ENERGYBAND THEORY

We have seen that every shell is associated with an energy level. An electron
orbiting very close to the nucleus in the first shell is very much tightly bound to the
nucleus and possesses only a small amount of energy. Hence first shell has lowest
energy level. Greater the distance of an electron from the nucleus, the greater is its
energy. Hence the energy level of the outermost shell is highest. Due to such high
energy, the valence electrons in the outermost shell can be easily extracted out and
hence such electrons take part in chemical reactions and in bonding the atoms
together. Now this discussion is related to the electrons and shells of one isolated
atom only.
In solids, atoms are brought close together. In such a case, outer shell electrons
are shared by more than one atom. So these electrons come under the influence of
forces from other atoms too. The valence electrons are shared by forming a bond
with the valence electrons of an adjacent atom. Such bonds are called covalent
bonds. Thus the valence electrons are not free under normal conditions, as they are
shared by the adjacent atoms.
Now the valence electrons possess highest energy level. When such electrons
from the covalent bonds, due to the coupling between the valence electrons, the
energy levels associated with the valence electrons merge into each other. This
merging forms an energy band.
Similarly the energy levels of various electrons present in the first orbit, second
orbit etc. also merge to form the various energy bands.
So instead of the presence of widely separated energy levels as that of the
isolated atoms, the closely spaced energy levels are present in a solid, which are
called energy bands.
Out of all the energy bands, three bands are most important to understand the
behaviour of solids. These bands are,
1) Valence band, 2) Conduction band, 3) Forbidden band or gap
Key Point : The energy band formed due to merging of energy levels associated
with the valence electrons i.e. electrons in the last shell, is called valence band.
As mentioned earlier in normal condition, valence electrons form the covalent
bonds and are not free. But when certain energy is imparted to them, they become
free.
Key Point : The energy band formed due to merging of energy levels associated
with the free electrons is called conduction band.
Under normal condition, the conduction band is empty and once energy is
imparted, the valence electrons jump from valence band to conduction band and
become free.
 While jumping from valence band to conduction band, the electrons have to
cross an energy gap.
Key Point : The energy gap which is present separating the conduction band and the
valence band is called forbidden band or forbidden gap.
The energy imparted to the electrons must be greater than the electrons must be
greater than the energy associated with the forbidden gap, to extract the electrons
from valence band and transfer them to conduction band. The energy associated with
forbidden band is denoted as EG.
Key Point : The electrons can not exist in the forbidden gap.
The graphical representation of the energy bands in a solid is called energy band
diagram. Such an energy band diagram for a solid silicon is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Energy band diagram

The electrons in the various orbits revolving around the nucleus occupy the
various band including fully or partly occupied valence band. The conduction band
which is normally empty carries the electrons which get drifted from the valence
band. These electrons present in the conduction band are free electrons and they drift
about in the spaces between the atoms.
For any given type of material the forbidden energy gap may be large, small or
nonexistent. The classification of materials as insulators, conductors or
semiconductors is mainly dependent on the widths of the forbidden energy gap. Let
us see the classification of materials as insulators, conductors and semiconductors
based on energy band diagram. Before that let us see the unit in which energy
associated with the bands is measured.
1.1 The eV, Unit of Energy
The energy is measured in joules (J) in the M.K.S. system. As mentioned earlier,
each electrons has an energy level associated with it. The unit joule is very large for
the discussion of such energies associated with electrons. Hence such energies
associated with the electrons are measured in electrons are measured in electrons
volts denoted as eV.
 The charge on a single electron is 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb. So one electron volt is
defined as the energy required by an electron to fall through a potential of one volt.
... 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 (C) x 1 (V) = 1.6 x 10-19 J

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON ENERGY BAND

STRUCTURE
Based on the ability of various materials to conduct current, the materials are
classified as conductors, insulators and the semiconductors.
A metal which is very good carrier of electricity is called conductor. A very poor
conductor of electricity is termed as insulator. A metal having conductivity which is
between conductor and an insulator is called semiconductor. Copper and aluminium
are good examples of a conductor. Glass, wood, mica, diamond the examples of an
insulator which do not conduct current. Silicon and germanium are the examples of
a semiconductor which do not conduct current at low temperatures but as
temperature increases these materials behave as good conductors. Let us see the
energy band diagrams for these three types of metals.
1.1 Conductors
It has been mentioned earlier that a material having large number of free
electrons can conduct very easily. For example, copper has 8.5 x 1028 free electrons
per cubic metre which is a very large number. Hence copper is called good
conductor. In fact, in metals like copper, aluminium there is no forbidden gap
between valence band and conduction band. The two band overlap. Hence even at
room temperature, a large number of electrons are available for conduction. So
without any additional energy, such metals contain a large number of free electrons
and hence called good conductors. An energy band diagram for a conductor is shown
in the Fig. 1(a).
1.2 Insulators
An insulator has an energy band diagram as shown in the Fig. 1(b). In case of
such insulating material, there exists a large forbidden gap in between the conduction
band and the valence band. Practically it is impossible for an electron to jump from
the valence band to the conduction band. Hence such materials can not conduct and
called insulators. The forbidden gap is very wide, approximately of about 7 eV is
present in insulators. For a diamond, which is an insulator, the forbidden gap is about
6 eV. Such materials may conduct only at very high temperatures or if they are
subjected to high voltage. Such a conduction is rare and is called breakdown of an
insulator. The other insulating materials are glass, wood, mica, paper etc.
 Fig. 1 Energy band diagrams

