PEMP

RMD 2501

Cascade Aerodynamics
and
Loss Mechanisms
Session delivered by:
P f Q
Prof. Q.H.
H NNagpurwala
l

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 PEMP
RMD 2501
Session Objectives

This
hi session
i isi intended
i d d to introduce
i d
the following:
 Cascade
C d aerodynamics
d i
 Cascade tunnels
 Testing of compressor and
turbine cascades
 Presentation of cascade test data

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 PEMP
Introduction RMD 2501

• Cascade of blades can be linear or annular.

• A linear cascade comprises a row of blades corresponding to the sectional
profile at a given radial location along the blade height and spaced at a pitch
corresponding to that radius in the actual machine.
• An annular cascade comprises a row of blades representing the actual rotor or
stator blade
bl d row in
i the
h actuall machine.
hi Theh test blade
bl d row remains
i stationary.
i
• The cascade test should take into account the geometric and aerodynamic
similarities with respect
p to the actual blades / blade sections.
• Cascade tests provide a quick and cost effective way of assessing the
performance of individual blade sections.
• Owing to complex 3D flow in the actual turbomachines, the data from linear
cascades may not be directly correlated, but it still provides good information to
the designer in selecting optimum blade profiles.

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 PEMP
Cascade Testing RMD 2501

 To obtain truly two-dimensional flow, the cascade should be of infinite

extent.
 Of necessity
i cascades d must be b limited
li i d in
i size,
i andd careful
f l design
d i is i needed
d d
to ensure that at least the central regions (where flow measurements are
made) operate with approximately two-dimensional flow.
 For high hub-tip radius ratio machines, the radial velocities are negligible
and, to a close approximation, the flow may be described as two-
dimensional The flow in a cascade is then a reasonable model of the flow in
dimensional.
the machine.
 In low hub-tip radius ratio machines, the blades will normally have an
appreciable amount of twist along the height, depending upon the “vortex
design” chosen. However, the data obtained from the two-dimensional
cascades can still be of value to the designer
g in obtaining
g the pperformance at
discrete blade sections of such blade rows.

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 PEMP
Significance of Cascade Tests RMD 2501

 Flow parameters,
Fl t viz.
i iinlet
l t flow
fl angle,
l relative
l ti Mach
M h number, b R Reynolds
ld
number, and geometric parameters, viz. aspect ratio, solidity, thickness ratio, can
be simulated with ease.
 Aerodynamic performance data, like blade loading, lift coefficient, profile loss,
drag coefficient and flow deflection can be easily obtained.
 Pressure and velocity distribution over the aerofoils and in the passage cn be
easily mapped.
 Detailed studies on laminar and turbulent boundary layers, and on transition
process from laminar to turbulent flow, over turbomachinery aerofoils can be
carried out.
 Studies on separation and vortex formation can be performed.
Local boundary layer profile and shear stress over the aerofoils can be
measured.
 It is simple to generate data at off design operating conditions.
 Diff
Different blade
bl d profiles
fil for
f the
h same duty
d can be
b comparedd andd optimised.
i i d
 Cascade testing can generate a good data bank for validating CFD codes.
05 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 5
 PEMP
Limitations of Cascade Testing RMD 2501

 Curvilinear and Coriolis effects are ignored

 Predominantly a cold flow test method
 Offers no information on three dimensional flow structure
 Lack of information on unsteady flow field
 A very difficult process while applied to radial flow machines
 Could be an expensive exercise
 C d ttestt ddata
Cascade t require
i appropriate
i t ttreatment
t t if used
d ffor th h
through
flow analysis like stream line curvature method

Streamlines across a
multistage
lti t tturbomachine
b hi

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 PEMP
Cascade Tunnel RMD 2501

• The cascade of blades are mounted on a turntable so that their

angular
g direction relative to inlet flow can be set to any
y desired
value.
• This provision enables the tests on the cascade to be conducted
over a range of incidence angles.
• Measurements, involving pressure, velocity (Mach number)
andd flow
fl angle,
l are carried
i d outt with
ith the
th help
h l off aerodynamic
d i
probes (wedge, cylinder or claw type) and pressure tappings on
the blade surfaces.
• Flow visualisation techniques are also employed to get an
insight into the flow behaviour through the blade passages.

