Genesis Crash Course JSTSE (2018 19) Phase 2 Biology

GENESIS – BIOLOGY
[CRASH COURSE – JSTSE]

[PHASE – 2]
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GENESIS – BIOLOGY_JSTSE_2
LIFE PROCESSES
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive System
Alimentary Canal Associated Digestive Glands
Alimentary canal
Mouth Pharynx Oesophagus Stomach
Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus
Digestion of Food
Associated Digestive glands Salivary glands, liver, pancreas
Digestion of Carbohydrates
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Name of the Name of the

Substrate End Product
Digestive Juice Enzymes
Saliva Ptyalin (Salivary Starch Maltose

amylase)
Pancreatic juice Pancreatic amylase Starch, Glycogen Maltose and Glucose
Intestinal juice Sucrase, Maltase, Sucrose, Maltose, Glucose and fructose,
Lactase Lactose
Digestion of Food contd…
Digestion
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS of Proteins

Gastric juice Pepsin, Rennin Proteins, Casein peptides,

Calciumcaseinate
Pancreatic juice Trypsin, Proteins, Peptides, Amino acid.
Chymotrypsin, Peptides
Carboxyl peptidases
Intestinal
Digestionjuice Amino
of Food contd… peptidase, Peptides Amino acids
Dipeptidase
Digestion
DIGESTION OF FATS of Fats

Gastric juice+ Lipase Butterfat Fatty acids and

Pancreatic juice glycerol
+ Bile juice
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Photosynthesis can be defined as the synthesis of organic compound (carbohydrates) from

CO2 and H2O using radiant energy or solar energy by chlorophyll molecules. The process of
photosynthesis involves two phases : Light Reaction and Dark Reaction.
The following events occur during the process of photosynthesis:

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy as well as splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Respiration in Plants
Plants exchange gases through stomata by the process of diffusion. In plants, during night
CO2 released is used in photosynthesis, hence only O 2 is released.
Respiration in Human
 In human beings, the air is taken into the body by nostrils. The air while passing through
the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line the passage so that the air going into the body
is free of dust and other impurities. The passage is also lined with mucus which helps in
cleansing the air by trapping microbes.
 From nostril, the air passes through pharynx into lungs via trachea. Incomplete C-shaped
rings of cartilage are present in the trachea which ensure that the air-passage does not
collapse when there is no air in it.
 The trachea branches into bronchi and bronchioles in lungs which finally terminate in
balloon-like structures called alveoli. The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of
gases can take place. The walls of alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels.
 Some organisms use oxygen to bring about complete break-down of glucose in cells into
carbon dioxide and water (Aerobic respiration). Respiration is a biochemical catabolic
process that involves (i) intake of molecular oxygen from environment (ii) stepwise
oxidation of food with incoming oxygen (iii) elimination of carbon dioxide produced during
oxidation and (iv) release of energy.
Glycolysis
The first step in the break-down of glucose – a six-carbon molecule, into a three-carbon
molecule called pyruvate. It s a common step for both aerobic and anaerobic respiration
which takes place in the cytoplasm of cell.
However, the break-down of pyruvate in presence of oxygen takes place in mitochondria via
Kreb Cycle resulting in release of energy. Hence, mitochondria are also known as power-
house of the cell.
Transport in Plants
Transport of materials in xylem Transport of materials in phloem
Xylem tissue helps in the transport of water

Phloem tissue helps in the transport of food.
and minerals.
Water is transported upwards from roots to Food is transported in both upward and
aerial part of plants downward directions.
Transport in xylem requires physical forces Transport of food in phloem requires energy
such as transpiration pull. in the form of ATP.
Transport in Humans
 Heart is a muscular organ and is four chambered. The upper chambered are called
auricles or atria and lower chambers are referred as ventricles.
 Fishes have two-chambered heart-one ventricle and one auricle. The blood is pumped
into gills where it is oxygenated and supplied directly to body parts from gills. Thus blood
goes only once through the heart.
 Amphibians and reptiles (except crocodiles, turtles) have three-chambered heart, two
auricles and one ventricle.
 Heart is four-chambered in birds and mammals.
Double Circulation
Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the force that the blood exerts against the wall of a vessel. This pressure is
much greater in arteries than in veins. Contraction of heart is termed as systole and relaxation
of heart is called diastole. Blood pressure during systole is termed systolic pressure and
during diastole, it is called diastolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is 120 mm of Hg
and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg. The instrument used to measure blood pressure is
called sphygmomanometer.
Lymph
Lymph is a light yellow viscous fluid which is formed by passage of some fluid from blood
capillaries into intercellular spaces in the tissues through the pores present in the walls of
capillaries. Lymph is similar to the plasma of blood but contains very less protein.
Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces. These lymphatic
capillaries then join to form large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins.
Excretion in Plants
Plants get rid of excess water by transpiration. Waste products in plants maybe stored in
leaves, bark or any other part of plant which fell off or get rid off by plants. In some plants the
metabolic end products are set aside in the form of crystals. Several plant products like resins
and tannins are also plant wastes.
Excretion in Animals
Excretory organ in
(a) Protozoa  Contractile vacuole
(b) Porifera General body surface
(c) Coelenterate General body surface
(d) PlatyhelminthesFlame cells
(e) Nematoda  Renette cells
(f) Annelida  Nephridia
(g) Insects  Malpighian tubules
(h) Prawns Green glands
Human Excretory System
In humans the biological process involved in the removal of harmful metabolic wastes from
the body is called excretion. Human excretory system includes a pair of kidney, ureters, a
urinary bladder and a urethra. Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into
the urinary bladder where it is stored until it is released through the urethra.
Urine formation
Artificial kidney is used to filter the blood of a patient. The process of purifying blood by the
artificial kidney is called as haemodialysis.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Chief function of HCl is
(A) to maintain a low pH to prevent growth of micro-organisms
(B) to facilitate absorption
(C) to maintain low pH to activate pepsinogen to form pepsin
(D) to dissolve enzyme secreted in stomach
2. Which of the following plays a key role in absorption and distribution of fats?
(A) lacteals (B) villi
(C) secretin (D) segmentation movements
3. The assimilatory power in photosynthesis is

(A) ATP (B) NADPH
(C) ATP and NADPH2 (D) ATP, NADPH and CO2
4. Phloem always flows from a

(A) sugar source to sugar sink (B) sugar sink to sugar source
(C) leaf to the xylem to the phloem (D) leaf to a root
5. Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs is the

(A) stroma of the chloroplast outside the lamellae
(B) space between the two membranes of the chloroplast
(C) membranes of the stroma lamellae
(D) thylakoid membrane of the grana
6. Which type of respiratory organs are present in spiders and scorpions?

(A) book lungs (B) bookgills
(C) gills (D) lungs
7. Pepsinogen is secreted by
(A) gastric glands (B) intestinal glands
(C) chief cells (D) parietal cells
8. If the CO2 concentration in the blood increases, the breathing shall

(A) increase (B) decrease
(C) not be affected (D) stop
9. Which of the following prevents collapsing of trachea?

(A) diaphragm (B) ribs
(C) cartilaginous rings (D) muscles
10. When diaphragm of man is completely dome shaped it shows

(A) end of expiration and beginning of inspiration
(B) beginning of expiration and end of inspiration
(C) increased rate of breathing
(D) decreased rate of breathing
11. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried in the form of
(A) carbonic acid (B) bicarbonates
(C) carbaminohaemoglobin (D) dissolved CO2
12. If the CO2 concentration in the blood increases, the breathing shall
(A) increase (B) decrease
(C) affected (D) stop
13. Which of the following is used for determining the rate of transpiration in plants?
(A) tensiometer (B) auxanometer
(C) porometer (D) potometer
14. Which of the following has no muscular walls?

