________

Testing of Fixed DC Supply

1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the DC Voltmeter mode.

2. Attached to an appropriately stripped hook-up wire, place the red test

3. Turn the trainer ON.

4. Record the reading of the multimeter as VDC1 = ________

5. Turn the trainer OFF.

Record the readings as VDC2 = _____

Testing of Variable DC Supply

1. Set the dial of the Digital Multimeter to the DC Voltmeter mode.

2. Attached to an appropriately stripped hook-up wire, place the red test

Make sure the knob is set to its lowest value.

3. Turn the trainer ON.

4. Record the reading as VMIN1 =

6. Record the maximum reading as VMAX1 = ____

7. Turn the trainer OFF.

Record the readings as VMIN2 =

Testing of Clock Generator

1. Set the dial of the Fixed Frequency Clock Generator to 1 Hz.

2. Attached to an appropriately stripped hook-up wire, place the positive

3. Turn the trainer ON.

Draw the waveform produced at Graph 0-A.

Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform.

Measure the time equivalent of one whole cycle of the waveform.

5. Turn the trainer OFF.

6. Repeat procedures 2 to 5, but place the positive test probe of the

Draw the waveform produced at Graph 0-B.

Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform.

Measure the time equivalent of one whole cycle of the waveform.

8. Repeat procedures 2 to 5, but place the positive test probe of the

Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform.

Measure the time equivalent of one whole cycle of the waveform.

9. Slowly turn the knob until the maximum value is reached.

Draw the waveform produced at Graph 0-D.

Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform.

Measure the time equivalent of one whole cycle of the waveform.

11. Repeat procedures 8 and 9, and draw the waveform produced at

Graph 0-E Graph 0-F

Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveforms.

Measure the time equivalent of one whole cycle of the waveforms.

Graph 0-G Graph 0-H

Graph 0-I Graph 0-J

Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveforms.

Grades: Mid-Term: Final: _