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 PEMP

Cascade Tunnel and Probes RMD 2501

Cylindrical Claw type

Elevation and plan of a simple linear cascade tunnel Aerodynamic probes

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 PEMP
Linear Cascade Tunnels RMD 2501

Low speed cascade tunnel

Transonic / supersonic
cascade tunnel
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 PEMP

Transonic Cascade Tunnel at NAL RMD 2501

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 PEMP

Transonic Cascade Tunnel at NAL RMD 2501

For turbine cascades

For compressor cascades

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 PEMP

Annular Cascade Tunnel RMD 2501

Annular Cascade Tunnel at the Institute

of Jet Propulsion and Turbomachinery,
University of Aachen, Germany

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 PEMP
RMD 2501

C
Compressor C
Cascade
d

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 PEMP
Cascade Notation RMD 2501

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 PEMP
Cascade Parameters RMD 2501

1’ = Blade angle at inlet Incidence angle, i = 1’ - 1

2’ = Blade angle at exit Deviation angle,  = 2’ - 2
 = Camber angle = 1’ - 2’ Axial velocity-density ratio,
 = Stagger angle AVDR =   2  C2   1  C1 
Totall pressure loss
l coefficient,
ffi i    p01  p02   p01  ps1 
 C2  C 1C 2
Diffusion factor, D  1   
 C1  2C1

For circular arc camber line,

For parabolic arc camber lines of low camber (i.e. small b/l), as used
in some compressor cascades, the inlet and outlet blade angles are:

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 PEMP
Analysis of Cascade Forces RMD 2501

Figure shows a portion of an

isolated blade cascade (for a
compressor). The forces X and
Y are exertedd bby unit
i depth
d h off
blade upon the fluid, exactly
equal and opposite to the forces
exerted by the fluid upon unit
depth of blade. A control surface
is drawn with end boundaries far
upstream and downstream of the
cascade and with side boundaries
coinciding with the median Forces and velocities in a blade cascade
stream lines.

Assuming incompressible flow and applying equation of continuity to

a unit depth of span yields:
(3.1)
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 PEMP
Analysis of Cascade Forces RMD 2501

The momentum equation applied in the x and y directions with constant axial
velocity gives,
(3.2)
(3.3)

or (3.3a)
Equations (3.1) and (3.3) are completely valid for a flow incurring total pressure
losses in the cascade.

Energy Losses
A real fluid crossing the cascade experiences a loss in total pressure p0 due to
skin friction and related effects.
effects Thus
(3.4)

But

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 Energy Losses PEMP
RMD 2501

Substituting eqns. (3.2) and (3.3) into eqn. (3.4), we get

(3.5)

where (3.6)

Total pressure loss coefficient can be defined as

or (3.7)

Similarly, a pressure rise coefficient Cp and a tangential force coefficient Cf can

Similarly
be defined as

and
(3.8 & 3.9)
Substituting
g these coefficients into eqn.
q (3.5)
( ) and after some rearrangement,
g , we gget
(3.10)
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 PEMP
Lift and Drag RMD 2501

A mean velocity cm is defined as

(3.11)
Considering unit depth of a cascade
blade, a lift force L acts in a direction
perpendicular to cm and a drag force D in
a direction
di i parallelll l to cm. Figure
i shows
h L
and D as the reaction forces exerted by
the blade upon the fluid.
The lift and drag forces can be resolved
in terms of the axial and tangential
forces.

(3.12)

(3.13)

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 PEMP
Lift and Drag RMD 2501

From eqn. (3.5), (3.14)

g g eqn.
Rearranging q (3.14)
( ) for X and substitutingg into eqn.
q (3.12)
( ) gives,
g

(3.15)

Lift and drag coefficients may be introduced as

(3.16)

Using eqn. (3.14) together with eqn. (3.7),

(3 17)
(3.17)

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 PEMP
Lift and Drag RMD 2501

With eqn. (3.15)

(3.18)

Alternatively, employing eqns. (3.9) and (3.17),

(3.19)

Within the normal range

g of operation
p in a cascade,, values of CD are very
y much
less than CL. As αm is unlikely to exceed 60 deg, the quantity CD tan αm in eqn.
(3.18) can be dropped, resulting in the approximation,

(3.20)

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 PEMP
Efficiency of a Compressor Cascade RMD 2501

The efficiency D of a compressor blade cascade can be defined in the same way as
diffuser efficiency; this is the ratio of the actual static pressure rise in the cascade to
the maximum possible theoretical pressure rise (i.e. with p0 = 0). Thus,

I
Inserting
i eqns. (3.7)
(3 7) andd (3.9)
(3 9) into
i the
h above
b equation,
i

(3.25)

Equation (3.20) can be written as

substituting into eqn. (3.25) gives (3.26)

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 PEMP
Efficiency of a Compressor Cascade RMD 2501

Assuming a constant lift to drag ratio (L/D), eqn. (3.26) can be differentiated with
respect to m to give the optimum mean flow angle for maximum efficiency. Thus

So that and therefore (3.27)

