Electrical components – descriptions of resistors,  Rheostat.

capacitors, inductors and semi – conductors  Thermistor

 Photoresistor.
RESISTOR  And others
- a passive element which dissipates energy only Resistor Color Code
- Resistors are commonly used to perform
twofunctions in a circuit.
a. The first use is to limit or reduce the flow
of current in a circuit
b. The second use is to produce a voltage
divider.

RESISTANCE (R)
*Resistance is an electrical quantity that
measures how the device or material reduces
the electric current flow through it.
*The resistance is measured in units
of ohms (Ω).
*If we make an analogy to water flow in
pipes, the resistance is bigger when the
pipe is thinner, so the water flow is Hint:
decreased. Remember the color codes with this sentence:
Bad Boys Race Our Young Girls ButVioleta Gives
Temperature effects of resistance Willingly
The resistance of a resistor increases when
temperature of the resistor increases.
R2 = R1 × (1 + α (T2 - T1))
R2 is the resistance at temperature T2 in ohms (Ω).
R1 is the resistance at temperature T1 in ohms (Ω).
α is the temperature coefficient.

Although resistors come in various forms we can RESISTOR SYMBOLS

divide them up into just two basic types.
 'Fixed' resistors.
 Variable resistors (or 'potentiometers')

a. Fixed resistors - cannot be changed as it is set at

a specific value.
The different types of fixed resistors include:
 Wire wound resistor
 Carbon composition resistor.
 Carbon film resistor.
 Metal film resistor.
 And others

b. Variable resistors - can change or manage flows

at and below a specific level.
The different types of variable resistors include:
 Potentiometer. Example 1.
What is the resistance value and tolerance of a * is a measure of the material’s ability to conduct
resistor having bands colored in the order yellow, electric current. It is equal to the reciprocal of
violet, white, and gold? resistance.

Answer: 47 G ± 5% Siemens or Ʊ (mho)

- unit of conductance
Example 2.
A company manufactures resistors of 5.4 k with a G = 1/R
tolerance of 10 percent. Determine the color code
of the resistor. Example:
The resistance of 120 meters of wire is 12 ohms.
Solution: What is its conductance?
R = 5.4 x 103= 54 x 102
From Table above; green represents 5; yellow Solution;
stands for 4; while red stands for102 . The tolerance G = 1/R = 1/12
of 10 percent corresponds to silver. Hence, the G = 0.0833 mho = 0.0833 Ʊ = 0.0833 siemens
color code of the resistor is:
Temperature effects of resistance sample problem;
Green, yellow, red, silver
Example:
Example 3. The resistance of the tertiary winding of a power
What is ohmic resistance of a resistor with the transformer is 0.125 ohm at 25°C and the
following color bands: Brown, Black, Orange and temperature coefficient of resistance at 25°C is
Gold? 0.00393. What is the resistance at 65°C?

First digit = 1 (brown) ; Second digit = 0 (black) Solution;

Multiplier = 103 (orange) ; Tolerance = ± 5% (gold) R2 = R1 × (1 + α (ΔT))
Therefore, its ohmic value is 10 x 103 = 10, 000 ohms ± R2 = R1 × (1 + α (T2 - T1))
5%

Example 4. [RME Board October 1996] R1= initial resistance at initial temperature T1
In resistance color coding, red color is assigned to a R2= final resistance at final temperature T2
value equal to _______. ΔT = change in temperature = T2 - T1
α= temperature coefficient (Ω/°C)
a.) 3 b.) 2
c.) 0 d.) 1 Given:
R1 = 0.125 ohm
Example 5. [RME Board October 1996] T1 = 25°C
Which resistor is physically larger in size? α = 0.00393
T2 = 65°C
a.) 100 ohms, 10 W
b.) 10 ohms, 50 W R2 =0.125Ω × (1 + 0.00393 Ω/°C (65°C - 25°C))
c.) 1 kilohm, 1 W R2= 0.125Ω + 0.125Ω [0.00393 Ω/°C (40°C)]
d.) 1 megohm, ½ W R2= 0.125Ω + 0.01965Ω
R2 = 0.14465 Ω
*The power rating of a resistor is a property that depends
on the physical construction of the said resistor. Thus,
the bigger the size, the higher is the power rating.