1.3 Semiconductors
Now let us come to an important category of materials, which are neither
insulators nor conductors. The forbidden gap in such materials is very narrow as
shown in Fig. 1(c). Such materials are called semiconductors. The forbidden gap is
about 1 eV. In such materials, the energy provided by the heat at room temperature
is sufficient to lift the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band.
Therefore at room temperature, semiconductors are capable of conduction. But a
0o K or absolute zero (-273o C), all the electrons of semiconductor materials find
themselves locked in the valence band. Hence at 0o K, the semiconductor materials
bahave as perfect insulators. In case of semiconductors, forbidden gap energy
depends on the temperature. For silicon and germanium, this energy is given by,

where T = Absolute temperature in K

Assuming room temperature ti be 27o C i.e. 300o K, the forbidden gap energy
for Si and Ge can be calculated from the above equations. The forbidden gap for the
germanium is 0.72 eV while for the silicon it is 1.12 eV at room temperature. The
silicon and germanium are the two widely used semiconductor materials in electrons
devices, as mentioned earlier.
key Point : While calculating , substitute T in ok.
Why silicon is most widely used ?
Looking at the structure of silicon and germanium atom, it can be seen that
valence shell of silicon is 3rd shell while valence shell of germanium is 4rd shell.
Hence valence electrons of germanium are at larger distance from nucleus than
valence electrons of silicon. Hence valence electrons of germanium are more loosely
bound to the nucleus than those of silicon. Thus valence electrons of germanium can
easily escape from the atom, due to very small additional energy imparted to them.
So at high temperature, germanium becomes unstable than silicon and hence silicon
is widely used semiconductor material.
Example : Calculate the value of forbidden gap for silicon and germanium at the
temperature of 35o C.
Solution : Forbidden gap for silicon is given by,
EG = 1.12 - 3.6 x 10 x T
Now T = 35 + 273 = 308 oK
... EG = 1.21 - 3.6 x 10-4 x 308 = 1.099 eV
While forbidden gap for germanium is given by,
EG = 0.785 - 2.23 x 10-4 x T = 0.785 - 2.23 x 10-4 x 308 = 0.7163 eV

CODUCTIVITY OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

In an extrinsic semiconductors, there are two types of materials n type and p type.
Let us obtain the expressions for the conductivity of n type and p type materials.
1.1 Conductivity of n Type Material
It is known that in n type material, the free electrons are majority carriers while
the holes are minority carriers.
Let nn = Concentration of free electrons in n type
pn = Concentration of holes in n type
ND = Concentration of donor atoms
Note : In the symbol, main letter n or p indicates concentration of type of charge
carrier electron or whole while the suffix indicates the type of material i.e. n type or
p type. Thus nn indicates electron concentration in n type material while np indicates
electron concentration in p type material and so on.
From the basic equation of conductivity, the conductivity of n type material can be
expressed as,
σn = (nn μn + pn μp) e ............(1)
But pn << nn as holes are in minority hence,
σn ≈ nn μn e ................. (2)
The number of free electrons is dominantly controlled by donor atoms added
than the thermal generation at room temperature. Hence concentration of donor
atoms ND added can be approximately assumed to be equal to the concentration of
free electrons nn in n type materials.
Thus as ND >> ni we can write,
nn ≈ ND ................ (3)
.
.. σn ≈ ND μn e ..................(4)
1.2 Conductivity of p Type Material
For a type material, holes are in majority and electrons are in minority.
Let np = Concentration of free electrons in p type
pp = Concentration of holes in p type
NA = Concentration of acceptor atoms
Thus the conductivity of p type material can be expressed as,
σp = (np μn + pp μp) e ................ (5)
But np << pp as free electrons are in minority hence,
σp ≈ pp μp e ........... (6)
The number of holes is dominantly controlled by added acceptor impurity than
the thermal generation. Each added impurity atom creats a hole hence NA >> ni. Thus
all the holes generated pp can be approximately assumed to be equal to the
concentration of acceptor NA. Thus,
pp ≈ N A ............... (7)
.
.. σp ≈ NA μp e ............. (8)

FERMI LEVEL IN EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

When the impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor the allowable energy
levels are introduced and material becomes extrinsic semiconductor.
In n-type semiconductor, a donor impurity is added. Each donor atom donates
one free electron and there are large number of free electrons, available in the
conduction band. The donor energy level corresponding to the donor impurity added
is just below the conduction band. This donor level is indicated as ED and its distance
is 0.01 eV below the conduction band in germanium while it is 0.05 eV below the
conduction band in silicon. As this distance is very small, even at room temperature,
almost all the extra electrons from the donor impurity atoms jump into the
conduction band. Hence number of free electrons is very large in case of n-type
material. Due to abundant free electrons, the probability of occupying the energy
level by the electrons, towards the conduction band is more. This probability is
indicated by Fermi level EF. So in n-type material, the fermi level EF gets shifted
towards the conduction band. But it is below the donor energy level. The overall
energy band diagram for n-type material is shown in the Fig. 1(a).
 Fig. 1 Energy band diagrams for extrinsic semicondcutor
As against this, in p-type material, acceptor impurity is added. Due to this, large
number of holes get created in the valence band. The acceptor energy level
corresponding to acceptor impurity gets introduced which is indicated as E A and is
very close to the valence band just above it. At room temperature, the electrons from
valence band jump tp acceptor energy level, leaving behind the holes in valence
band. This shifts the fermi level EF towards the valence band. It lies above the
acceptor energy level. The overall energy band diagram for p-type material is shown
in the Fig. 1(b).
Note : It must be noted that the doped material is always electrically neutral as the
total number of electrons is equal to the total number of protons, after the addition
of impurity.