(A) Artery (B) Arteriole
(C) Capillary (D) Vein
15. The exchange of materials between blood and interstial fluid occurs only at the
(A) veins (B) capillaries
(C) arteries (D) arterioles
16. Both erythrocytes and leucocytes are formed in the

(A) bone marrow (B) thymus
(C) arterial walls (D) lymph nodes
17. Normal haemoglobin content of an adult man is

(A) 10.5 gm/100 ml of blood (B) 12.5 gm/100 ml of blood
(C) 14.5 gm/100 ml of blood (D) 13.5 gm/100 ml of blood
18. Number of RBC increases if one lives at higher altitude because

(A) there is less oxygen on mountains
(B) more heat is required in body for producing body warmth
(C) there are no germs in mountain air
(D) there is more oxygen on mountains
19. Thrombin occurs in vertebrates in

(A) the blood and gives it red colour (B) the blood and is important for clotting
(C) the liver and is important for bile secretion (D) the stomach and digests proteins
20. Which of the metallic ions is essential for blood clotting?

(A) Na+ (B) Ca++
(C) K+ (D) Fe++
21. Which chamber of the heart has the thickest muscular walls?
(A) right atrium (B) left atrium
(C) right ventricle (D) left ventricle
22. The tricuspid valve occurs between the

(A) right auricle and right ventricle (B) pulmonary aorta
(C) pulmonary aorta (D) left ventricle
23. Typical ‘lub-dub’ sounds heard in heartbeat are due to

(A) closing of bicuspid and tricuspid valves
(B) closing of semilunar valves
(C) closure of bicuspid-tricuspid valves followed by semilunar valves
(D) blood under pressure through aorta
24. Pulse beat is measured from

(A) Artery (B) Nerve
(C) Capillary (D) Vein
25. Rh factor may be responsible for

(A) Turner’s syndrome (B) AIDS
(C) sickle cell anaemia (D) erythroblastosis foetalis
26. Which one of the following is called pace maker of the heart?
(A) S A node (B) A V node
(C) Chordae tendinae (D) A V septum
27. The blood vessel with least wastes coming out of the Bowman’s capsule is called
(A) afferent arteriole (B) efferent arteriole
(C) renal portal vein (D) renal vein
28. Lack of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) causes water loss from the body by
(A) increased water loss through expiration (B) excessive urination
(C) by combination of the above factors (D) increased sweating
29. Excess of urea in blood resulting from kidney failure is known as

(A) ureotelic (B) uricotelic
(C) urochrome (d) uraemia
30. Bone forming cells are

(A) osteoblasts (B) osteoclasts
(C) chondroblasts (d) chondroblasts
ANSWER KEYS
1. C 9. C 17. C 25. D
2. A 10. A 18. A 26. A
3. C 11. B 19. B 27. D
4. A 12. A 20. B 28. B
5. A 13. D 21. D 29. D
6. A 14. C 22. A 30. A
7. C 15. B 23. C
8. A 16. A 24. A
CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION
Neurons, also known as nerve cells, send and receive signals from your brain. While neurons
have a lot in common with other types of cells, they’re structurally and functionally
unique.Parts of a neuron
Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their role and location. However,
nearly all neurons have three essential parts: a cell body, an axon, and dendrites.
Part of Neuron
A. Cell body
Also known as a soma, the cell body is the neuron’s core. The cell body carries genetic
information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities.
B. Axon
An axon is a long, tail-like structure which joins the cell body at a specialized junction called
the axon hillock. Many axons are insulated with a fatty substance called myelin. Myelin helps
axons to conduct an electrical signal. Neurons generally have one main axon.
C. Dendrites
Dendrites are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body. Like antennae, dendrites
receive and process signals from the axons of other neurons. Neurons can have more than
one set of dendrites, known as dendritic trees. How many they have generally depends on
their role.
Function of neurons
Neurons send signals using action potentials. An action potential is a shift in the neuron’s
electric potential caused by the flow of ions in and out of the neural membrane.
Nerve Impulse Transmission
 Action potentials can trigger both chemical and electrical synapses.
 In a chemical synapse, action potentials affect other neurons via a gap between neurons
called a synapse. Synapses consist of a presynaptic ending, a synaptic cleft, and a
postsynaptic ending.
 When an action potential is generated, it’s carried along the axon to a presynaptic ending.
This triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These
molecules cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic ending of a
dendrite.
 Neurotransmitters can excite the postsynaptic neuron, causing it to generate an action

potential of its own. Alternatively, they can inhibit the postsynaptic neuron, in which case
it doesn’t generate an action potential.
Central Nervous System
1. Brain
A. Cerebral cortex: The grey, folded, outermost layer of the cerebrum responsible for higher
brain processes such as sensation, voluntary muscle movement, thought, reasoning, and
memory.
B. Cerebrum: The seat of motor and sensory functions, as well as higher mental functions
such as consciousness, thought, reason, emotion, and memory.
C. Corpus callosum: In mammals, a broad band of nerve fibres that connects the left and
right hemispheres of the brain.
D. Thalamus:
It is a sensory “way-station” for the rest of the brain, is primarily important due to its
connections with other limbic-system structures.
E. Hypothalamus:
It is a small part of the brain located just below the thalamus on both sides of the third
ventricle. It is associated with motivated behaviors like sexuality, combativeness, hunger,
thirst, pleasure and rage. It is the thermostat center of brain.
F. Cerebellum- Coordinates with complex skeletal movements, balance and posture.
G. Brain Stem-
Medulla Oblongata – It controls vital visceral function like blood pressure, heartrate,
breathing rate, coughing, vomiting and sneezing.
Pons Varolli - Neural connection between the cerebrum and cerebellum. It is also
pneumotaxiccenter for inspiration.
2. Spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, that extends from
the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. It
encloses the central canal of the spinal cord that contains cerebrospinal fluid. The brain and
spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS)
Reflex Action
A reflex action is a quick autonomic response to a stimulus. A reflex arc is a pathway involved
in a reflex action.
Reflex Arc
Peripheral Nervous System
A. Cranial Nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves which originate from the brain stem.
B. Spinal Nerves
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. These nerves are grouped into 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5
lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal according to the region of the vertebral column from which
they arise.
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system or ANS is a self-governing system within the peripheral
nervous system which helps regulate the internal environment of the body, receiving
information from and sending commands to the heart, intestines, and other organs in order to
regulate vital bodily functions.
The autonomic nervous system consists of two separate output systems, the sympathetic and
the parasympathetic division.
Endocrine System in Human
Plant Hormones
Plants possess chemical coordination. They respond to stimuli by secreting chemical

substances called as plant growth regulators. They either stimulate or retard growth. Five
major types of plant growth hormones are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and
ethylene.
A. Auxin
This hormone is present in the seed embryo, young leaves, and apical buds' meristem.
Functions of Auxins
 Stimulation of cell elongation, cell division in cambium, differentiation of phloem and

xylem, root initiation on stem cuttings, lateral root development in tissue culture
 Delaying leaf senescence
 Suppression of lateral bud growth when supplied from apical buds
 Inhibition or promotion of fruit and leaf abscission through ethylene stimulation
 Fruit setting and growth induced through auxin in some plants
B. Cytokinin
They are synthesized in roots and then transported to other parts of the plant.
Functions of Cytokinins
 Stimulation of cell division, growth of lateral buds, and apical dominance