CONDUCTANCE (G)
Capacitors
CAPACITANCE (C)
* is a measure of how well a capacitor can store
electrical charges.
*Is one farad if it stores one coulomb of charge when
the voltage across its terminals is one volt.
* its unit is in Farad (F)

Q Q
C= E = V

C = capacitance of a charge capacitor (F)

Q = charge stored (coulomb)
E = V = voltage across the capacitor (volt)

Capacitors in Series and in Parallel

• Capacitors, like resistors, can be placed in

CAPACITOR
* old name is CONDENSER
* any device on which electric device on which
electric charges can be stored so as to possess
electrical potential. It consists of two conducting
plates separated by a layer of an insulating medium
called dielectric.
* also reduces voltage ripples
Symbol:
series and in parallel.
• Increasing levels of capacitance can be
obtained by placing capacitors in parallel.
• Decreasing levels of capacitance can be
obtained by placing capacitors in series.
Capacitors in parallel total capacitance
* is equal to the sum of the capacitance of each
capacitor.

* The total charge accumulated is equal to the sum

of the charges accumulated on each capacitor.

Qt= Q1+ Q2+ QN-1+ QN

* The total voltage is equal to the voltage across
each capacitor

Vt = V1= V2= VN-1= VN

Capacitors in series total capacitance
* equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitance of each
capacitor.
* The charges on each capacitor are equal.
Qt = Q1 = Q2 = QN-1 = QN
* The total voltage is equal to the sum of the
voltages across each capacitor
Vt = V1 + V2 + VN-1 + VN
Combination of series – parallel connected
capacitors sample
Example 6.
A capacitor that has air between its plates is
connected across a potential difference of 12.0 V
and stores 48.0 μC of charge. What is the
capacitance of the capacitor?
C = Q/V = 48 μC ÷ 12 V = 4.00 μF
Example 3.
Find the total capacitance for three capacitors
connected in series, given their individual
capacitances are 1.000, 5.000, and 8.000 µF.
Ceq = 0.755μF
Example 4.
(a) A capacitor of capacitance 5 mF is connected to
a 6 V supply. What charge is stored in the
capacitor?
(b) A 400-pF capacitor carries a charge of 2.5 x 10-8
C. What is the potential difference across the plates
of the capacitor?
Use C = Q/V
(a) Q = CV = 5 x 10-6 x 6 = 30 x 10-6 = 30 mC
(b) V = Q/C = 2.5 x 10-8 / 400 x 10-12 = 62.5 V
Example 5.
Find the equivalent capacitance.
Ceq = 0.857 µF
Example 7.
Find the total capacitance of the combination of
capacitors shown in Figure below.
INDUCTOR
• An inductor is a passive element designed
to store energy in its magnetic field.
• Inductors consist of a coil of wire, often wound
around a core of high magnetic permeability.
• An inductor RESISTS the change of current in a
circuit.

Answer: ________

Power and Work

• The energy (or work) stored in a capacitor
under steady-state conditions is given by:
INDUCTANCE (L)
* the property of an electric conductor or circuit
that causes an electromotive force to be generated
by a change in the current flowing.
Example: "the inductance of the winding"
ELASTANCE (S)
* is the reciprocal of capacitance. Inductor Construction
* its unit is daraf • The level of inductance (L) is dependent on
1 the area within the coil, the length of the
S= C unit, to the number of turns of wire in the
coil and the permeability of the core
material.
•
Inductors