We can obtain the concentration of minority and majority carriers in n-type and p-
type materials using law of mass action.
n-type material :
For n-type material it is seen that, nn = ND.
At any fixed temperature, according to law of mass action,
n n x p n = n i2
where nn is electrons i.e. majority carriers concentration while pn is hole i.e.
minority carriers concentration. Using nn ≈ ND, we can write minority carrier
concentration as,
ND pn = ni2
... pn = ni2/ND .....................(1)
Note : Knowing ni and ND, the number of holes in n-type material i.e. minority
carrier concentration can be obtained.
p-type material :
For p-type material it is seen that, pp = NA.
According to law of mass action,
n p x p p = n i2
where np is electrons i.e. minority carrier concentration while is holes i.e.
majority carrier concentration. Using pp ≈ NA we can write.
... np = ni2/NA ............... (2)
Note : Knowing ni and NA, the number of electrons in p-type material i.e. minority
carrier concentration can be obtained.

Consider a semiconductor material which is doped with both type of impurities,

donor as well as acceptor. The concentration of donor impurity is and that of acceptor
impurity is NA.
Each donor atom donates one electron and as it losses electron it becomes
positively charged ion, due to the process of ionization. Thus assuming ionization of
all the impurity atoms, the concentration of positive ions generated due to donor
impurity becomes ND. There are positive charge carriers i.e. holes present in the
material whose concentration is p. This the concentration of total positive charge in
the material is given by,
Total positive charge concentration = ND + p ..............(1)
The acceptor impurity atom when added to the material accepts an electron and
becomes negatively charged ion. Assuming ionization of all the impurity atoms, the
concentration of negative ions generated due to acceptor impurity is N A. There are
negative charge carriers i.e. electron present in the material whose concentration is
n. Thus the concentration of total negative charge in the material is given by,
Total negative charge concentration = NA+ n .............. (2)
The material as a whole is always electrically neutral hence the total positive
charge concentration in the material must be equal to the total negative charge
concentration in the material. Hence equating (1) and (2) we can write,
ND + p = NA +n .................... (3)
The equation (3) is called the equation of charge neutrality.
Notes :
1. The equation is important when a semiconductor is doped with both the types of
impurities, donor as well as acceptor.
2. The equation is efficient in obtaining the actual concentration of electrons and
holes in a material which is doped with both the types of impurities.
3. The equation helps to determine whether the material doped with both the types
of impurities will behave as n-type or p-type.
 The electrical properties of Ge and Si
are given in the Table 1.

Fig. 1 Properties of germanium and silicon

THE HALL EFFECT

If a specimen of metal or semiconductor, carrying current I is placed in a transverse
magnetic field with flux density B then an electric field E is induced in the direction
perpendicular to both I and B. This phenomenon is called Hall effect.

Fig. 1 Hall effect

Consider a semiconductor strip carrying current I as shown in the Fig. 1. The

current I is flowing in opposite X direction. It is placed in the magnetic field with
density B acting in positive Z direction.
 In such conditions, the force is exerted on the current carriers in the negative Y
direction. This force is called Lorentz force. Thus if semiconductor used is n type,
all the electrons, which are majority carriers will be forced towards side 1 of the
strip. Hence side 1 electron will become negatively charged with respect to side 2.
Note : Thus there exists a potential difference across the sides 1 and 2. This voltage
is called Hall voltage denoted as VTH.
In the equilibrium condition, the electric field intensity E due to the Hall effect
must exert a force on the carrier which just balances the force exerted by the
magnetic field.
... qE = B qv .............. (1)
where q = Magnetic of charge on the carrier
v = Drift speed
Now E = VH/d ............ (2)
where d = Distance between the surfaces 1 and 2.
The current density J is given by,
J = I/(wd) A/m2 ............. (3)
While the current density can be expressed interns of charge density as,
J=ρv ............ (4)
where ρ = Charge density in C/m 3

v = Speed in m/s
w = Width of the strip in the direction of B
Equating (3) and (4),
I/(wd) = ρ v ............. (5)
Now VH = Ed = B v d ............. Using equation (1)
= B (I / (ρ w d)) . d ............... Using equation (5)
.
.. VH = BI / ρ w ............. (6)
Note : Thus if VH , B, I and W are measured, the charge density can be determined.
1.1 Measurement of Mobility and Conductivity
If the polarity of VH is such that the surface 2 is positive then the carriers are the
electrons and we can write,
ρ = nq ............. (7)
where n = Electron concentration
While if the surface 1 is positive then the carriers are holes and we can write,
ρ=pq .............. (8)
where p = Hole concentration
Practically a constant RH called Hall coefficient is defined as,
RH = 1(n q) = 1/ρ ...............(9)
Substituting in the equation (6),
VH = ( RH B I)/w
.
.. RH = (VH w)/ (BI) ............. (10)
 The conductivity for extrinsic semiconductor is given by,
σ = μ n q = μ/RH ................ (11)
where μ = Mobility of carriers in m /V-s
2

μ = σ RH = (σ VH w) / (BI) .............. (12)

But σ = Conductivity = 1/Resistivity ............... (13)

Note : If the specimen is n-type, μ gives μn which is mobility of electrons while for
p-type specimen is which μ is μp mobility of holes.
Thus Hall effect can be used to determine whether a semiconductor is n-type or
p-type, to find carrier concentration and also to calculate mobility, measuring
conductivity.

CONDUCTIVITY MODULATION

It is seen that the conductivity of semiconductors is directly proportional to the

concentration of charge carriers. It can be increased by increasing n or p.
Note : The conductivity modulation is the controlled change in the conductivity of
a semiconductors, in response to an external signal.
The increase in the charge carrier concentration can be achieved by many ways.
The two important methods of increasing carrier concentration is semiconductors
are,
1. By changing the temperature.
2. By illuminating the semiconductor with the focus of light.
By both the methods, new electron-hole pairs are generated and hence the
conductivity can be controlled.
The method of changing the temperature is popularly used in thermistors while
method of illumination is commonly used in photoconductors. Let us study these
applications in detail.
1.1 Thermistos
The intrinsic concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by,

And the conductivity of pure semiconductor is given by,

σi = ni (μn + μp) q
It can be observed that as temperature increases, the intrinsic concentration
increases and hence conductivity increases.
Note : The conductivity of Ge increases by about 6 % while that of Si by 8 % per
degree increase in the temperature.
 Due to such a large change in the conductivity with temperature, there is a
limitation on the use of such semiconductor devices in some circuits.
But in some devices, such a property is advantageous. A devices which is based
on this property is called thermistor.
Note : Thermistor is a device whose resistance depends on the temperature.
The silicon and germanium are very sensitive to the temperature and impurities
and hence not directly used in thermistors. The practical thermistors use sintered
mixtures of metalic oxides such as Nickel (NiO), Manganese (Mn 2 O3), cabalt
(Co2 O3), iron and uranium.
Thermistor is a contraction of aterm 'thermal-resistors'. Thermistors is
semiconductor device which behave as thermal resistors having negative
temperature coefficient (NTC); i.e. their resistance decreases as temperature
increases. The Fig. 1 shows this characteristic.

Fig. 1 Resistance versus temperature characteristics of thermistor

The resistance of thermistor can be expressed as,

Where RT : Resistance at T oK
R1 : Resistance at known temperature T1 oK
and β = Characteristics temperature.
The thermistors are very sensitive and provide large change in resistance for
small change in temperature. Typically it can provide a change of 80 ohms per
degree celcius change in temperature.
In metals, as temperature increases, thermal vibrations of the ion increase. This
disturbs the mean free path of the free electrons. This decreases their mobility and
hence decreases the conductivity. Thus for the metals, the resistance increases by
approximately 0.4 % / oC increases in temperature. Thus the metals have positive
temperature coefficient. Hence by including a thermistor in a circuit, it is possible to
compensate the effects of increases in temperature on the metals, over a range as
wide as 100 oC.

Thermistors are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes as shown in the
Fig. 2.

Fig. 1 Different forms of construction of thermistors

Smallest in size are the beads with a diameter of 0.15 mm to 1.25 mm. Beads
may be sealed in the tips of solid glass rods to form probes. Disks and washes are
made by pressing thermistor material under high pressure into flat cylindrical shapes.
Washers can be placed in series or in parallel to increase power dissipation rating.
1.1.1 Advantages of Thermistor
1. Small size and low cost.
2. Comparatively large change in resistance for a given change in temperature.
3. Fast response over a narrow temperature range.
4. Very much suitable for very precise temperature measurements and temperature
compensations due to their high resolution.
1.1.2 Limitation of Thermistor
1. The resistance versus temperature characteristic is highly nonlinear.
2. Not suitable over a wide temperature range.
3. Because of high resistance of thermistor, shielded cables have to be used to
minimize interference.
4. Requires Wheatstone bridge circuit and external power source for measurement.
1.1.3 Application of Thermistor
1. The thermistor's relatively large resistance change per degree change in
temperature {known as sensitivity}makes it useful as temperature transducer.
2. The high sensitivity, together with the relatively high thermistor resistance that
may be selected ( e.g. 100 kΩ), makes the thermistor ideal for remote measurement
or control. Thermistor control systems are inherently sensitive, stable, and fast
acting, and they require relatively simple circuitry.
3. Because thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance,
thermistors are widely used to compensate for the effects of temperature on circuits
performance.
4. Measurement of conductivity.
5. It is also used in thermometry, in the measurement of microwave- frequency
power and as a thermal relay.
1.1.4 Sensistors
If a semiconductor is heavily doped, then it consists of large number of charge
carriers. So it starts showing the properties of metal. Hence if temperature increases,
such a heavily doped semiconductor shows increase in resistance due to decrease in
the mobility of the change carriers. Such a device is called sensistor. Practically, the
temperature coefficient of resistance is about + 0.7% /oC change in temperature, over
the range from -60 oC to + 150 oC. The sensistors have positive temperature
coefficient.

GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION OF CHARGES

In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes (p) is equal to the number of electrons
(n). Due to increase in temperature or due to light incident on the semiconductor, the
number of electron-hole pair increases. This is called generation of charges.
While few other electron-hole pairs disappear which is due to recombination of
charges. The recombination is a process of falling of a free electron into an empty
covalent bond, due to which the corresponding electron-hole pair gets disappeared.
In a recombination an electron moves from a conduction band to a valence band.
The carrier lifetime is defined as the mean time for which, a charge carrier exists
before recombination. After recombination the charge carriers vanish. For an
electron it is denoted as τn and for a hole it is denoted as τp.
 Consider n type semiconductor bar having equilibrium concentrations of
electrons and holes as nnoand pno.
At t = t1 , the bar is illuminated by the light of proper frequency, then the new
electron-hole pairs are generated, uniformly throughout the bar.
The new concentrations of electrons and holes are n'no and p'no, when equilibrium
situation is reached. Then the excess charge carriers of holes and electrons are equal
and given by,

This is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Variation of hole concentration against time

Though the number of electrons and holes generated are same in number, in n-
type bar the electrons are large in number. Thus excess electrons hardly affects the
behaviour of the bar. But the excess holes have significant effect on the number of
holes present, which are minority in number.
Note : Thus the radiation affects the number of minority charge carriers
singificantly, which needs to be analyzed. It hardly affects the majority charge
carrier concentration.
Now at t = 0, the light is switched off where the equilibrium is reached. Then
the concentration of charge carriers returns so the original value exponentially. Thus
the excess carrier concentration decreases to zero exponentially, as shown in the Fig.
1.
1.1 Mathematical Analysis
The rate of change in hole concentration is the rate of generation of holes
minus the rate of recombination.

The rate of generation totally depends on the temperature and is constant for
constant temperature.
 While the rate of recombination is decided by the mean life time of the holes
τp.
... Rate of recombination of holes = pn/τp

Under steady state condition, dpn/dt = 0 hence the hole concentration again
becomes pno.
Rate of generation of holes = pno/τp

But the excess carrier concentration is pn - pno and is a function of time denoted
as p'(t).

This is the required differential equation governing the behaviour of excess

charge concentration.
The solution of the equating (5) gives,

The equation (6) shows that as t → ∞, p'(t) → 0 and thus the excess charge
concentration reduces to zero exponentially, with a time constant equal to τp.
The important remarks are,
1. Measurement of τ is is important as it directly influence the characteristic of
diodes and transistors.
2. Usually the life time τ ranges between 1 to 1000 μs, but it depends on impurity
concentration and temperature of material.
3. Practically for manufacturing special devices, the recombination agent is used to
control the rate of recombination. The gold is popularly used as a recombination
agent.

DIFFUSION

It is seen that in conductor current flow is due to the free electrons. When conductor
is subjected to an external voltage, free electrons move from negative to positive
terminal with a steady velocity constituting a current. Such a current is called drift
current which is due to drifting of free electrons under the externally applied voltage.
 In addition to the drift current, there may exist an additional current due to the
transport of charges in a semiconductor. Such an additional current is due to the
phenomenon called diffusion. This is the characteristic of semiconductor and can
not be observed in conductors. The current due to the diffusion is called diffusion
current. Basically it is due to nonuniform concentration of charged particles in a
semiconductor.
Note : Diffusion is observed in non uniformly doped semiconductors and not in the
conductors.
Consider a p-type semiconductor bar which is nonuniformly doped. Along its
length, in the direction of x as shown in Fig. 1(a), there exists a nonuniform doping.
As x increases, the doping concentration decreases.
To form p-type semiconductor, acceptor impurity is added which creates holes
as the majority charged particles. Let p be the concentration of holes. But due to
nonuniform doping it is not constant but is changing with respect to x.
Let concentration of holes at x = 0 is P = P(0) and is maximum as bar is heavily
doped at x = 0. As x increases, the concentration of holes decreases. The nature of
the variation in p against distance x is shown in the Fig. 1(b).
The slope of the graph can be observed from the Fig. 1(b) is the ratio of change
in concentration to change in distance. It is called rate of change of concentration or
concentration gradient.
... Slope of graph = Concentration gradient = dp/dx ................ (1)

Hence nonuniform doping produces a concentration gradient in a semiconductor.

Due to such concentration gradient, holes move from the higher concentration area
to the lower concentration area to adjust the concentration. Such a movement of
holes, due to the concentration gradient in a semiconductor is called diffusion. Due
to the movement of holes, current is constituted in a bar which is called diffusion
current. There exists such a diffusion current in n-type semiconductor if it is
nonuniformly doped, due to movement of electrons which are majority carriers.
Note : Nonuniform doping creats concentration gradient, due to which diffusion of
charge carriers exists.

1.1 Diffusion Current Density

Consider a nonuniformly doped p-type semiconductor bar as shown in Fig
1(a).
The diffusion current density is proportional to the concentration gradient,
which is responsible for the diffusion and hence the diffusion current.
... Jp α dp/dx ............ (2)
where Jp = Diffusion current density due to holes
 Hence the diffusion current density is expressed by,
Jp = q Dp dp/dx
where Dp = Diffusion constant for holes expressed in square meters per
second (m2/sec).
Note : The current due to holes is in the direction of the conventional current and
hence treated as positive. But slope of the graph i.e. dp/dx is negative giving the
negative diffusion current density for holes. But to get positive sign for holes, an
additional negative sign is used to compensate for negative sign of dp/dx. Hence
diffusion current density for holes is mathematically expressed as,
Jp = - q Dp dp/dx ............. (3)
In case of n-type bar, such diffusion current is due to the electrons. Current due
to the electrons is in opposite direction to the conventional current and
mathematically treated to be negative. The concentration gradient dn/dx is negative
where n is concentration of electrons.
Hence diffusion current density to electrons is expressed by,
Jn = + q Dn .............. (4)
where Dp = Diffusion constant for electrons in square meters per second
2
(m /sec).
The Fig. 2(a) shows the direction of diffusion of holes and corresponding
diffusion current density. The Fig. 2(b) shows the direction of diffusion of electrons
and corresponding diffusion current density.

Fig. 1 Diffusion current densities

Observe that the charge carriers whether it is hole or electron, always move from
high concentration area towards low concentration area. Hence direction of diffusion
is same in both the cases. But resulting current densities have opposite direction.
1.2 Total Current Density Due to Drift and Diffusion
We have seen that the drift current is due to the applied voltage while the
diffusion current is due to the concentration gradient. But in semiconductor it is very
much possible that both the types of currents may exist simultaneously. In practice
is such situation there exists four components of current as the drift current due to
electrons and due to holes, while the diffusion current due to electrons and due to
holes.
Drift current density due to the electrons and holes can be expressed from
equations (3) and (4) as,
Jn = n q E and Jp = p q E
Diffusion current density due to the electrons and holes can be expressed from
equations (3) and (4) as,
Jn = + q Dn dn/dx and Jp = - q Dp dp/dx
Total current density due to the electrons can be expressed as,
Jn = n q μn E + q Dn dn/dx .............. (5)
and Total current density due to the holes can be expressed as,
Jp = p q μp E + q Dp dp/dx .................. (6)
And hence the total current density due to the electrons and holes (drift +
diffusion) is,
J = Jn + Jp
................. (7)
EINSTEIN RELATIONSHIP

It is known that the drift current density is proportional to the mobility (μ) while
diffusion current density is proportional to the diffusion constant (D). There exists a
fixed relation between these two constant which is called Einsten's relation.
It states that, at a fixed temperature, the ratio of diffusion constant to the mobility
is constant. This is Einstein's relation. Mathematically it is expressed as,

where T is the temperature in oK

And k is the Boltzmann's constant = 8.62 x 10-5 eV/oK
1.1 Voltage Equipment of Temperature
In the equation (1), the product KT is called voltage equivalent of temperature.
The voltage equivalent of temperature is denoted by VT.

At room temperature i.e. at 27 oC,

T = 273 + 27 = 300 oK
... VT = KT = 8.62 x 10-5 x 300 = 0.02586 V = 26 mV at 300 oK
Note : The value of VT = 26 mV at 27 oC i.e. 300 oK is very commonly used while
solving the examples.
 Substituting this in equation (1) we get,
Dn/μn = Dp/μp = VT = 0.02586 at room temperature
.
.. μn = 39 Dn and μp = 39 Dp at room
temperature. ................... (3)
In general we can express the relation between mobility and diffusion constant
as,
μ = 39 D at room
temperature .................. (4)

THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

The carrier concentration in the body of a semiconductor is a function of time and

distance. Mathematically, a practical differential equation governs this functional
relationship between carrier concentration, time and distance. Such an equation is
called continuity equation. The equation is based on the fact that charge can neither
be created nor destroyed.
Consider the infinitesimal n type element of volume of area A and length dx as
shown in the Fig. 1. The average hole concentration is p/m3. The current entering
the volume at x is I and leaving at x +dx is I + dI. This change in current is because
of diffusion. Now due to diffusion the concentration of charge carriers decreases
exponentially with the distance.

Fig. 1 Conservation of charges

Hence,
... dI = Number of coulombs per second decreased within the volume ...
(1)
Now if τp is the mean life time of the holes then,
P/τp = Holes per second lost by recombination per unit volume
Due to recombination, number of coulombs per second decreased within the
given volume is,

While let g is the rate at which electron hole pairs are generated by thermal
generation per unit volume. Due to this, number of coulombs per second increases
with the volume

Thus the total change in number of coulombs per second is because of three
factors as indicated by the equations (1), (2) and (3).
Total change in holes per unit volume per second is dp/dt. Hence the total change
in coulombs per second within the given volume

According to law of conservation of charges,

Note : The negative sign indicates decrease while positive indicates increase in
number of coulombs per second.

But J = I/A = Current density

.
.. I = JA i.e. dI = AdI as A is constant.

The total current density J is due to drift and diffusion current.

where E = Electric field intensity within the volume
If the semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium and subjected to no external electric
field then hole density will attain a constant value Po. Under this condition I =
0 i.e. J = 0 and dp/dt = 0 due to equilibrium. Using in equation (7),
 o = - (po/τp)+ g - o
.
.. g = po/τp ........................... (9)
The equation (9) indicates the thermal equilibrium i.e. the rate at which holes
are thermally generated just equal to the rate at which holes are lost due to the
recombination.
Using equation (8) and equation (9) in equation (7),

This called equation of conservation of charge or the continuity equation.