 Stimulation of shoot initiation and bud formation in tissue culture
 Leaf cell enlargement that stimulates leaf expansion
 Enhancement of stomatal opening in some plant species
 Etioplasts converted into chloroplasts through stimulation of chlorophyll synthesis.
C. Gibberellin
Gibberellins are present in the meristems of apical buds and roots, young leaves, and
embryo.
Functions of Gibberellins
 Stimulates stem elongation

 Leads to development of seedless fruits
 Delays senescence in leaves and citrus fruits
 Ends seed dormancy in plants that require light for induction of germination
D. Ethylene
Ethylene is present in the tissues of ripening fruits, nodes of stems, senescent leaves, and
flowers.
Functions of Ethylene
 Leads to release of dormancy state

 Stimulates shoot and root growth along with differentiation
 Leaf and fruit abscission
 Flower induction in Bromeliad
 Stimulation of femaleness of dioecious flowers
 Flower opening is stimulated
 Flower and leaf senescence stimulation
 Stimulation of Fruit ripening
E. Abscisic Acid
Abscisic acid is found mostly near leaves, stems, and unripe fruit.
Functions of Abscisic Acid
 Stimulation of closing of stomata

 Inhibition of shoot growth
 Inducing seeds for synthesizing storage of proteins
Plant Movement
Plants exhibit two types of movements.

1. Growth-dependent movements called the Tropic Movements. ( towards or away from a
stimulus)
2. Non-growth dependent movements called the Nastic Movements. ( independent of
stimulus)
Tropic movements
These can be classified again into 5 types. They are:

 Phototropism – It is the movement of plants in response to light. The shoot system of a
plant exhibits this characteristic. The shoot moves towards the light.
 Geotropism – It is the movement of a plant part towards the soil. This is a characteristic of
the root system. The roots always move in the direction of the earth’s gravity.
 Hydrotropism– It is the movement of a plant towards the water. The stimulus here is water.
 Chemotropism – It is the movement of plants in response to a chemical stimulus. A classic
example of this type of movement is the growth of the pollen tube towards the ovule,
during fertilization, in a flower.
 Thigmotropism – It is a directional movement in plants in response to touch. For e.g. the
plant tendrils climb around any support which they touch.
Nastic Movements
Nastic movements in plants are not directional movements. They are not dependent on stimulus
and are growth independent. For example, the leaves of a touch me not plant (Mimosa pudica),
fold up immediately when touched. These kinds of changes occur due to the changes in the
amount of water in the leaves. Depending on the quantity, they either swell up or shrink.

1. Which of the following is a weed killer?
(A) 2, 4-D (B) NAA
(C) ABA (D) GA3
2. Which of the following is responsible for apical dominance.

(A) GA3 (B) IAA
(C) ABA (D) Florigen
3. Photoperiodism is
(A) recurrence of day and night
(B) effect of day length on flowering of a plant
(C) flowering plant
(D) growth curvature in response to light
4. What is vernalisation?
(A) growth curve in response to light
(B) recurrence of day and night
(C) effect of day length on plant growth
(D) acceleration of the ability to flower by low temperature treatment
5. Bending of growing shoot towards sunlight is called

(A) heliotropism (B) hydrotropism
(C) photonasty (D) phototropism
6. Thigmotropism is best exhibited by

(A) tendrils (B) stem apex
(C) root apex (D) leaf apex
7. Pneumotaphores are
(A) positive geotropic (B) negative phototropic
(C) thigmotropic (D) negative geotropic
8. Movements of leaves of the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica is due to

(A) thermonasty (B) seismonasty
(C) photonasty (D) nyctinasty
9. Which cell stops dividing after birth?

(A) glial cells (B) epithelium
(C) liver (D) neuron
10. Hearing is controlled by

(A) temporal lobes (B) cerebrum
(C) hypothalamus (D) parietal lobe
11. Thermostat is an instrument by which one can regulate the temperature of an oven, a heater
or a refrigerator. Functionally a similar mechanism is located in the mammalian brain in the
region of the
(A) cerebrum (B) hypothalamus
(C) cerebellum (D) medulla oblongata
12. Afferent never fibres carry impulses from

(A) effector organs to central nervous system (B) receptors to central nervous system
(C) central nervous system to muscles (D) central nervous system to receptors
13. There are how many pairs of spinal nerves in a human?

(A) 8 (B) 12
(C) 25 (D) 31
14. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the human sympathetic nervous system?
(A) prepares the person for “fight or flight”
(B) has ganglia near the spinal cord
(C) increases heart beat
(D) is a craniosacral division of the autonomic nervous system
15. The compound eye of an insect

(A) forms coloured images
(B) detects only the intensity and direction of light
(C) detects only infrared light
(D) forms only black and white images
16. The structures in a human that provide balance are located in the
(A) outer ear (B) middle ear
(C) inner ear (D) eustachian tubes
17. Nerve cells are devoid of

(A) nucleus (B) sarcolemma
(C) axon (D) cytoplasm
18. The medullary sheath of the nerve fibre is interrupted at intervals by

(A) nodes of Ranvier (B) synapses
(C) glial cells (D) septa
19. Outermost covering of brain is called as

(A) dura mater (B) pia mater
(C) pericardium (D) gray mater
20. The secretion of the following pituitary hormones is controlled by hypothalamus

(A) Thyrotropin (TSH) and cortisol
(B) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and progesterone
(C) Corticotropin (ACTH), growth hormone (GH) and vasopressin
(D) Luteinizing hormone (LH), corticotropin (ACTH) and thyrotropin (TSH)
21. A gorilla like man with huge hand and legs. This is due to the abnormal secretion of
(A) Pituitary FSH (B) Pituitary LH
(C) Pituitary GH (D) Thyroid
22. Hypersecretion of growth hormone by pituitary results in

(A) Dwarfism (B) Gigantism
(C) Cretinism (D) Myxoedema
23. A woman whose pituitary was damaged by disease can have a baby if she is given disease
can have a baby if she is given
(A) small quantities of FSH and LH each day
(B) small quantities of FSH each day and one large dose of LH on 15th day
(C) 20 microgram each of estrogen and progesterone each day for 14 days
(D) small quantity of estrogen every day for 28 days after ovulation
24. Continued secretion of milk is maintained by

(A) prolactin (B) oestrogen
(C) progesterone (D) oxytocin
25. Ca2+ level is controlled by

(A) thyroxine (B) FSH
(C) pancreas (D) thyroid and parathyroid
26. Cretinism in young children is due to lack of

(A) vitamin D (B) growth hormone
(C) calcitonin (D) thyroxine
27. Cushing’s disease is caused by

(A) disturbance in fat metabolism
(B) excess of ACTH secretion by the pituitary
(C) under secretion of insulin
(D) none of the above
28. Failure of insulin production results in

(A) Addison’s disease (B) Cushing’s disease
(C) Diabetes insipidus (D) Diabetes mellitus
29. A male moth finds a mate by means of her

(A) thyroxine (B) ecdysone
(C) brain hormone (D) pheromone
30. Moving in a grass lawn facilitate better maintenance primarily owing to