SYMBOL

Inductors in Series and in Parallel

• Inductors, like resistors and capacitors, can
be placed in series or in parallel.
 • Increasing levels of inductance can be
obtained by placing inductors in series,
while
• Decreasing levels of inductance can be
obtained by placing inductors in parallel.
• Inductors in series are combined in the
same way as resistors in series.
• Inductors in parallel are combined in the
same way as resistors in parallel.
•
Inductors in Series
*Equivalent inductance of series connected
inductors are the sum of inductances:
Leq= L1 +L2 + L3...+ LN
Inductors in parallel
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
Leq L 1 L 2 L3 ln
Inductor Energy Storage
Example No. 1
Three inductors of 60mH, 120mH and 75mH
respectively, are connected together in a parallel
combination with no mutual inductance between
them. Calculate the total inductance of the parallel
combination in millihenries.
Answer: LT = 26 mH
Example No. 2
Calculate the equivalent inductance of the
following inductive circuit.
Answer: LT = 15 mH
Example No. 3
Three inductors of 10mH, 40mH and 50mH are
connected together in a series combination with no
mutual inductance between them. Calculate the
total inductance of the series combination.
Answer: LT = 100 mH
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS ACCORDING TO
THE NUMBER OF VALENCE ELECTRONS
*CONDUCTORS
 materials having less than four (4) valence
electrons
 is an object or type of material that allows
the flow of an electrical current in one or
more directions.
 Some common conductors
are copper, aluminum, gold, and silver.
*SEMICONDUCTORS
 materials having exactly four (4) valence
electrons
 is a material that lies between conductors
and insulators in its ability to conduct
electrical current. In its pure state, a
semiconductor is neither a good conductor
nor a good insulator.
 Types of Semiconductor Materials
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
* is one which is made from semi
conductive material in its purest
form.
Examples are the ff:
 Silicon (Si)
Germanium (Ge)
2. Extrinsic semiconductor
* is one which is made from semi
conductive material with some
impurities added to change its
electrical properties.
Examples are the ff:
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminum arsenide (AlAs)
*Types of extrinsic semiconductors:
a.) N – type
* an extrinsic semiconductor
material formed by adding a
pentavalent impurity. These
atoms contain five valence
electrons.
Examples
Phosphorus (P)
Arsenic (AS)
b.) P – type
* an extrinsic semiconductor
material formed by adding a
pentavalent impurity. These
atoms contain five valence
electrons.
Examples
Aluminum (Al)
Gallium (Ga)
DOPING
* Process of imparting or adding impurities
to an intrinsic semi conductive material in
order to control its conduction
characteristics.
COVALENT BONDING
*results when atoms share their valence
electrons with other atoms.
DIODE
*a semiconductor device with two
terminals, typically allowing the flow of
current in one direction only.
*INSULATORS
 materials having more than four (4) valence
electrons
 Some common insulators are glass,
air, plastic, rubber, and wood.
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS APPLICATION SAMPLE:
POWER SUPPLY
*A regulated power supply is an embedded
circuit; it converts unregulated AC into a
constant DC. With the help of a rectifier it
converts AC supply into DC. Its function is
to supply a stable voltage (or less often
current), to a circuit or device that must be
operated within certain power
supply limits.
* It is basically consisting of the following
elements: transformer, rectifier, filter and
regulator circuits.
Stage 1.
The transformer is a static device that
transfers electrical energy from the primary
winding to the secondary winding without
affecting the frequency. It is used to step-up
or step-down the ac voltage level and
isolates the remainder of the electronic
system from the ac power.
Stage 2.
The rectifier is a device used to change the
ac power into pulsating dc. The basic
rectifier is the diode. This diode is a
unidirectional device that operates as
rectifier in the forward direction. The three
basic rectifier circuits using diodes are the
half-wave, full-wave center-tapped and full-
wave bridge type.
Stage 3.
 The filter of the power supply is used to D.C.
keep the ripple component from appearing Single phase A.C. circuits
in the output. It is designed to convert Frequency
pulsating DC from rectifier circuits into a Power Factor
suitably smooth dc level. Unity power factor
*the voltage and current are in
Stage 4, phase
A voltage regulator is designed to provide a *example: resistive loads
very steady or well-regulated dc output. It is Leading power factor
always ideal to have a steady output voltage *the current leads the voltage by an
so that the load will operate properly. The acute angle
output level is maintained regardless of the example: capacitive loads
variation of the input voltage. The Lagging power factor
commonly used transistor voltage *the current lags the voltage by an
regulators are the series voltage regulator acute angle
and the shunt voltage regulator. *example: inductive loads
Zero power factor
Regulated Power Supply Pictorial Diagram *if the voltage and current are out
of phase by exactly 90
degrees.
*example: ideal inductor or ideal
capacitor

Impedance (Z)- the joint effect of combining

resistance and reactance in an AC circuit.

Reactance-the non-resistive component of

impedance in an AC circuit, arising from the effect
of inductance or capacitance or both and causing
the current to be out of phase with the
electromotive force causing it.

Regulated Power Supply Schematic Diagram Inductive Reactance (symbol XL) -an inductors
electrical resistance when used in an AC.

XL=2πfL
f=frequency (hertz)
L= inductance (Henry)

Capacitive reactance (symbol XC) is a measure of

capacitor’s opposition to AC (alternating current).

Regulated Power Supply Block Diagram XC=1/2πfC

f=frequency (hertz)
C= capacitance (Farad)

 Real Power-Power dissipated by a load is

referred to as true power. True power is
 symbolized by the letter P and is measured 1
Zt=
in the unit of Watts (W). 0.0125

 Apparent Power-Total power in an AC 3 phase A.C. circuits

circuit, both dissipated and
absorbed/returned is referred to
as apparent power. Apparent power is
symbolized by the letter S and is measured
in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA).

 Reactive Power-Power merely absorbed

and returned in load due to its reactive
properties is referred to as reactive power.
Reactive power is symbolized by the letter Q
and is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps-
Reactive (VAR).

Example:

A coil of 50-ohm resistance and 150 mH

inductance is connected in parallel with a 50
µF capacitor. What is the power factor of
the circuit?

Solution:
XL=2πfL=2π (60) (150X10-3) =56.55 Ω
1
XC= =2π (60) (50x10-6) =53.05 Ω
2 πfC

1 1 1 1
= + = +
Zt Z1 Z2 50+ j56.55
1 1
=
− j53.05 75.484