As holes in n type material are considered, Let us see the suffix n. And as
concentration is a function of both time t and distance x, let us use partial
differentiation. Hence the final continuity equation takes the form as,

Similarly the continuity equation for the electrons in p-type material can be
written as,

Let us discuss the special cases for continuity equation under the condition of
zero electric field.
1.1 Concentration independent of Distance and E = 0
As concentration is not dependent on x and E =0, the last two terms on right
hand side of the continuity equation becomes zero. Hence equation reduces as,

This is a differential equation interms of pn and the solution of this equation is,

Now τp is mean life time but also time constant of the above equation.
Note : Thus can be defined as the time taken by the injected concentration to fall to
36.78 % of its initial value.
1.2 Concentration Independent of Time and E = 0
 As concentration is not dependent on t and E = 0, the left hand side of continuity
equation is zero and last term on right hand side is zero.

But √(Dτ) = Lp = Diffusion length of holes

Hence the solution of the equation (14) takes the form,

1.3 Concentration Varies Sinusoidally With Time and E = 0

The injected concentration varies sinusoidally with an angular frequency of. The
sinusoidal variation is indicated in phasor form as,

Substituting in continuity equation with E = 0,

For zero frequency (=0), the equation takes the form as obtained for special
case discussed (in sec 1.2)
Hence a.c. solution for 0 can be obtained from d.c. solution by replacing Lp by

Note : Thus continuity equation is the fundamental law governing the flow of
charge.

INJECTED MINORITY-CARRIER CHARGE

Consider a long semiconductor bar which is doped uniformly with donor atoms, as
shown in the Fig..1.

Fig.1 Light falls upon end of long n-type semiconductor bar

The concentration n ≈ ND and is independent of position as bar is uniformly
doped.
The end on which the light is incident is demoted as x = 0.
Due to photoexcitation, the covalent bonds are broken at the surface, which is
radiated. Due to this, the electron-hole pairs are generated and are injected into the
bar at x = 0.
The bar is n-type and free electrons are large in number. Thus generated
electron-hole pairs mainly affect the minority charge concentration i.e. concentration
of holes. Let us analyze the behaviour of steady state minority carrier concentration
p against the distance x in the bar.
Let p' = concentration of injected minority charge carriers.

Assumption : It is assumed that the concentration p' is much smaller than the doping
level i.e. p' <<n. This condition stating that minority concentration is much smaller
than majority concentration and is called low level injection condiction.
It is known that J = (n μn + p μp ) q E, thus the drift current can be neglected
compared to electron drift current.
Now p = p' + po << n hence the hole drift current can be neglected compared to
electron drift current.

Note : It can be assumed that the hole current Ip is entirely because of diffusion.
According yo continuity equation, the controlling differential equation for
minority carrier concentration p is,

The diffusion length for the holes is Lp and given by,

 Hence the differential equation for the injected hole concentration p' = p - po is
given by,

Solution of this differential equation is given by,

where K1, K2 = Constants of integration

Now as x → ∞, the concentration can not become infinite. Thus the second term
must be zero in the equation (4), for which K2 = 0.
At x = 0, the injected concentration is p'(0). Hence using in the equation (4),
p'(0) = K1 eo i.e. K1 = p'(0),

The equation (6) represents that the hoe concentration decreases exponentially
with the distance. This is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Exponential behavious of hole concentration in a n-type semiconductor bar

1.1 Diffusion Length (Lp)

From the graph, the diffusion length Lp represents the distance into the
semiconductor at which the injected concentration drops to 1/e times its value at
x = 0. Thus Lp is the diffusion length which is the distance x, at which the injected
carrier concentration is 36.78 % of its value at x = 0.

1.2 Diffusion Currents

The hole diffusion current is given by,

Where A = Area of cross-section of the bar

Jp = Hole diffusion current density
From the diffusion current denstiy,

Using equations (8) and (9) in (7),

p(x) = p(0) (at x = 0) = p'(0) + po .............. From Fig.1

This is the diffusion hole current which decreases exponentially with distance.
Note : This equation plays an important role in the derivation of diode current
equation.
Let In = Electron diffusion current = + A Jn

According to equation of charge neutrality which is preserved under low level

injection, n' = p' i.e.
Where no and po are the thermal equilibrium concentrations which are
independent of the position x. Differentiating the equation (14),
 Thus the ratio of majority to minority diffusion current is given by -Dn /DP.
From the values of Dn and DP, the magnitude of majority to minority diffusion
current is about 2.11 for germanium and is about 2.61 for silicon.

1.3 Drift Currents

In the bar considered above, the external voltage applied is zero and the bar is
open circuited. Hence the net current through the bar must be zero everywhere.
... Net current = Electron currents + Hole currents
0 = Ind + In + Ip
Where Ind = Electron drift current
In = Electron diffusion current = -(Dn /DP) Ip
Ip = Hole diffusion current
.
.. Ind - (Dn/DP) Ip+ Ip = 0
Thus as Ip decreases exponentially, the electron drift current also decreases
exponentially with the distance.
To exist a drift current, there must exist an electric field E. Hence internally an
electric field E is developed in the bar, for electron drift current to exist.
Jpd = p q μp E = Ipd /A

Note : All the equations derived are based on the assumption that hole drift current
is zero.
But hole drift current Ipd can be obtained as,
Jpd = p q μp E = Ipd/A
But as p << n, Ipd << Ip which justifies the assumption that hole drift current is
negligibly small and the entire injected minority carrier current is a diffusion current.

THE POTENTIAL VARIATION WITHIN A GRADED SEMICODUCTOR

Consider a p-type continuously graded bar i.e. nonuniformly doped bar as shown
in the Fig. 1.
 Fig. 1 Continuously graded p-type bar
No external voltage is applied to the bar. The bar is open circuited. As no
external voltage is applied and it is open circuited net current through the bar is zero.
But due to the nonuniform doping there exists a diffusion current as holes move
from high concentration to low concentration area. Hence there exists a diffusion
current density of,

But as bar is open circuited, net current through it is zero. This means there
exists one more internal current which is equal to diffusion current but in opposite
direction to it. This is a drift current flowing in the bar in opposite direction to that
of diffusion current. The current density of this current is,

But drift current can not exist without a potential difference and applied voltage
to the bar is zero. So externally E is zero. This indicates that the E required for the
circulation of drift current gets generated internally.
This indicates that nonuniform doping of bar results in the induced voltage.
And as net current through the bar is zero we can write for open circuited bar,

1.1 Expression for the Potential Difference

To derive the expression for the potential difference between any two points of
a nonuniformly doped bar, consider the two points at a distance of x = x1 and x =
x2 as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Graph of Concentration against distance x

 Let concentration of holes at x = x1 is p = p1
and concentration of holes at x = x2 is p = p2
This is due to nonuniform doping and is indicated in the graph shown in the
Fig. 2.
There exists a potential difference between x1 and x2 which is responsible to
circulate drift current equal and opposite to diffusion current.
Let potential at x1 = V1
And potential at x2 = V2
From the equation (3) which indicates the the net current through the bar is
zero, we can write,

According to Einstein'S relation, Dp/μp is VT.

Now E is the electric field intensity generated internally. From the definition of
electric field intensity we can write,
E = -dV/dx
Hence equation (5) modifies to,

To get the voltage generated between x1 and x2, integrate the equation (6),

where V21 is the potential difference between the two concentrations p1 and p2.
Note : The potential difference depends on the concentrations and not on the
distance between x1 and x2.
From the equation (7) we can write,
 Similarly for n-type semiconductor bar which is nonuniformly doped, if and are
the concentrations of electrons at two different points, we can write,

Note : There is change of sign of exponential term in equation (9a) and (9b) as
compared to exponential term in equations (8a) and (8b). This is because diffusion
current density in n-type bar is q dn/dx which is positive.
Multiplying equations (8a) and (9a) we get,

The product of the concentrations of electrons and holes is always constant. This
proves the law of mass action.

CERRIER CONCETRATION IN AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR AND

FERMI LEVEL
As the temperature of the metal increases, the atoms of crystal starts vibrating in an
arbitrary manner. Due to the additional gain of energy from thermal vibrations, many
valence electrons become free and start moving randomly in the crystal. These free
electrons collide with other vibrating atoms, losing and receiving energy. The
direction of the resultant motion after the collision is unpredictable. Hence any
analytical method can not give exact positions or energies as a function of time.
Every electron transfers average or mean energy in each collision, travels mean free
path between the collisions and takes average or mean energy in each collision,
travels mean free path between the collision and takes average or mean free time
between any two collisions. Hence each electron has a statistical variation avound
these average or mean values.
 The statistical methods use distribution function and set of laws which are used
to predict the behaviour of large group of items and can not say anything about the
behaviour of a particular item. Accurate determination of such density distribution
function is very difficult, because of nonuniform potential energies possessed by the
electrons.
The distribution function which explains satisfactory the distribution of energies
among different electrons within a crystal at a given temperature is developed by
Fermi and Dirac. This is called Fermi-Dirac energy distribution function. This
function enables to find the number of free electrons dn per unit volume which may
possess a value of energy in the range E to E + dE at a given temperature T.
The number of free electrons dn per unit volume which may occupy energy level
between E to E + dE is given by,

where ρE = Density of electrons in this energy interval

The density distribution function ρE is expressed as,

where N(E) = Density of states in the conduction band (number of states per
eV per m3)
and f(E) = Probability that the quantum state with energy E is occupied by
an electron
The probability function f(E) is called Fermi-Dirac probability function.
1.1 Concentration of Electrons (n) in Conduction Band
In a semiconductor, the lowest energy level in the conduction band is EC. Then
N(E) is given by,

The γ is a proportionality constant and given by,

where m = Mass of electron = 9.107 x 10-31 kg

q = Charge on electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
h = Planck's constant in J-s = 6.625 x 10cm-34 J-s
From the principles of quantum mechanics, the Fermi-Dirac probability
function is given by,

where k = Boltzmann's constant in eV /oK

T = Temperature in K
EF = Fermilevel or characteristics energy for the crystal in eV
E = Energy level occupied by an electron eV
 The concentration of electrons (n) in the conduction band can be obtained by
integrating equation of from EC to ∞,
dnE = ρE dE = N(E) f(E) dE

This integral gives the value of n as,

and mn = Effective mass of electron

ќ = Expressed in joules per degree kelvin
h = Planck's constant in joule-seconds
1.2 Concentration of Holes (p) in valence Band
In a semiconductor, the highest energy level in the valence band is. Then N(E)
is given by,

The Fermi-Dirac probability function for holes {1 - f(E)} and given by,
This integral gives the value of p as,

and mp = Effective mass of a hole.