(A) removal of apical dominance and promotion of lateral meristem
(B) wounding which stimulate rapid regeneration
(C) removal of apical dominance and promotion of intercalary meristems
(D) removal of apical dominance
ANSWER KEYS
1. A 9. D 17. B 25. D
2. B 10. A 18. A 26. D
3. B 11. B 19. A 27. B
4. D 12. B 20. D 28. D
5. D 13. D 21. C 29. D
6. A 14. D 22. B 30. C
7. D 15. A 23. B
8. B 16. C 24. A
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

Heredity
Transmission of characters (or traits)

from the parents to their off springs.
Variations Inherited Traits
 Differences in the characters (or traits) Traits and characteristics that are
among the individuals of a species. reliably inherited to next generation
 It helps in adaptation of organisms to to provide a common basic body
the changing environment. design.
 It also forms the basis of heredity.
 It constitutes the raw material for
organic evolution and development of
new species.
Rules for Inheritance of Traits
 Gregory Johann Mendel first studied

inheritance of characters.
 He did his study on pea plant.
Monohybrid cross Dihybrid cross
 Mendel crossed pea plants with one pair of  Mendel crossed pea plants considering two
contrasting traits to get F1 generation. pairs of contrasting characters at a time to
 The F1 plants were allowed to self-pollinate. get F1 generation.
 He concluded:  The F1 plants were allowed to self-pollinate.
- Characters were controlled by factors or  He concluded:
genes which occur in pairs (alleles). - Pairs of contrasting characters behave
- When two different alleles are present independently of the other pairs.
together, the dominant one is expressed. - At the time of gamete formation all genes
- Alleles segregate so that each gamete gets assort independent of each other.
only one of the alleles.
Monohybrid cross Dihybrid cross
Phenotype ratio = Tall : dwarf

3:1
Genotype ratio = TT : Tt : tt
1:2:1
Phenotype ratio = 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Evolutions
A gradual genetic change in a group of living beings to produce new forms (organic
evolution)
Reasons-
(i) Natural Selection: A group of living beings adapts to fit in its environment better.
(ii) Genetic Drift: Provides diversity without any adaptations. There is a random change in
gene frequency.
Modern Theory of origin of life
Oparin and Haldane Chemical evolution/Chemogeny/ Modern Abiogenesis

“Pre-biotic soup/Hot dilute soup” Haldane
This theory was proved by Stanley Miller & Harold Urey by using the following gases in the
ratio of
Methane : Ammonia : Hydrogen
1 : 1 : 2
The four gases used by Miller to prove modern Abiogenesis is are – Methane, Ammonia,
Hydrogen and Water vapour.
Sequence of Origin of life
Anaerobic Heterotrophs – Anaerobic Chemoautotrophs  anaerobic

photoautotrophAerobic photoautotrophs or cyano bacteria Plant cell & Animal cell
Darwin finches
Evidences for evolution –
(1) Paleontology- study of Fossils

Remains or impressions of the remote past are known as fossils. The age of fossils can be
estimated by two ways:
(i) If we dig into the earth and start finding fossils, it can be assumed that the fossils closer to
the surface are more recent to those found in deeper layers.
(ii) By detecting the ratio of different isotopes of the same element in the fossil materials like
14C.
(2) Homologous Organs – Organs having same basic structure but different functions and
different appearance.
Examples-
(i) Forelimbs of human, cheetah, whale & bat
(ii) Mouth parts of cockroach, honey bee, mosquito & butterfly.
(iii) Thom of Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucumber
(iv) Modified beaks of Darwin finches.
(3) Analogous organs – Organs having different basic structure but similar appearance and
functions.
Examples-
Sting of honey bee and scorpion
Wings of insect and wings of bird
Fins of shark and flippers of dolphin
Tendrils of pea plant and Garden pea
Sweet Potato and Potato
(4) Vestigeal organ – Organs which are in reduced form and do not perform any function in
the body but correspond to fully developed functional organs of related animals and their
ancestors i.e., appendix, wisdom teeth.
(5) Atavism – Reappearance of some ancestral characters which had disappeared or were
reduced.
Example- Presence of short tail in some babies.
(6) Embryological evidences -

(a) Similarity in early development
(b) Resemblance among vertebrate embryos.
(c) Resemblance among invertebrate larvae.
Recapitulation theory / Biogenetic law – “Ontogeny repeats phylogeny” – Given by Ernst

Haeckel.

1. Mendel studied seven contrasting characters for his breeding experiment with Pisum sativum,
which of the following character did he not use?
(A) pod colour (B) pod shape
(C) leaf shape (D) plant height
2. If a plant is heterozygous for tallness, the F2 generation has both tall and dwarf plants. This
proves the principle of
(A) dominance (B) segregation
(C) independent assortment (D) incomplete dominance
3. The results of a test cross reveal that all the offspring resemble the parent being tested. This
parent must be
(A) heterozygous (B) homozygous
(C) recessive (D) haploid
4. Recessive mutation are expressed normally

(A) has to express always since it is a mutation
(B) in heterozygous condition
(C) neither in homozygous nor in heterozygous condition
(D) in homozygous condition
5. Inheritance of total colour-blindness is

(A) X-linked (B) XY-linked
(C) Y-linked (D) None of these
6. Genes located on Y-chromosome are

(A) mutant genes (B) sex-linked genes
(C) autosomal genes (D) holoandric genes
7. Autosomes in humans are

(A) 22 pairs (B) 23 pairs
(C) 43 pairs (D) 11 pairs
8. Which of the following have equal number of chromosomes?

(A) Klinefelter syndrome and Down syndrome
(B) Klinefelter, Turner syndrome and Down syndrome
(C) Turner syndrome and Down syndrome
(D) Turner syndrome and gynandromorph
9. Genetic information in a DNA is coded in the

(A) sequences of nucleotides (B) Base pairing
(C) proportion of each base (D) coding sequence
10. The DNA is the genetic material was proved conclusively by

(A) J.D. Watson (B) Hershey and Chase
(C) Alfred Griffith (D) Boveri and Sutton
11. DNA strands are anti-parallel because of

(A) H-bonds (B) Phospho diester bonds
(C) Disulphide bonds (D) peptide bonds
12. The scientist related with the theory of spontaneous generation and experiments with swan-
necke flasks is
(A) Van Helmont (B) Louis Pasteur
(C) Miller (D) Haeckel
13. The first organisms were

(A) primitive eukaryotes (B) aerobic bacteria
(C) prokaryotic heterotrophs (D) photosynthetic
14. Russian scientist who proposed the ‘Theory of origin of life’ was
(A) Oparin (B) Miller
(C) Haldane (D) Fox
15. The richest source of fossils is

(A) basalt (B) granite
(C) lava (D) sedimentary rock
16. Famous palaeobotanist of India was

(A) P. Maheshwari (B) S. R. Kashyap
(C) B.P. Pal (D) B. Sahni
17. The fossil remains of Archaeopteryx is a connecting link between

(A) amphibians (B) reptiles and birds
(C) fish and amphibians (D) reptiles and mammals
18. Which one of the following sets of structures includes only analogous organs?
(A) wings of butterfly, housefly and bat
(B) hind legs of horse and man
(C) hands of man, monkey and kangaroo
(D) mandibles of cockroach, mosquito and honeybee
19. Which of the following is an example of analogy?

