2.

2 Building materials commonly used in Kenya a) Cement

In 1845, Isaac C. Johnson invented the cement by increasing the temperature at which the mixture of
limestone and clay were burned to form clinker and this cement was the prototype of the modern
Portland cement (S.K. Duggal, 1998). Cements are adhesive and cohesive materials which are capable of
bonding together particles of solid matter into a compact durable mass. Cement used in construction
industry may be classified as hydraulic and non-hydraulic. The latter does not set and harden in water
such as non-hydraulic lime or which are unstable in water e.g. Plaster of Paris. The hydraulic cements set
and harden in water and give a product which is stable. Portland cement is one of such. Today cement
finds extensive use in all types of construction works in structures where high strength is required.
Cement is one of the building materials whose data is readily available locally. Cement production in
Kenya expanded at an average rate of 11.6% for the period 2006-2011 to 4.09mT in 2011 from 2.41mT
in 2006(KNBS Economic Survey, 2009 and 2012). This rise in production was driven by the entry of new
cement producers and extensive capacity expansion by existing players in response to increasing
competition. As at now, the local cement industry has six cement companies with mines concentrated in
three sites across the country.

Figure 2.1: Cement production and consumption in Kenya

Cement company Mines Cement Brand

Mogadishu nguvu

b) Metal products

In spite of their high costs there will always be a place for metals in the construction industry in Kenya.
Table 2.3: Common metals in Kenya Common Metals Use in Construction

Common metals Use in construction

Steel Reinforcement, rainwater goods,

roofing, balustrades ,nuts, bolts and
tubing
Zinc Door furniture, roofing and
weathering
Brass Door furniture

Copper Electrical wires

Aluminum Window and door frames, cladding,

roofing and rain water goods

The country at present imports almost all the raw materials required for the
manufacture of metal products. For example, Kenya imports rare earth minerals,
coal and iron ore to produce steel. The locally-sourced scrap metal is also
smelted to produce steel billets which are further rolled into reinforcement bars
for use in the construction industry. For the production of special products like
screws, bolts and nuts, nails and rivets, the local steel mills have to import quality
billets. However, the recent discovery of rare earth minerals in Kwale, coal in
Ukambani and iron ore in Taita Taveta (Manyatta), Tharaka (Marimali) and
Siaya(Samia) will make Kenya a steel producer in near future (J.K Machira,
2011). According to Machira (2011) there are almost 20 steel rolling mills in
Kenya.

c) Plastic products
Plastics are used for various purpose in construction. These include
manufacture of, rain water goods, and window frames wall and floor tiles and in
some rare case glazing and in cold water cisterns. The plastic industry in Kenya
is well-developed and produces goods made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polyethylene, polystyrene and polypropylene. These raw materials are all
imported in form of granules and then manufactured locally to various plastic
products.