Thus, the maximum efficiency of a

compressor cascade is obtained
when the mean flow angle is 45° 45 ,
but ignores changes in the ratio
CD/CL with varying m. Howell
suggested
gg that value of m rather
less than the optimum could well be Ref.: Howell 1945
chosen with little sacrifice in
efficiency, and with some benefit
with regard to power/weight ratio of
compressors.
05 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 23
 PEMP
Typical Cascade Test Results RMD 2501

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 PEMP
Typical Cascade Test Results RMD 2501

Pitchwise variation of
total pressure behind a
linear cascade

Pitchwise variation of
exit flow angle behind
a linear cascade

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 PEMP
Typical Cascade Test Results RMD 2501

Mach
number

Incidence angle, deg

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 PEMP
Typical Cascade Test Results RMD 2501

Rotor
 cos 1  cos 1
D  1    tan 1  tan  2  s
 cos  2  2 c

or
V2 Vw s
D  1 
V1 2V1 c

Stator

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 PEMP
Typical Cascade Test Results RMD 2501

1.00
1.00
----- mises 1.00
----- mises
experimental
i t l ----- mises 0 90
0.90
0.90 0.90 experimental experimental
0.80
0.80 0.80
0.70
0.70 0.70

number
0.60
umber

umber
0.60 0.60

0 50
0.50
Mach nu

Mach nu

Mach n
0.50 0.50

0.40 incidence=-4deg. 0.40 0.40

incidence=0deg. 0.30
incidence=+4deg.
0.30 0.30

0.20 0.20 0.20

0 10
0.10 0 10
0.10 0 10
0.10

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
X/Cax X/Cax X/Cax

-ve incidence zero incidence +ve incidence

Effect of incidence angle on blade surface Mach number distribution

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 PEMP
Complex Flow through an Axial Compressor Rotor RMD 2501

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 PEMP
RMD 2501

T bi Cascade
Turbine C d

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 PEMP
Inviscid Flow in Turbine Cascade RMD 2501

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 PEMP
Typical Turbine Blade Profiles RMD 2501

(a) Subsonic inlet, supersonic exit (b) Shock free aerofoil

(c) Typical steam turbine tip section (d) Supersonic inlet, supersonic exit

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 PEMP

Forces for Turbine Blade Cascade RMD 2501

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 PEMP
Lift and Drag Coefficients RMD 2501

The following relations can be derived for lift and drag coefficients

The density ratio can be obtained using equation of state, isentropic

relations, and inviscid energy equation

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 PEMP
Lift and Drag Coefficients RMD 2501

For incompressible flow, Vx1=Vx2 and 1= 2. The expressions for lift and
drag coefficients reduce to:

For a turbine blade 1 and m are usually negative and hence the lift
coefficient is much higher than a compressor blade.

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 PEMP

Surface Pressure Distribution RMD 2501

S f
Surface pressure di
distribution
t ib ti on the
th nozzle
l andd rotor
t blades
bl d off energy efficient
ffi i t
engine turbine (Thulin, 1982; NASA CR 165608)
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 PEMP
RMD 2501

Surface Pressure
Distribution on a
Transonic
Turbine Cascade

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 PEMP

Cascade Test Data RMD 2501

Variation of total pressure downstream of a turbine stator cascade

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 PEMP
Cascade Test Data RMD 2501

Effect
ff off iincidence
id
angle on surface Mach
number distribution on
a turbine nozzle guide
vane profile

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 PEMP
Cascade Test Data RMD 2501

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 PEMP
Cascade Test Data RMD 2501

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 PEMP
Flow Visualisation in Turbine Cascades RMD 2501

With separation Without separation

Interferograms of flow through

a turbine cascade

Schlieren photographs
of flow through
turbine cascade
05 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 42
 PEMP
Complex Flow in Turbine Blade Passage RMD 2501

 Turbine passage flows are complex and three-dimensional.

 Major aerodynamic losses occurring in turbine blade passages are due to
secondaryy and tipp clearance flows (nearly
( y 50-60% of total internal loss)) and reduce
efficiency by about 2-4%.

Growth of secondary and tip clearance

losses across turbine blade
(Bindon, 1989)

a) Turbine passage flow physics b) Internal turbine stage losses

05 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 43
 PEMP
Session Summary RMD 2501

 Importance and limitation of cascade testing are explained.

 Construction and salient features of linear and annular
cascade tunnels are highlighted.
 Cascade aerodynamics is discussed in detail.
 Presentation of cascade test data for both compressor and
t bi blade
turbine bl d aerofoil
f il sections
ti i discussed.
is di d

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 PEMP
RMD 2501

Thank you

05 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 45