(A) limb of horse and man (B) wings of pigeon and bat
(C) wings of bird and butterfly (D) none of the above
20. Which of the following set represents all vestigial structures in the human body?
(A) vermiform appendix, body hair and cochlea
(B) wisdom teeth, coccyx and patella
(C) coccyx, vermiform appendix and muscles of ear pinna
(D) body hair, muscles of ear pinna and atlas vertebra
21. Presence of gill slits in the embryo of all vertebrates supports the theory of
(A) organic evolution (B) recapitulation
(C) metamorphosis (D) biogenesis
22. Appearance of ancestral characters in the new born, such as tail, multiple mammae etc., are
known as
(A) homologous (B) analogous
(C) atavism (D) vestigial
23. The book named “Philosophic Zoologique” was published in 1909 and was written by:
(A) Mendel (B) Darwin
(C) De Vries (D) Lamarck
24. What did Charles Darwin publish in 1859?

(A) Origin of Species by Natural selection (B) Species plantarum
(C) Philosophie Zoologique (D) De NaturienFamilien
25. Mendel crossed a pure white flowered recessive pea plant with a dominant pure red flowered
plant. The first generation of hybrids from the cross should show
(A) 50% white flowers and 50% red flowers
(B) all red flowered
(C) 75% white flowered and 25% red flowered plants
(D) all white flowered plants
26. If couple has three daughters, what are the chances that the fourth child will be a son?
(A) 100% (B) 75%
(C) 50% (D) 25%
27. If a heterozygous tall plant is crossed with a homozygous dwarf plant, the proportion of dwarf
progeny will
(A) 50% (B) 75%
(C) 100% (D) 25%
28. Human offspring would be female, if 23rd pair of chromosome in zygote is

(A) YY (B) XY
(C) XX (D) XYY
29. The simple organic compounds that may have first evolved in the direction of origin of life on
Earth may have been
(A) protein and amino acid (B) protein and nucleic acid
(C) urea and nucleic acid (D) urea and amino acid
30. Weismann cut off tails of mice generation but tails neither disappeared nor shortened showing
that
(A) Darwin was correct
(B) tail is an essential organ
(C) mutation theory is wrong
(D) Lamarckism was wrong in inheritance of acquired characters
ANSWER KEYS
1. C 9. A 17. B 25. B
2. B 10. B 18. A 26. C
3. B 11. A 19. C 27. A
4. D 12. B 20. C 28. C
5. A 13. C 21. B 29. B
6. D 14. A 22. C 30. D
7. A 15. D 23. D
8. A 16. D 24. A
MICRO ORGANISMS
Microscopic organisms, commonly known as microorganisms or microbes, are found all
around us and even inside our bodies. The category ‘Microbes’ includes a massive range of
organisms including bacteria, fungi, viruses, algae, archaea and protozoa.
Bacteria
Virus Fungi
A lgae Pr otista
Microorganisms, as their name implies, are so small that they usually require a
microscope to see.
The vast majority of microbes on the earth pose no real threat to humans, plants or animals;
in fact they actually work alongside humans to make world go round, aiding decomposition,
decay and even helping us to digest our food. However, there are some microorganisms
which negatively impact our lives, causing illness, bad odours and damaging products and
surfaces. Some of the names we regularly hear in the media are Salmonella, E.Coli, MRSA,
Malaria and Bird flu.
Prokaryotic Microorganisms
Bacteria are found in nearly every habitat on earth, including within and on humans. Most
bacteria are harmless or helpful, but some are pathogens, causing disease in humans and
other animals. Bacteria are prokaryotic because their genetic material (DNA) is not housed
within a true nucleus. Most bacteria have cell walls that contain peptidoglycan.
Bacteria are often described in terms of their general shape. Common shapes include
spherical (coccus), rod-shaped (bacillus), or curved (spirillum, spirochete, or vibrio).
They have a wide range of metabolic capabilities and can grow in a variety of environments,
using different combinations of nutrients. Some bacteria are photosynthetic, such as
oxygenic cyanobacteria and anoxygenic green sulfur and green nonsulfur bacteria; these
bacteria use energy derived from sunlight, and fix carbon dioxide for growth. Other types of
bacteria are non-photosynthetic, obtaining their energy from organic or inorganic compounds
in their environment.
Archaea are also unicellular prokaryotic organisms. Archaea and bacteria have different
evolutionary histories, as well as significant differences in genetics, metabolic pathways, and
the composition of their cell walls and membranes. Like bacteria, archaea are found in nearly
every habitat on earth, even extreme environments that are very cold, very hot, very basic, or
very acidic. Some archaea live in the human body, but none have been shown to be human
pathogens.
Eukaryotic Microorganisms
The domain Eukarya contains all eukaryotes, including uni- or multicellular eukaryotes such
as protists, fungi, plants, and animals. The major defining characteristic of eukaryotes is that
their cells contain a nucleus.
Protists
Protists are unicellular eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi. Algae and protozoa
are examples of protists.
Algae are plant-like protists that can be either unicellular or multicellular. Their cells are
surrounded by cell walls made of cellulose, a type of carbohydrate. Algae are photosynthetic
organisms that extract energy from the sun and release oxygen and carbohydrates into their
environment. Because other organisms can use their waste products for energy, algae are
important parts of many ecosystems.
Protozoa are protists that make up the backbone of many food webs by providing nutrients
for other organisms. Protozoa are very diverse. Some protozoa move with help from hair-like
structures called cilia or whip-like structures called flagella. Others extend part of their cell
membrane and cytoplasm to propel themselves forward. These cytoplasmic extensions are
called pseudopods (“false feet”).
Paramecium
Fungi are also eukaryotes.Unicellular fungi—yeasts—are included within the study of

microbiology.
Some multicellular fungi, such as mushrooms, resemble plants, but they are actually quite
different. Fungi are not photosynthetic, and their cell walls are usually made out of chitin. The
fungal body is called mycelium and the filamentous thread like structure is called hyphae.
Agaricus (Edible Mushroom) Aspergillus
Helminths
Multicellular parasitic worms called helminths are not technically microorganisms, as most
are large enough to see without a microscope. However, these worms fall within the field of
microbiology because diseases caused by helminths involve microscopic eggs and larvae.
Viruses
Viruses are acellular microorganisms, which means they are not composed of cells.
Essentially, a virus consists of proteins and genetic material—either DNA or RNA.They are
inert outside of a host organism. However, by incorporating themselves into a host cell,
viruses are able toattack the host’s cellular mechanisms to multiply and infect other hosts.
Viruses can infect all types of cells, from human cells to the cells of other microorganisms. In
humans, viruses are responsible for numerous diseases, from the common cold to deadly
Ebola.
Friendly Microorganisms:
Microorganisms are used for various purposes.

(i) Some microorganisms are used in the production of curd, bread and cake.
(ii) Some microorganisms have been used for the production of alcohol.
(iii) They are also used in cleaning up of the environment as composers. For example, the
organic wastes (vegetable peels, remains of animals, faeces, etc.) are broken down into
harmless and usable substances by bacteria.
(iv) In agriculture fields, microorganisms are used to increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen.
Commercial Use of Microorganisms:
Microorganism Use
Lactobacillus Milk production
Yeast Bread production
Acetobacter malorum (bacteria) Vinegar production
Gluconacetobacterazotocaptans (bacteria) Coffee production
Medicinal Use of Microorganisms:
(i) Whenever we fall ill the doctor may give us some antibiotic tablets, capsules or injections
like peenicillin which are made up of microorganism.
(ii) These days the medicines produced from Bactria and fungi kill or stop the growth of the
disease-causing microorganisms. Such medicines are called antibiotics.
Vaccine:
(i) When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the antibodies produced by our body
fight with the invader. If microbes enter again, the body also remembers that how to fight with
the microbes.
(ii) If dead or weakened microbes are injected in a healthy body, the body fights and kills them
by producing suitable antibodies.
(iii) The antibodies remain in the body for protecting from the disease causing microbes. This
is how a vaccine works.
(iv) Several diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be prevented by
vaccination.
Increasing Soil Fertility:
Some bacteria and blue green algae are able increase the fertility of soil by fix nitrogen from
the atmosphere to enrich soil with nitrogen. These microbes are commonly called biological
nitrogen fixers.
Cleaning the Environment:
At the time of making manure, we collect wastes of plants, vegetables and fruits from nearby
houses and gardens. They put them in a pit meant for waste disposal. After some time, it
decomposed by microorganisms and gets converted to manure. By this method environment
is cleaned.
Harmful Microorganisms:
(i) Some of microorganisms are harmful in many ways.

(ii) In human beings, plants and animals, some of the microorganisms cause diseases. Such
disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogens.
(iii) Food, clothing and leather are spoiled due to some harmful microorganisms.
Disease— causing Microorganisms in Humans:
Bacteria They cause disease like typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis, anthrax,

pimples and peptic ulcers.
Viruses They cause the common cold, influenza, dengue fever, SARS and
AIDS.
Fungi They cause skin infections.
Protozoa They cause malaria, kala-azar and sleeping sickness.
Helminth They cause intestinal infections and elephantiasis
Worms
Food Poisoning:
Food poisoning in humans could be due to the consumption spoiled food by some
microorganisms. Microorganisms that grow on our food produce toxic substances and make
the food poisonous causing serious diseases. So, it is very important that we preserve food to
prevent it from being spoilt by the microorganisms.
Food Preservation:
Microorganisms spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad smell and has a bad taste and
changed colour. Here some common methods to preserve food in our homes.
a. Chemical Method:
(i) Preservatives like Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check
the growth of microorganisms.
(ii) We add salt or acid preservatives to pickles to prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium
benzoate and sodium meta bisulphite are common preservatives which are used in the jams
and squashes to check their spoilage.
b. Preservation by Common Salt:

(i) To preserve meat and fish for ages, common salt is used. Meat and fish are covered with
dry salt to check the growth of bacteria.
(ii) Salting is also used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, tamarind, etc.
c. Preservation by Sugar:
(i) Sugar is used for preserving jams, jellies and squashes are preserved.
(ii) It reduces the moisture content which inhibits the growth of bacteria which spoil food.
d. Preservation by Oil and Vinegar:
(i) Oil and vinegar are used to prevent spoilage of pickles because bacteria cannot live in
such an environment.
(ii) Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat are often preserved by this method.
e. Heat and Cold Treatments:
(i) Boiling of milk kills many microorganisms, after that it is stored or used.
(ii) We keep our food in the refrigerator. Low temperature inhibits the growth of microbes.
(iii) Pasteurized milk can be taken without boiling as it is free from harmful microbes. The milk
is heated to about 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly chilled and stored. By doing
so, this process prevents the growth of microbes. This process was discovered by Louis
Pasteur. It is called pasteurization.
f. Storage and Packing:
Dry fruits and even vegetables are sold in sealed air tight packets to prevent the attack of
microbes.
Nitrogen Fixation:
(i) Rhizobium is involved in the fixation of nitrogen in leguminous plants (pulses).

(ii) Nitrogen also gets fixed through the action of lightning. But the amount of nitrogen remains
constant in the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle

1. In Whittaker’s classification, non-nucleated unicellular organisms/prokaryotes are include
under
(A) Plantae (B) Monera
(C) Protista (D) Animalia
2. Who is regarded as the first bacteriologist?

(A) Robert Koch (B) Louis Pasteur
(C) A. van Leeuwenhoek (D) Robert Hooke
3. Living organisms that are most versatile and adaptable of all biological groups
(A) bacteria (B) fungi
(C) viruses (D) Mycoplasma
4. Bacteria are considered to be the plants because they

(A) have rigid cell walls (B) are present every where
(C) can multiply by fission (D) cannot move
5. Surface appendages used by bacteria to attach to one another, and to host organisms, are
called
(A) pili (B) thylakoids
(C) spirilla (D) desmosomes
6. Some bacteria are not easily killed because of

(A) chitinous wall (B) capsule and endospore formation
(C) mesosomes (D) their tolerant power
7. Bacteria cell wall contains

(A) cellulose (B) peptidoglycan
(C) pectin (D) chitin
8. All bacteria have the following organelle

(A) mesosomes (B) mitochondria
(C) chloroplast (D) Golgi complex
9. Nitrates are converted into nitrogen by

(A) ammonifying bacteria (B) denitrifying bacteria
(C) nitrogen fixing bacteria (D) nitrifying bacteria
10. Protists obtain their food as

(A) heterotrophs only
(B) photosynthesisers, heterotrophs or symbionts
(C) photosynthesis only
(D) chemosynthesisers
11. What is the thread-like basic structural element of a fungus?

(A) filament (B) mycelium
(C) pseudoparenchyma (D) hyphae
12. Which of the following terms is used for a plant body NOT differentiated into root, leaf and
stem?
(A) Mycelium (B) Hypha
(C) Thallus (D) Thalamus
13. What are mycorrhizae?

(A) The fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes
(B) Mutualistic associations of plant roots and fungi
(C) The horizontal hyphae that spread out over food
(D) Asexual structures formed by deuteromy-cetes
14. In fungi, the food material is stored in the form of

(A) starch (B) fructose
(C) sucrose (D) glycogen
15. Match the following bacteria with the diseases and choose the correct option
Column-I Column-II
a. Treponema pallidum 1. Plague
b. Yersinia pestis 2. Anthrax
c. Bacillus anthrasis 3. Syphilis
d. Vibrio 4. Cholera
(A) a1, b3, c2, d4 (B) a3, b1, c2, d4
(C) a2, b3, c1, d4 (D) a4, b3, c1, d2
16. Metabolic waste responsible for malaria fever is called

(A) Haemozoin (B) Haematin
(C) Melanin (D) Heparin
17. Lactobacillus mediated conversion of milk to curd results because of

(A) Coagulation and partial digestion of milk fats
(B) Coagulation and partial digestion of milk proteins
(C) Coagulation of milk proteins and complete digestion of milk fats
(D) Coagulation of milk fats and complete digestion milk
18. Highest number of antibiotics are produced by

(A) Bacillus (B) Penicillium
(C) Streptomyces (D) Cephalosporium
19. Yeast in an important source of

(A) Vitamin C (B) Vitamin B
(C) Vitamin A (D) Vitamin D
20. Antibiotics are produced by

(A) Mucor (B) Penicillium
(C) Agaricus (D) All of these
21. Which one of the following is the correctly matches pair of a product and the microorganisms
responsible for it
(A) Ethyl alcohol -Yeast (B) Acetic acid-Lactobacillus
(C) Cheese-Nitrobacter (D) Curd – Azotobacter
22. Antibiotics inhibit the growth of or destroy

(A) Bacteria and fungi (B) Bacteria and viruses
(C) Bacteria, algae and viruses (D) Bacteria, fungi and viruses
23. Mycorrhiza represents

(A) Antagonism (B) Endemism
(C) Symbiosis (D) Parasitism
24. BT cotton is resistant to

(A) Insect (B) Herbicides
(C) Salt (D) Drought
25. Which one of the following is called as ‘indicator species’ for polluted waters
(A) Tubifex (B) Phytoplanktons
(C) Zooplanktons (D) Prawns
26. Lichens do not like to grow in cities

(A) Because of absence of the right type of algae and fungi
(B) Because of lack of moisture
(C) Because of SO2 pollution
(D) Because natural habital is missing
27. The protozoans that cause malaria in humans are

(A) trichosomes (B) dinoflagellates
(C) sporozoans (D) radiolarians
28. Paramecium contains

(A) two micronuclei
(B) one macro and one, two or more micronuclei
(C) two macronuclei
(D) one micro and one, two or more macronuclei
29. The shape of Cholera causing micro organism is

(A) Comma (B) Rod
(C) Spring (D) None of these
30. The end product of photosynthesis in green algae, like Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra
include
(A) Starch grain (B) starch and oil droplets
(C) proteins (D) starch and proteins
ANSWER KEYS
1. B 9. B 17. C 25. A
2. C 10. C 18. A 26. C
3. A 11. D 19. B 27. C
4. A 12. C 20. B 28. B
5 A 13. B 21. A 29. A
6. B 14. D 22. A 30. B
7. D 15. B 23. C
8. A 16. A 24. A
BONES & JOINTS

SKELETAL SYSTEM
The hard protective or supportive part of the animal constitutes skeletal system. Study of
skeleton is called Osteology or Skeletology. Design of the skeleton depends on the animals
mode of life. Skeleton of different designs are needed for aquatic or terrestrial animals.
The skeletal system is divided into two parts; the Axial Skeleton and the Appendicular
Skeleton.
The Axial skeleton consists of all the bones that make up the main core of one’s skeleton.
The Appendicular skeleton is all the bones that come off of the Axial Skeleton. For example,
the Cranium is part of the Axial skeleton because it is located in the centre of the body. The
Humerus is an example of the Appendicular skeleton as it comes off of the Axial skeleton.
Bones of the Human Body
NUMBER OF BONES
 In adults total number of bones is – 206
 Axial skeleton – 80
 Appendicular skeleton – 126
 In babies total number of bones is – 300
On the basis of position of skeletal structure in the body, the skeletal system is of 2 types:
(A) Pectoral girdle (B) Pelvic girdle
(A) Pectoral girdle

Pectoral girdle is formed of two bones clavicle and scapula.
 Clavicle is also called collar bone.

 Scapula is also called shoulder bone or shoulder blade. It is a flat and triangular structure
present at the back of shoulder.
 At the junction of clavicle and scapula a depression is found in the scapula called glenoid
cavity. In the glenoid cavity head of humerus fits to form shoulder joint.
(B) Pelvic girdle
 It is also called hip girdle.

 It is composed of 3 bones, which are as follows–
Ilium – Upper side
Pubis – Inner side
Ischium – Below the pubis
 At the junction of these 3 bones a depression is found, which is called acetabulum.
 Femur fits in acetabulum to form hip joint.
AXIAL SKELETON:
(i) CRANIUM: The cranium is located superior to the cervical vertebrae and is made up of
many different flat bones. The bones then fuse together as time goes on. The function of
the cranium is to protect the brain from injuries. The only movable facial bone is
mandible.
(ii) STERNUM AND RIBS: The sternum is the large flat bone located anterior to the spinal
column. The ribs wrap around from the thoracic vertebrae to the Sternum. The rib cage
can also be called the Thoracic cage as it comes off of the thoracic vertebrae. Along with
the sternum, the ribs help protect the heart and lungs.
(iii) VERTEBRAL COLUMN: The Vertebral column starts inferior to the cranium and ends
posterior to the sacrum. The vertebral column is the core foundation for holding up the
human body. There are 5 parts of the Vertebral Column; the cervical vertebrae, thoracic
vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacral vertebrae and the coccygeal vertebrae.
(iv) SACRUM: The sacrum is a large triangular bone at the base of the spine. It is wedged
between the two hip bones at the upper back part of the pelvis. The function of the
sacrum is to connect the spine to the hip bones.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF JOINTS
In the human body, there are three different types of joints. These are;
Fibrous (Immovable) joints, Cartilaginous (Partially movable) joints and Synovial (freely
movable) joints.
Joint(s) Description Example(s)

Fibrous Fixed joints can also be called "immovable" An example of a fixed
(Immovable) joints, because they do not move. These joint is between the
joints have no joint cavity and are connected bones of the skull. When
via fibrous connective tissue. you are born, your skull
bones are not joined
together. They do so
gradually.
Cartilaginous Cartilaginous joints have a cushion of An example of a slightly
(Partially cartilage in between the bones, with the movable joint would be
movable) bones resting on these beds of cartilage. between the vertebrae
This cushion of cartilage stops the bones in the spinal cord.
from rubbing together
Synovial (freely Synovial joints offer the most mobility. There are 6 different
movable) Synovial joints consist of 2 or more bones kinds of synovial joints.
with cartilage covering them to help stop
friction. Synovial joints are surrounded by
fibrous capsule with a synovial membrane
which secretes synovial fluid to lubricate the
joint.
The 6 different types of Synovial joints are:
Hinge Hinge joints only allow movement in one

specific direction.
Examples are the elbow and the knee

joints.
Ball and Socket The round end of one bone slots into a
cup shaped socket in the other bone.
This allows for a much wider range of
movement.
Examples are the Hip and shoulder

joints.
Ellipsoid Ellipsoid or condyloid joints are slightly

modified ball and socket joints.
Movement is restricted to moving
backwards and forward and side to side.
Example is the wrist joint.
Gliding Gliding joints move in all directions over

a flat surface. Ligaments and bony
prominence restrict the movement of
gliding joints.
Examples are the carpals in the wrist

and tarsals in the ankles.
Pivot A pivot joint allows rotary movement

around a single axis. The moving bone
rotates within a ring that is formed from
a second bone and adjoining ligament.
Examples are joint between the atlas

and the axis (first and second cervical
vertebrae) which allows for turning of the
head from side to side. It also provides
the twisting movement of the bones of
the forearm (radius and ulna).
Saddle The saddle joint is known so because

the bone forming one part of the joint is
concave at one and looks like a saddle.
The other bone’s and is convex and
looks like a rider in a saddle.
Example is the carpometacarpal joint.
DISORDERS
(i) Dislocation : It is displacement of bone from their normal position at joint.

(ii) Slipped disc : It is displacement of intervertebral fibrocartilage disc or vertebrae from their
normal position.
(iii) Sprain : It is stretching or tearing of tendons or ligaments.
(iv) Osteitis or Osteomyelitis : It is inflammation of bone.
(v) Spondylitis : It is inflammation of one or more vertebrae.
(vi) Osteoporosis : It is excessive loss of calcium and phosphorus from the bone.
(vii) Rickets : In this disease bones of leg get curved bowlegs, It is due to deficiency of
vitamin D.
TYPE OF BONES (on basis of shape and size)
(i) Long bones

e.g. Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Tibia fibula, Femur.
(ii) Short bones
e.g. Carpals and tarsals.
(iii) Flat bones
e.g. Skull bone, sternum and ribs.
(iv) Irregular bones
e.g. Ear ossicles and vertebrae.
(v) Sesamoid bones
e.g. Patella (knee cap)., pisciform bone

1. Which of the following lubricates ligaments and tendons and is an important constituent of
synovial fluid of bones?
(A) Pectins (B) Lipids
(C) Hyaluronic base (D) Hyaluronic acid
2. Name the part of body which has a single pair of bones:

(A) Wrist (B) Lower jaw
(C) External ear (D) Pelvic girdle
3. Hyoid bone is located at the:

(A) Front of the skull (B) Behind the skull
(C) Top of the buccal cavity (D) Floor of the buccal cavity
4. Lower jaw of man is made up of:

(A) 1 bone (B) 2 bones
(C) 3 bones (D) No bones, only muscles
5. In mammals, the lower jaw is made of:

(A) Medulla (B) Maxilla
(C) Mandible (D) Ethmoid
6. In human body, which one of the following is anatomically correct:

(A) Salivary glands : 1 pair (B) Floating ribs : 2 pairs
(C) Collar bones : 3 pairs (D) Cranial nerves : 10 pairs
7. Bones become fragile in:

(A) Gout (B) Osteoporosis
(C) Arthritis (D) None of these
8. Articulation of ulna with humerus at the elbow joint is:

(A) Hinge (B) Ball-and socket
(C) Pivotal (D) Gliding
9. Which one of the following is a sesamoid bone?

(A) Pelvic (B) Patella
(C) Pterygoid (D) Pectoral girdle
10. Pelvic girdle consists of:

(A) Ilium (B) Ilium and ischium
(C) Ischium and pubis (d) Ilium, ischium and pubis
11. Synovial joint is:

(A) Pivot joint (B) Hinge joint
(C) Ball-and-socket joint (D) All of these
12. How many bones are present in the human skull?

(A) 32 (B) 28
(C) 12 (D) 42
13. Axial skeleton is not made up of which of the following?

(A) Vertebral column (B) Skull
(C) Sternum (D) Scapula
14. Vertebral column of human body is made up of:

(A) 33 vertebrae (B) 52 vertebrae
(C) 45 vertebrae (D) 23 vertebrae
15. Which of the following forms the thoracic cage of man?

(A) Ribs and Sternum (B) Ribs and Thoracic vertebrae
(C) Ribs, Sternum and Lumber vertebrae (D) Ribs, Sternum and Thoracic vertebrae
16. Elbow joint is an example of:

(A) Pivot joint (B) Hinge joint
(C) Gliding joint (D) Ball-and-socket-joint
17. The example of pivot joint is:

(A) Hip joints (B) Metacarpophalangeal joints
(C) Ankle joints (D) 1st and 2nd vertebrae
18. The type of joint present between the humerus bone and pectoral girdle is:
(A) Pivot joint (B) Ellipsoid joint
(C) Gliding joint (D) Ball-and-socket joint
19. The major function of intervertebral disc is to:

(A) Absorb shock (B) String vertebra together
(C) Prevent injuries (D) Prevent hypertension
20. Joint between carpals is:

(A) Hinge joint (B) Saddle joint
(C) Gliding joint (D) Ball-and-socket joint
21. The clavicle articulates with____ of scapula:

(A) Acromion process (B) Glenoid cavity
(C) Acetabulum cavity (D) Ball-and socket joint
22. The supportive skeletal structures in the human external ears and in the nose tip are
examples of:
(A) Ligament (B) Areolar tissue
(C) bone (D) Cartilage
23. Which of these has the least number of movable joints?

(A) skull (B) backbone
(C) arms and hands (D) legs and feet
24. The hinge joints allow movement in:

(A) all directions
(B) one plane only
(C) two planes only
(D) depends on where the joint is located in the body
25. Which of these acts as a shock absorber at the joints?

(A) cartilage (B) ligaments
(C) tendons (D) biceps
26. Doctors who help to heal injuries of bones, joints and the muscles attached to bones are
called
(A) Surgeons (B) Paediatrician
(C) Orthopaedic surgeons (D) Nephrologists
27. What is the function of the skeletal system?

(A) Support the body (B) Give the body shape
(C) Work with muscles to move the body (D) All of the above
28. How many bones make up the skeletal system of an adult human being?
(A) 103 (B) 206
(C) 300 (D) 1000
29. The joint which helps in movement in all directions?

(A) Pivotal joint (B) Ball and socket
(C) Hinge joint (d) Fixed joints
30. Ribs are attached to

(A) Scapula (B) Sternum
(C) Clavicle (D) Ileum
ANSWER KEYS
1. D 9. B 17. D 25. A
2. D 10. D 18. D 26. C
3. D 11. D 19. A 27. D
4. A 12. B 20. C 28. B
5. C 13. D 21. A 29. B
6. B 14. A 22. D 30. B
7. B 15. D 23. A
8 A 16. B 24. B

Genesis Crash Course JSTSE (2018 19) Phase 2 Biology

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Genesis Crash Course JSTSE (2018 19) Phase 2 Biology

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GENESIS – BIOLOGY

[CRASH COURSE – JSTSE]

Alimentary Canal Associated Digestive Glands

Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus

Name of the Name of the

Saliva Ptyalin (Salivary Starch Maltose

Name of the Name of the

Gastric juice Pepsin, Rennin Proteins, Casein peptides,

Name of the Name of the

Gastric juice+ Lipase Butterfat Fatty acids and

Photosynthesis can be defined as the synthesis of organic compound (carbohydrates) from

The following events occur during the process of photosynthesis:

Transport of materials in xylem Transport of materials in phloem

Xylem tissue helps in the transport of water

Human Excretory System

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

3. The assimilatory power in photosynthesis is

4. Phloem always flows from a

5. Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs is the

6. Which type of respiratory organs are present in spiders and scorpions?

8. If the CO2 concentration in the blood increases, the breathing shall

9. Which of the following prevents collapsing of trachea?

10. When diaphragm of man is completely dome shaped it shows

14. Which of the following has no muscular walls?

16. Both erythrocytes and leucocytes are formed in the

17. Normal haemoglobin content of an adult man is

18. Number of RBC increases if one lives at higher altitude because

19. Thrombin occurs in vertebrates in

20. Which of the metallic ions is essential for blood clotting?

22. The tricuspid valve occurs between the

23. Typical ‘lub-dub’ sounds heard in heartbeat are due to

24. Pulse beat is measured from

25. Rh factor may be responsible for

29. Excess of urea in blood resulting from kidney failure is known as

30. Bone forming cells are

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION

Nerve Impulse Transmission

 Action potentials can trigger both chemical and electrical synapses.

 Neurotransmitters can excite the postsynaptic neuron, causing it to generate an action

Central Nervous System

F. Cerebellum- Coordinates with complex skeletal movements, balance and posture.

Peripheral Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

Endocrine System in Human

Plants possess chemical coordination. They respond to stimuli by secreting chemical

 Stimulation of cell elongation, cell division in cambium, differentiation of phloem and

 Stimulation of cell division, growth of lateral buds, and apical dominance

 Stimulates stem elongation

 Leads to release of dormancy state

Functions of Abscisic Acid

 Stimulation of closing of stomata

Plants exhibit two types of movements.

These can be classified again into 5 types. They are:

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

2. Which of the following is responsible for apical dominance.

5. Bending of growing shoot towards sunlight is called

6. Thigmotropism is best exhibited by

8. Movements of leaves of the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica is due to

9. Which cell stops dividing after birth?

10. Hearing is controlled by

12. Afferent never fibres carry impulses from

13. There are how many pairs of spinal nerves in a human?

15. The compound eye of an insect

17. Nerve cells are devoid of