d) Glass products
Glass refers to any material which is largely amorphous (non-crystalline) in
solid state (G.D Taylor 2000). Glass is mainly used for glazing which forms a
very important part of a building. Ingredients in the manufacture of glass include
silica (silicon oxide), sodium carbonate to reduce melting point and calcium
carbonate to reduce water solubility of the product. Currently Kenya has no
sheet glass plants. There is a growing demand for sheet glass due to increasing
construction activities. However, Somalia manufactures import from outside
foreign countries.
e) Quarry stones
Quarry stones are used to erect the substructure of the building, walling,
facing, boundary walling and chimneys. According to the Kenya NGO Earth
Summit 2002 Forum, 70-80% of
quarry stone mining is done by small-scale to artisan miners. Quarry mines are
distributed all over the country.
f) Timber
Timber is one of the important materials in construction.it is used mainly for
formwork during construction, in door panels, roof trusses, as a finish for floor
and wall, frame structure and finally as beams and columns. Kenya has both
softwood and hardwood trees. The main softwood species include cedar, podo,
pine and cypress. Hardwoods include camphor (for furniture and shelving), mvule
(for joinery and furniture), Meru oak and Elgon olive (for parquet flooring). The
timber sector in Kenya is not well developed to its full potential this is mainly
because in March 2000, the cabinet gave the forest department to carry out
inventory of all plantations leading to the closure of 300 saw mills, with 50,000
direct jobs and an estimated 300,000 indirect ones being lost, apart from
resulting in timber scarcity (Kenya Association of Manufactures Journal 2010).
According to the journal the sector contributes about 5% of the country’s GDP
and it is estimated that over 30,000 are currently employed indirectly and another
10,000 directly. The main products that are produced in this sector include poles,
chipboards, and block boards, fibreboards, plywood, doors, hardwood, roof
trusses and particle boards.
 g) Paints
Paint is a liquid surface coating which when dries forms a thin film (S.K
Duggal 1998). They can be classified as oil paints, water paints, cement paints,
bituminous paints and special paints such as fire proof paints. Ingredients of
paint include the pigment which give the desired colour, base which gives the
paint its binding properties, vehicle which enables the paint to be spread easily,
drier to accelerate drying of the vehicle. Somalia manufactures paint locally but
some ingredients like pigments are imported from Taiwan, India and China. The
leading paint manufactures include Sadolin Paints, Basco Paints, and Crown
Berger. Each of these companies manufactures its own specialized product with
some also offering professional painting services and training.
h) Gypsum
This is a non-hydraulic binder occurring naturally as a soft crystalline rock or
sand (S.K. Duggal, 1998). Gypsum is mainly used as a ceiling and wall finish. It
is mined at a small scale level in Kajiado district in the southwest part of Kenya.

i) Bituminous materials
Bitumen occurs naturally in the form of asphalts, which are mixtures of
bitumen, minerals and water found in the form of rock or lake asphalt. The
majority of bitumen is however produced as a residue from the fractional
distillation of crude oil. The properties of bitumen vary greatly according to
composition which, in turn, depends on the manufacturing method and crude
material. However, all bitumen are thermoplastic. They soften on heating, though
they have no well-defined melting point. On cooling they become progressively
more brittle. They dissolve in many organic solvents, though this may not always
be an advantage. Bitumen is mainly used in road construction, construction of flat
roofs and basements. The largest dealer in bituminous products in Kenya is Bitu-
bulk Handlers (EA) Ltd. It controls 50% of the market in stocks (Business
construction review 2011). Others are Total, KenolKobil, Shell, Engen, Pan
African Petroleum Ltd.

J) Rock

Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest lasting
building material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of
rock throughout the world all with differing attributes that make them better or worse for
particular uses.

Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, its main draw-back as a
material is its weight and awkwardness. Its energy density is also considered a big
draw-back, as stone is hard to keep warm without using large amounts of heating
resources.

Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of
another. Eventually different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together,
cement being the most commonplace now.

The granite-strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example,
provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose
granite rocks throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Age, and the remains of an
estimated 5,000 can still be seen today.

Granite continued to be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse)
and into modern times. Slate is another stone type, commonly used as roofing material
in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world where it is found.

Mostly stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, some civilizations built entirely
with stone such as the Pyramids in Egypt, the Aztec pyramids and the remains of the
Inca civilization.

k) Brick and block

A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale, but also may be of
lower quality mud, etc. Clay bricks are formed in a moulding (the soft mud method), or
in commercial manufacture more frequently by extruding clay through a die and then
wire-cutting them to the proper size (the stiff mud process).

Bricks were widely used as a construction material in the 1700, 1800 and 1900s. This
was probably due to the fact that it was much more flame retardant than wood in the ever
crowding cities, and fairly cheap to produce.

Another type of block replaced clay bricks in the late 20th century. It was the Cinder
block. Made mostly with concrete.

An important low-cost material in developing countries is the Sandcrete block, which is

weaker but cheaper than fired clay bricks.
L) Concrete

Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate

(composite) and a binder such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland
cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand),
portland cement and water.

After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material.
When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term concrete.
For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength, it is
generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as rebars). This strengthened
concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete.

In order to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used
to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured
around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant material in this modern age due
to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport.