CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problem and Its Setting

Plastics have played an omnipresent role in our lives. Since 1600 BC, humans have

already benefited from the use of polymers. From then, plastic has been increasingly applied to

the needs of the people until the nineteenth century when the development of modern

thermoplastics began (Hosler et al. 1999). The five main commodity plastics are polypropylene,

polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene and polyethylene terephthalate. Polyethylene

terephthalate and polyethylene are the most easily recycled plastics (Kavitha et al., 2014). The

most widely used types of polythene are the low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density

polyethylene (HDPE). LDPE resins are thermoplastics made from ethylene with the repeating unit

(–CH2–CH2–)n. They are stiff plastics but lack hardness and brittleness and have a somewhat

waxy feel. It is produced in low pressure reactors. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is

polyethylene with densities from 0.941 g/cm3 to 0.965 g/cm3. (Gabriel, 2009). Polyethylene

terephthalate is a transparent polymer with good mechanical properties and dimensional stabilities

under variable load. PET has good variable properties and good chemical resistance.

Plastics can be found in most of the materials that people use, it contributes an important

part to the range of materials used in modern society. An important application of plastic is its

beneficial use in public health. It is used in medical devices such as surgical equipment, aseptic

medical packaging, drips and blister packs for pills. It also supplies food packaging that reduces

food wastage making it safe and time-dependent, such as in the use of modified atmosphere

packaging that prolongs the life of meat and vegetables. It also facilitates clean drinking water
supplies (Mullan, 2002). The application of plastics has reached the automotive and toy/furniture

industry. Usage of plastic in this industry lowers the unit cost and improves the performance

specifications as a substitute for materials such as paper, metals, wood and glass (Mutha et al.

2006). Clothing and footwear rely heavily in using plastics. Apparel manufacturer converts 40

million tons of plastics into textile fiber, mainly nylon, polyester and acrylics. (Andrady et al,

2009).

However, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) reported that 300 million

tons of plastic waste is produced every year and half of all plastic produced is designed to be used

only once and thrown away. Single-use plastic products include plastic water bottles made with

polythylene terephthalate (PET); harder plastic bottles used for shampoo or milk made with high-

density polyethylene (HDPE); grocery bags and food packaging made with low-density

polyethylene (LDPE); and plastic cutlery made with polystyrene (PS) among others. As of

September 23, 2017, Philippine Daily Inquirer reported the Philippines as the third worst plastic

polluters of the ocean. According to Jambeck (2015), the Philippines produces 6875.84 tons per

day and 1.88 million metric tons per year of plastic waste. Alessi et. al (2018) reported that marine

animals had been mistaken plastic as their food due to the algae and bacteria that colonize it with

an intense smell of sulfur. Seabirds associate this smell with food, so fall into “olfactory traps” that

lead them to eat plastics instead of their prey. Plastic particles also present a threat to creatures on

land and may have damaging effects similar or even more problematic than in our oceans. The

impact of plastics in soils, sediments and the freshwaters could have a long-term negative effect

on terrestrial ecosystems throughout the world. Disposal of plastic waste in nature is taken into

account as a huge problem. Plastic has very low biodegradability and takes up to 450 years to

decompose in landfills. Given the wide range use of plastics, it is impossible to eliminate them in
our daily life. Therefore, it is necessary to utilize plastic wastes in other fields in order to inhibit

the negative effects of plastic disposing.

On the other hand, concrete is the most widely used construction material. In fact,

according to World Business Council for Sustainable Development, the most widely used man-

made material in the world with a global annual production of up to 20 billion tons is concrete.

Cement production and the concrete industry where it is ultimately applied and consumed are

important and dynamic sectors of the world economy and in every country (Potgieter, 2012).

Modern life without cement is impossible to conceive as this inorganic binder acts as the glue for

concrete to construct modern infrastructure such as buildings, roads, dams and bridges possible.

The large annual production of concrete consequently leads to an equally large

consumption of component materials annually around 15 billion tons of aggregates and 4.2 billion

tons of cement (US Geological Survey, 2015). Cement industry also faces many challenges due to

environmental concerns and sustainability issues. It is fundamentally an energy intensive operation

and not at all environmentally friendly by nature (Rodrigues & Joekes, 2010). A research by

Marinković, Radonjanin, Malešev, and Ignjatovićne assessed that the large CO2 emissions from

cement production is greatest environmental problem posed by the industry. On average,

approximately 700-900 g of CO2 is released per kg of cement and this amounts to 5–7% of all

anthropogenic CO2 emissions. On the other hand, in 2014 UNEP warned about a growing

worldwide scarcity of sand and gravel as building materials. This industry is facing problem due

to unavailability of construction material of cement, sand and coarse aggregate. Sand and gravel

account for up to 85% of everything mined globally each year. The UNEP also discovered that

extraction causes major local ecological, geological and hydrological damage. The resulting

biodiversity loss in turn impacts on fisheries and food chains. Damage to river basins, coasts and
water tables endangers drinking water supplies and environmental safety, and the carbon footprint

of transporting these aggregates over increasingly long distances is considerable. In addition, Dixit,

Fernandez-Solis, Lavy, and Culp (2010) found out that construction industry is responsible for one

of the largest impacts of all human activities: 40% of raw stone, gravel and sand consumption,

25% of virgin wood, 40% of total energy and 16% of annual water consumption. Given that

plastics are posing negative impact to the environment, utilization of these wastes in other fields

is useful to inhibit the negative impact of plastic. Also, usage of waste and by-product materials

substitutes in concrete components is one of the ways to effectively reduce the undesirable

environmental impact of the concrete industry. Logachandran and Kalaivani (2017) reviewed

different forms of plastic waste used in the production of concrete and the replacement of concrete

ingredients with suitable plastic waste in their research. They concluded that recycled plastic waste

can be successfully used as partial replacement of fine aggregate in concrete to increase the

compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength and has excellent crack resistance

property. The use of recycled plastics made an eco-friendly way of disposing the plastic waste.

Hence the reuse of recycled plastic waste in concrete helps to reduce environmental impacts and

best choice of strengthening of building. In addition, Kamaruddin, Abdullah, Zawawi and Zainol

(2017) presented a critical review of the recent published reports on the for plastic waste based

materials for aggregate replacement in concrete mix. Studies reported in recent years on these

materials indicate that the use of recycled plastic aggregates and fibers as partial aggregate

replacement is gaining significant interests from many researchers. The findings of the review also

showed that the use of these materials can improve concrete properties under appropriate mix

composition. It is projected that approximately 30% of total waste disposed from solid waste could

be reduced if optimum solution of plastic waste can be realized. Although no studies have yet to
forecast the service life of concrete structures containing plastic waste materials, it could be

inferred that these materials could be preserved inside concrete structures for ages by utilizing this

waste as partial aggregate replacement. Utilization of plastic waste in concrete can meaningfully

contribute toward a more sustainable and holistic construction industry.

A solution to the occurring problem in the production of concrete and the disposal of plastic

waste is the reinforcement of plastic waste, particularly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high

density polyethylene (HDPE), to concrete production. It contributes in modifying the physical and

engineering properties of construction materials such as asphalt and building concrete. (Sulyman

et al., 2016) Industry of construction engineering area with its high consumption capacity seems

to be the most appropriate industry to reuse the PET waste. The utilization of aggregate based on

PET waste in concrete will provide an eco-friendly outlet towards the recycling of waste plastics

and, further, will release the mining burden for natural aggregate. Inclusion of plastic waste in

concrete affects its various properties. Using of shredded waste PET bottles directly as aggregate

in the concrete or mortar production is considered the most economical use of waste PET bottles

in concrete, thus, provide benefits in waste disposal and reduce pollution of environment since

natural mineral aggregates resources remain unused. HDPE is also an attractive material for

scientific and technological studies because it is a low cost plastic having good properties and

versatility. Studies have been conducted to investigate various aspects in weathering behavior of

HDPE as a material with potential application in outdoor exposure. Temperature, humidity,

chemical exposure, radiation, and biological agents are the environmental parameters that

significantly influence the strength of a polymer through intervening structural changes (Bal, 2007)

The addition of fibers to concrete would act as crack inhibitors and substantially improve

the tensile strength, cracking resistance, impact strength, wear and tear, fatigue resistance and
ductility of the modified concrete. Fibers stimulates the bridging between cracks in the matrix and

thus provide resistance to crack propagation and crack opening before being pulled out or stressed

to rupture. After extensive studies it is widely reported that such fiber reinforcement can

significantly improve the tensile properties of concrete. Other benefits of fiber reinforce concretes

(FRC) include improved fatigue strength, wear resistance, and durability. Using FRC instead of

conventional concrete, section thickness can be reduced, and cracking can be effectively

controlled, resulting in lighter structures with longer life expectancy. (Selman, 2016) It has been

reported that concrete reinforced with short plastic fibers drastically improves the performance of

concrete and eliminates its disadvantages, such as low tensile strength, low ductility, and low

energy absorption capacity (Lopez et al., 2014). Given these wide range of researches, small

attention has been given to properties such as thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, and

permeability of plastic waste concrete. Little research has been done to compare the effects of

PET plastic and HDPE plastic on the properties of concrete. This study has investigated the effect

of HDPE and PET individually and as a mixture to the property of concrete.

1.2 Objective of the Study

This research aims to produce a concrete with plastic reinforcements. Specifically, this

study has the following objectives:

1.2.1 Determine the effect of the produced concrete in terms of:

1.2.1.1 Oven Curing Temperature with values

1.2.1.1.1 40°C

1.2.1.1.2 60°C
 1.2.1.1.3 80°C0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, and 100:0

1.2.1.2 wt% ratio of

1.2.1.2.1 0:100 %

1.2.1.2.2 25:75 %

1.2.1.2.3 50:50 %

1.2.1.2.4 75:25 %

1.2.1.2.5 100:0 %

1.2.2 Evaluate the concrete produced in terms of:

1.2.2.1 Compressive Strength

1.2.2.2 Hardness

1.2.2.3 Tensile Strength

1.2.2.4 Flexural Strength

1.2.2.5 Thermal Properties

1.2.2.5.1 Furnace Temperature

1.2.2.5.1.1 500°C

1.2.2.5.1.2 1000°C

1.2.2.5.1.3 1500°C

1.2.3 Evaluate the concrete in terms of:

 1.2.3.1 Sulfuric Acid Resistance

1.2.3.1.1 2% concentration of acid solution

1.2.3.2 Hydrochloric Acid

1.2.3.2.1 2% concentration of acid solution

1.3 Significance of the Study

This study aims to produce concrete with HPDE and PET reinforcements as a

cheaper and safer alternative for traditional concrete. results of this study will be

beneficial to the following:

1.3.1 Industry

This research may be significant in developing a solution to revise the traditional

method of concrete production to be able to cope up in the changing demands of the

construction industry. This research also aims to produce concrete that has enhanced

mechanical properties.

1.3.2 Environment

This research provides innovative means of using HDPE and PET which are

detrimental to the environment

1.3.3 Future Researchers

This research may serve as an aid for the future researchers who would conduct

comprehensive research regarding concrete production or plastic recycling. The data,

results and graph can be used as their basis for testing new methods or parameters.
1.4 Theoretical Framework

Figure 1.1 shows the theoretical framework of this research. The researchers followed

a step-by-step process as shown in the figure. The input contains the raw materials needed

to produce cement with HDPE and PET plastic reinforcements. The process consists of the

proper procedures followed from shredding the plastic wastes to testing the product’s

strength and resistance to acids. Finally, the output shows the final product of this research.

Input Process Output

Shredding and Sieving of Ideal Concrete with
Waste HDPE HDPE and PET Plastic
Waste PET Mixing of Concrete Reinforcements
Portland Cement components with varying
•Water wt % ratio.
Curing under different
temperature.
Testing in terms of:
Compressive Strength
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Flexural Strength
Thermal Properties
Sulfuric Acid Resistance
Hydrochloric Acid
Resistance

Figure 1.1 Theoretical Framework

1.5 Scope and Delimitations

This research will focus on the production of concrete with HDPE and PET

reinforcements. HDPE and PET will be used as the raw materials as well as Portland

Cement. The study will be focusing on the variation of weight percent of the HDPE and
 PET, the curing temperature and size variation on how it affects the hardness of the

concrete, compression resistance and impact resistance. Also, the study will not exceed in

discussing on the produced materials’ other uses and economic value.

1.6 Definition of Terms

Aggregate. A category of course to medium grained materials containing sand, gravel,

crushed, stone, slag, and etc.

Compressive Strength. The resistance of material to breakage under compression.

Curing. The use of heat to harden a polymer.

Flexural Strength. The resistance of material to bending.

Hardness. The resistance of the material to plastic deformation upon applying stress.

Mechanical Properties. Properties of material such as hardness, ductility, strength, impact

resistance, etc.

Tensile Strength. The resistance of material to breakage under tension

 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents an overview of previous literature and studies on the use of plastic waste

as a concrete or cement reinforcements.

2.1 Plastics and Its Uses

Plastics have played an omnipresent role in our lives. Since 1600 BC, humans have already

benefited from the use of polymers. From then, plastic has been increasingly applied to the needs

of the people until the nineteenth century when the development of modern thermoplastics began

(Hosler et al. 1999). The five main commodity plastics are polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinyl

chloride, polystyrene and polyethylene terephthalate. Polyethylene terephthalate and polyethylene

are the most easily recycled plastics (Kavitha et al., 2014). Plastics can be found in most of the

materials that people use, it contributes an important part to the range of materials used in modern

society. An important application of plastic is its beneficial use in public health. It is used in

medical devices such as surgical equipment, aseptic medical packaging, drips and blister packs for

pills. It also supplies food packaging that reduces food wastage making it safe and time-dependent,

such as in the use of modified atmosphere packaging that prolongs the life of meat and vegetables.

It also facilitates clean drinking water supplies (Mullan, 2002). The application of plastics has

reached the automotive and toy/furniture industry. Usage of plastic in this industry lowers the unit

cost and improves the performance specifications as a substitute for materials such as paper,

metals, wood and glass (Mutha et al. 2006). Clothing and footwear relies heavily in using plastics.

Apparel manufacturer converts 40 million tones of plastics into textile fibre, mainly nylon,

polyester and acrylics. (Andrady et al, 2009).

2.1.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

According to Escalante, Soberon, Sanchez, Higuera, Rea, Beltran and Covarrubias

(2015) in A Research entitled “Synthesis and Characterization of PET polymer resin for

your application in concrete”, PET is a polymer derived from a combination of two

monomers: dimethyl terephthalate elements such as carbon (C), oxygen (O) and hydrogen

(H); and which was patented for the purpose of manufacture of fibers. Escalante also stated

that The Society of the Plastics Industry, identifies with the logo of the three arrows in the

center and the number one (100% recyclable) or the acronym PET in the bottom of

containers made of this material.

Polyethylene Terephthalate has many significant uses yet generates at the end of

their use. It can contaminate nature and its degradation process in said to be between 100

and 1000 years therefore, it is important to provide a solution in forming other uses of this

material.

Sulyman, Haponiuk and Formela (2016) defined PET as a transparent polymer with

good mechanical properties and dimensional stability under variable load. PET has good

gas barrier properties and good chemical resistance.

2.1.1.1 Sources of Polyethylene Terephthalate

Many research papers stated that there is a big problem arising when it

comes to the disposal of plastic waste. Most of these Plastics were known as High

Density Polyethylene and Polyetylene Terephthalate. Researchers are seeking

solutions on how to improve the end life of Plastics.

 Sulyman, Haponiuk and Formela (2016) Categorized and identified the

different sources of waste PET into three: a) Bottles - small problems with material

recycling; problems related with impurities (e.g. glue on labels), different types

additives used during production (e.g. stabilizers, pigments) b) Foils - small

problems with material recycling; problems related with additives used during

production (e.g. stabilizers, pigments) c) Cord from tires - huge problem with

material recycling. Currently, this fraction of waste PET is used as alternative fuel.

Waste tire cord can be significant and cheap source of valuable poly(ethylene

terephthalate). The main problem during material recycling of waste tire cord are

contaminations of ground tire rubber and metals.

2.1.1.2 Utilization of PET in Asphalt Pavement

According to Escalante, Soberon, Sanchez, Higuera, Rea, Beltran and

Covarrubias (2015), Chemical recycling is a suitable method for conversion into a

material with potential application in concrete additive. Concrete may improve

their properties by modifying waste PET. It is therefore necessary to establish the

process that allows such application, this requires the study of thermal sequencing

chemistry that enables generating said additive to enhance the industrial application

in the construction and in the use of concrete.

A research entitled “Utilization of Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate

(PET) in Engineering Materials: A Review” by Sulyman, Haponiuk, Formela

(2016) discussed PET as a contributor in modifying the physical and engineering

properties of construction materials such as asphalt and building concrete. Asphalt

has been used as the binder aggregates in road pavement construction. However,
asphalt mixture or coating layer shows severe temperature susceptibility such as

high temperature rutting, medium temperature fatigue and low temperature

cracking damage. By modifying asphalt with the addition of polymers its quality

can significantly improve, especially its rheological properties. Improvements in

rutting resistance, thermal cracking, fatigue damage, stripping, and temperature

susceptibility is also accomplished by substituting PET for asphalt pavements. This

is used when extra performance and durability are desired; it is also used to reduce

the life cycle costs of PET. Polymer modified binders also show improved adhesion

and cohesion properties.

Sulyman, Haponiuk, and Formela (2016) also enumerated The main reasons

to modify asphalts with plastics: 1) obtaining softer blends at low service

temperatures and reducing cracking, 2) obtaining stiffer blends at high temperatures

and reducing rutting, 3) reducing viscosity, 4) increasing the stability and the

strength of mixtures, 5) improving the abrasion resistance and fatigue resistance of

blends, and oxidation and aging resistance, 6) reducing structural thickness and life

costs of pavements. Increasing mixture resistance to fatigue cracking, thermal

cracking and permanent deformation to polymers can successfully improve the

performance of asphalt pavements at almost all temperatures. PET has been found

to be the most effective polymer additives due to its low glass transition temperature

and semicrystallinity.

Esmaeil (2012) did an experimental research on the application of waste

plastic bottles PET as additive has been done in asphalt mixture. The project

consisted of 80/100 penetration grade bitumen, crushed granite, Portland cement

and the waste PET. The percentage of the added PET in this research was from 0

to 10% by weight of bitumen. The result shows that the stiffness modulus of PET

modified asphalts was higher than unmodified asphalt as high as 16% by using 6%

PET. The wheel tracking test results illustrate that the PET modified asphalt has

much higher rutting or permanent deformation resistance compare to unmodified

asphalt. The lowest rut depth occurred at 4% PET modified asphalt which reduced

the rut depth by 29% compared to the unmodified asphalt. The appreciate amount

of PET was evaluated to be from 4% to 6% by weight of optimum bitumen content.

Rahman and Omardin (2016) experimented about the “Characterisation of

recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate as Partial Fine Aggregate Replacement

Properties and Behavior of Asphalt Mixtures for Road Pavements” wherein

resulted the optimum bitumen content for PET modified asphalt mixture to 5.5%

of weight of asphalt mixture and the maximum stiffness modulus is 3300MPa at

unmodified asphalt mixture. All PET modified asphalt mixture resist to rutting at

1800 cycle especially 20% PET modified asphalt mixture. In addition, 5% and 15%

PET modified asphalt mixture are resist to fatigue as the strain at 1800 cycle are

lower than unmodified asphalt mixture. In conclusion, the 5.5% bitumen content

and additional 5% replacement aggregate of recycled PET plastic on asphalt

mixture would enhance all engineering properties asphalt mixture for road

pavement.

2.1.1.3 Utilization of Waste PET in Concrete

The addition of fibers to concrete would act as crack inhibitors and

substantially improve the tensile strength, cracking resistance, impact strength,

wear and tear, fatigue resistance and ductility of the modified concrete. In the

beginning fiber reinforced concrete was primarily used for pavements and

industrial floors. Currently, the fiber reinforced cement composite is being used for

wide variety of applications including bridges, tunnels, canal linings, hydraulic

structures, pipes, explosion resistance structures, safety valves, cladding and rolled

compacted concrete. Fibers stimulates the bridging between cracks in the matrix

and thus provide resistance to crack propagation and crack opening before being

pulled out or stressed to rupture. After extensive studies it is widely reported that

such fiber reinforcement can significantly improve the tensile properties of

concrete. Other benefits of FRC include improved fatigue strength, wear resistance,

and durability. Using FRC instead of conventional concrete, section thickness can

be reduced and cracking can be effectively controlled, resulting in lighter structures

with longer life expectancy. (Selman, 2016)

Silva et al. in 2005 and Ochi et al. in 2007 propose the use of waste PET

bottles in the form of PET fibers to produce a lower-in-cost fiber reinforced

concrete. The disadvantage of such method is the small volumetric amount of fiber

content in the fiber reinforced concrete which is between (0.3 - 1.5)%. In this way,

only small of such waste may be utilized. Using of shredded waste PET bottles

directly as aggregate in the concrete or mortar production is considered the most

economical use of waste PET bottles in concrete, thus, provide benefits in waste

disposal and reduce pollution of environment since natural mineral aggregates

resources remain unused.

 Industry of construction engineering area with its high consumption

capacity seems to be the most appropriate industry to reuse the PET waste. The

utilization of aggregate based on PET waste in concrete will provide an eco-friendly

outlet towards the recycling of waste plastics and, further, will release the mining

burden for natural aggregate. Inclusion of plastic waste in concrete affects its

various properties. Workability of concrete with plastic waste decreases gradually

with increasing plastic waste percentage. This observation was also confirmed by

Kumar et al. who used plastic bags in fiber form to replace cement in concrete.

However, Ghernouti et al. reported increase in workability when utilizing recycled

plastic bag waste (PBW) material as fine aggregate in concrete.

Slow degradation in the natural environment may be an undesired property

of this waste material from environmental view point, but it may appear to be

valuable property as construction material. Inclusion of polymer waste in concrete

can be a proper utilization of this valuable property. Thus, utilization of waste

polymer material in making concrete/mortar can be good solution to this

environmental hazard. Several investigations have been carried out on the use of

recycled waste polymer materials in concrete. Rebeiz et al. investigated on the

structural behaviors of polymer concrete beam using recycled plastic. AlManaseer

and Dalal studied the effect of plastic aggregates on the bulk density and

compressive strength of concrete. Soroushian et al. also reported the effect of

plastic aggregates on compressive strength, Elzafraney et al. studied on energy-

efficiency of buildings using recycled plastic aggregates in concrete. Kumar and

Prakash characterized waste plastics and optimized modifier content (waste

plastic). Ruzaidi et al. prepared light weight concrete replacing conventional

aggregate made of crushed stone with polystyrene waste aggregate. Batayneh et al.

recommended recycled waste plastic materials modified concrete in certain civil

engineering applications, Kumar et al. reported the effect of waste plastics on

mechanical strength. Siddique et al. investigated on the effect of recycled plastic on

the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Most of the articles found in the

literature deal with recycling of HDPE, low density polyethylene (LDPE),

Polypropylene (PP). These materials have been recycled and used as aggregates

partially replacing conventional aggregates in the preparation of concrete and poly

blocks, and the effect of waste polymer materials on the mechanical and physical

properties of concrete/poly blocks have been investigated in this study. (Salam,

2012)

2.1.1.4 Influence of PET in Concrete Strength

A research study entitled “ Influence of Continuous Plastic Reinforcement

arreangement in Concrete Strengthened” by Lopez, Gonzalez, Dimas, Sillas,

Esparza, Sanchez and Ramirez (2014) Several researches have been oriented in

using recycled products in the concrete mix. Waste plastics materials have been

used as components in cement pastes, mortar and concrete (e.g. reinforcing fibers,

fines aggregates, coarse aggregate, lightweight aggregate, and resins). It has been

reported that concrete reinforced with short plastic fibers drastically improves the

performance of concrete and eliminates its disadvantages, such as low tensile

strength, low ductility, and low energy absorption capacity. This new composite

materials must be subjected to mechanical tests before their practical application in

the construction industry. Bottles of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) have been

replacing glass bottles as storage containers because of their easy handling, storage

and lightweight. As time passes, the PET bottle production and disposal has

increased exponentially. Yesilata et al. reported that the addition of a mixture of

crushed PET bottles and tires in the concrete improves the thermal performance.

Ochi et al. described a method that can be used to produce reinforcing PET fibers

from waste PET bottles; the fibers were mixed with concrete in several ratios

obtaining an increase in the flexural strength and toughness. Kim et al. compared

the performance capacity of a recycled PET fiber-reinforced concrete (RPETFRC)

with the one of a polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete, finding a decrease in

compressive strength and elastic modulus, but an increase in ductility and ultimate

strength as the fiber fraction increased. Dora reported that the mechanical properties

of concrete can be improved by adding low concentrations of waste PET fibers.

Fraternali et al. performed a study of thermal conductivity, compressive strength,

first crack strength and ductility indices of RPETFRC; noticeable improvements

compared to unreinforced concrete in thermal resistance, mechanical strength and

ductility were found. Pereira de Oliveira et al. investigated the utilization of

recycled PET bottle fiber as reinforcing fibers on cement-lime mortar samples; it

was concluded that the incorporation of PET fibers significantly improves the

flexural strength and toughness. After a precise literature review, it could be seen

that reports of recycle PET fibers used as reinforcement in concrete are only in the

state of short dispersed fibers, having a similar effect to aggregates.

 Batayneh et al. studied the effect of ground plastic on the workability of

concrete. Concrete mixes of up to 20% of plastic particles was used to replace the

fine aggregates. The decrease in the slump with the increase in the plastic particle

content is reported. The slump value at 20% plastic particle content was 58 mm;

this value can be considered acceptable. Soroushian et al. has reported reduction in

slump of concrete with the use of recycled plastic in concrete composite. Ismail and

Hashmi have found that the slump of concrete decreases sharply with increasing

the waste plastic content in concrete. Al-Manaseer and Dalal studied the effect of

plastic aggregates on the density of concrete. The bulk density of concrete was

decreased with the increase in plastic aggregates content. This reduction in density

was attributed to the lower unit weight of the concrete. Marzouk invented the use

of consumed plastic bottle waste as sand substitution within cement composite. The

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles were used as partial and complete

substitutes for sand in concrete composites. The volume fractions of sand varying

from 2% to 100% were replaced by the same volume of granulated plastic, and

various sizes of PET aggregates. They concluded that substituting sand at a level

below 50% by volume with granulated PET, whose upper granular limit equals 5

mm, affected the compressive strength of composites and plastic bottles shredded

into small PET particles may be used successfully as sand-substitution aggregates

in concrete. Miyazaki Kuniyuki et. al. has reported that fibers made of recycled

polyethelene teraphthalate (PET) were appropriate to concrete reinforcement. The

mixing ability of PET fibers was excellent. Dora Foti experimented on possibility

of using polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers to increase the ductility of the

 concrete. The fibers were obtained by simply cutting from waste plastic bottles.

The improvement in ductility of the concrete was reported. R. N. Nibudey et al.

optimized the benefits of using post consumed waste PET bottles in the fiber form

in concrete. Al-Hadithi and Hilal carried out an experimental study using waste

plastic fibers in self compacting concrete and reported higher compressive strength

on increasing the amount of waste plastic. The different They concluded that PET

is a promising material as reinforcement of concrete.

2.1.2 High Density Polyethylene

A research about “Effect of Changing Environments on Microstructure of HDPE

Polymer” stated that having low cost, good properties and versatility makes High Density

Polyethylene (HDPE) an attractive material for scientific and technological studies.

Many studies have been conducted to investigate various aspects of HDPE’s

weathering behavior as a material with potential application in outdoor exposure.

Environmental parameters acting on a polymer such as temperature, humidity, chemical

exposure, radiation, biological agents, and their combinations significantly influence the

strength of a polymer through intervening structural changes. The effect of temperature on

the stiffness of polymers is probably most important with regard to the design and use of

polymers for load bearing engineering applications. (Bal, 2007)

(Sultar, Sahoo, Sahu, Murmu, Swain, Mishra, 2018) conducted a study about the

Mechanical, Thermal, and Crystallization properties of Polypropylene reinforced

composites with High Density Polyethylne and stated that HDPE has a large strength to

density ratio due to its little branching. Jia-Horny Lin et al. has reinforced HDPE to PP
matrix and verified the non-compatibility of both polymers but improves the impact

strength of PP. Souza et al found the effect of processing temperature and content of HDPE

on interfacial tension of the PP/HDPE polyblend. The compatibility of PP/HDPE

polyblends depends on factors like processing temperature, polymer structure and blending

ratio. It concluded that the Polymers with similar physical properties form polyblends with

greater mechanical strength. The dispersion of PP in HDPE improves tensile and flexural

strengths. The results show that a 50 wt% PP increases the tensile strength of the composite

by 29% and is maximum among the polymer blends. The magnitude of the flexural strength

for all the polyblends are close to 23 MPa and improved by 44%. Stability and durability

also contribute a big role in the widespread applications of polymers and plastics.

Polyethylene Terephthalate and Polyethylene are the most easily recycled plastics.

(Kavitha et al., 2014). The most widely used types of polythene are the low density

polyethelene (LDPE) and high density polyethelene (HDPE). LDPE resins are

thermoplastics made from ethylene with the repeating unit (–CH2–CH2–)n. They are stiff

plastics but lack hardness and brittleness and have a somewhat waxy feel. It is produced in

low pressure reactors. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) are polyethelene with densities

from 0.941 g/cm3 to 0.965 g/cm3. (Gabriel, 2009)

2.1.3 Plastic as a replacement for sand in concrete

AlManaseer and Dalal, take initiative regarding the experimentation of possible

outcome of using a plastic aggregate as replacement on concrete compressive strength.

This two researchers analyzed the probable result of an increasing percentage of angular

waste plastic particles on cylinder strength for three different water to binder ratios. It was

discovered that compressive strength was declining with a gain in plastic aggregate content,
with this reduction in strength, results to poor connection within the plastic and cement

paste. The plastic was capable to get off, rather than to split in tension, during compressive

testing of the concrete. (According to Saikia and de Brito) who proved concrete mixes

containing three different sized and shaped particles: 1) large (10–20 mm length) particles;

2) shredded flaky fine particles (2–5 mm length); and 3) cylindrical pellet shaped particles

(3 mm length). It was tested one by one by a series replacement ratio, between 0% to 15%

of the sand. It was found that the greater amount of replacement ratio lessens the concrete’s

compressive strength, which leads to inadequacy interaction between the PET aggregate

and cement paste. With this investigation bring to an end that the interfacial transition zone

in concrete containing PET aggregate is weaker than that of standard concrete. (According

to Albano et al.) who take hold to use the imbalance shaped PET particles between 2.6 mm

and 11.4 mm in replacement quantities of 10% and 20% with two different w/c ratios (0.50

and 0.60). Based on the research it was said that as compressive strength lessen with a rise

in the proportion of plastic, denotes that plastic particles turn out to have a low quality

within the internal structure of the concrete.

The combination design that is consist of only larger plastic particles was

considered to be poor that to a combination that contains lower PET particles.(According

to Frigione) who used granulated PET that was graded very similarly to the siliceous sand

that was to be replaced in the mix. Hence it was discovered that instead of the compressive

strength of the combination lessen, the decrease was lower than 2% when a substitute ratio

of 5% was used. This is an advantage when measured to the 12% loss seen by Saikia and

de Brito when 5% sand was substituted with larger plastic pellets. This designate that

although the use of plastic may cause a loss in compressive strength because of a weaker
bond to the environment matrix when correlated to sand, the loss can be constrained by

proper mixing design and choice of plastic. Also (According to Ismail and Al-Hashm) who

did the experimentation of concrete with the blending of PET and polystyrene as sand

replacement. Successive decrement in compressive strength were associate to a subsidence

in adhesive toughness between the surface of the waste plastic and the cement paste as

plastic is a hydrophobic material. For this reason, the flow of the water appropriate for

cement hydration is blocked, leaving isolated volumes of unhydrated cement within the

bulk volume. (Albano et al.) prove that the two larger particles, and higher replacement

percentages, which explains significant degradation in tensile strength due to a

development in voids present within the concrete. This is sustained by Frigione, where 5%

replacement by volume of sand using granulated PET led to only a 2% loss in tensile

strength. (Saikia and de Brito) discovered that as with compressive strength, there was a

decrease of tensile ability when plastic aggregate was popularized into the concrete, and

the more plastic added, the bigger amount of reduction. The reduction of tensile strength

was associated to the characteristics of the plastic, primarily its smooth surface, but also

the presence of free water at the plastic surface causing a weak bond with surrounding

cement paste. According to studies microscopically the greatest failure was debonding at

the plastic-concrete interface. It was Ferreira et al. who presented that the greatest effect

on the performance was not curing conditions but percentage replacement. It was Safi et al

who presented the use of waste plastic bags in the production of self compacting mortar

mixes. According to records at 30% replacement, average strength devaluation of 15% was

recorded at 28 days. It was the poor bond between plastic and surrounding cement paste,

are the major cause of devaluation in strength. It was Choi et al. uses mortar mixes to
 substitute for all the large fragments, thus resulting in the reduction in strength of 42% at

28 days. The new round shape of the PET particles was the basis of the major changes in

utility of the materials replaced. (Hassani et al.) replaced up to 20% of coarse aggregate by

volume with PET granules in concrete-asphalt mixes with moderate impact on the material

resistance to deformation and creep. (Batayneh et al.) propose the combined use of ground

glass and plastic as replacement materials, and show moderate reductions in strength of up

to 13% in a 20% aggregate replacement mix. (Thorneycroft, 2018)

2.1.4 Polymer blends based on HDPE and PET

(Chen, Ghani, Salleh, Ahmad, Gan, 2014) conducted a research entitled “Influence of

Blend Composition and Compatibilizer on Mechanical and Morphological Properties of

Recycled HDPE/PET Blends” This study investigated the effects of PET and compatibilizer

content on the mechanical properties and morphological stability of HDPE-rich blends. It

showed an enhancement in HDPE/PET (75/25 wt/wt) blend compatibilized with 5 php (per

100 part of polymer) E-GMA of about 7% - 26% in tensile properties and flexural strength as

compared with those of the neat HDPE. The strain at break showed a decreasing trend as the

PET content increased. The addition of E-GMA to the HDPE/PET blends was found to recover

the blend toughness as well as improving the compatibility between HDPE and PET.

2.2 Properties of Plastic as a Possible Concrete Reinforcements

Several studies have been conducted to review recent published reports on the plastic

waste-based materials used in concrete mix. Many studies in recent years on these materials

indicate that the use of recycled plastic aggregates and fibers as partial replacement is gaining
significant interest from many researchers with the main motivation of finding alternative

destination of the plastic wastes rather than direct disposal at the landfill.

A research paper entitled “Potential use of Plastic Waste as Construction Materials: Recent

Progress and Future Prospect” by Kamaruddin, Abdullah, Zawawi and Zainol (2017) showed that

the use of these materials can improve concrete properties under appropriate mix composition. It

is estimated that about 30% of total waste disposed from solid waste could be reduced if optimum

solution of plastic waste can be realized. By utilizing this waste as partial aggregate replacement,

it could be inferred that these materials could be preserved inside concrete structures for ages.

Although no studies have yet to forecast the service life of concrete structures containing plastic

waste materials, the use of plastic waste in concrete can contribute meaningfully toward a more

sustainable and holistic construction industry. In addition, Logachandran and Kalaivani (2017)

concluded on their feasibility study on plastic wastes in concrete that recycled plastic waste can be

successfully used as partial replacement of fine aggregate in concrete to increase the compressive

strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength and has excellent crack resistance property.

The use of recycled plastics made an eco-friendly way of disposing the plastic waste. Hence, the

reuse of recycled plastic waste in concrete helps to reduce environmental impacts and best choice

of strengthening of building. However, a critical review of the 84 published reports on the topic

by Gu and Ozbakkaloglu (2016) concluded that the use of recycled plastic fibers in concrete can

lead to improved concrete properties; whereas the use recycled plastic aggregates in concrete

would not result in such an improvement. The reports were reviewed and classified into

subcategories depending on whether they considered concrete containing plastic aggregates (49

studies) and plastic fibers (35 studies). The material properties of plastics and the influence of

plastic materials on the properties of concrete were discussed in detail. The findings of their review
indicate that the use of recycled plastic materials in concrete can contribute significantly toward a

more sustainable construction industry.

The use of recycled plastic materials in conventional cement mortar and concrete has been

researched extensively. In the past, plastics were used in concrete mainly in two forms: (i) plastic

aggregates (PA), which replaced natural aggregates and (ii) plastic fibers (PF), which were used

in fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC). Then properties of fresh and hardened concrete incorporating

plastic materials were investigated in several previous studies. Most research shows that the

addition of plastic affects the workability, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, split tensile

strength, thermal conductivity and slightly enhances the abrasion and flexural strength. Wide

variety of studies were reviewed for each of the following property.

2.2.1 Workability

Workabilty is the property of freshly mixed concrete which determines the ease and

homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished. The controlled

concrete can be workable as per the set requirements, but the addition of other mineral

mixture and waste material affects the workability of concrete. The addition of waste

plastics affects the amount of free water available in concrete and, consequently, the

workability of the concrete.

The PET particles have more specific surface area as compared with the natural

sand due to their mercenary shape. Hence, there would be more friction between the

particles leading to less workability in the mixtures (Rahmani et al., 2013). Malagaveli

(2011) reported that the workability of the matrix improved when up to 2% of HDPE fiber

was added and began to decrease when more than 2% was added. Malagaveli (2011)
reported that the workability of the matrix improved when up to 2% of HDPE fiber was

added and began to decrease when more than 2% was added.

2.2.2 Density

On a study by Islam et al. (2016) densities of the samples were measured at dry

condition justbefore the compressive strength test and. The test data indicates a gradual

reduction in density of PET aggregate concrete (PAC) compared to natural aggregate

concrete (NAC) and the variation ranges between 4% and 10%. As the water cement ratio

increases, the density for PAC decreased while the density of NAC remained almost the

same. This can be contributed to the low unit weight of PCA compared to regular coarse

aggregate (brick chips). The density reduction rate of cylinder is higher for 50% PAC with

0.57 water-cement ratio.

The increase in the HDPE content by 15, 30, 45 and 60% resulted in a decrease in

the apparent density by 5, 12, 19, and 25%, respectively, with respect to the control mortar.

The apparent density of normal composite mortar was higher than that of the other

lightweight composite mortars which contained HDPE. This reduction was accentuated by

the presence of the HDPE sand whose apparent density is equal to 0.362 g/cm3. Thus, the

grain size distribution of the medium sized particles of HDPE sand and that of natural sand,

contributed to the increase of the volume of pores

2.2.3 Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is the most important property on which the categorization

of concrete depends. Before using concrete, it is important to know the compressive

strength of the original and treated concrete when any other material is used to replace the

concrete ingredients.

Rahmani et al., (2013) observed that the 5% replacement of fine aggregates with

PET particles yields better results in compression. On 5% replacement compressive

strength of concrete increases by 8.86% and 11.97% for a water cement ratio 0.42 and 0.52

respectively. Ramadevi and Manju (2012) also observed that the compressive strength

increased when up to 2% of the fine aggregates were replaced with PET bottle fibers and

gradually decreased when 4% and 6% of the fine aggregates were replaced. The strength

of the concrete with 2% PET bottle fiber increased by 19.23% relative to the control

concrete mixture. Thus, the replacement of 2% of the fine aggregates is reasonable.

Malagaveli (2011) showed that the compressive strength increased at 7 and 28 days

when 3.5% HDPE fiber was added. The compressive strength increased by 7.69% after 28

days of curing when 3.5% HDPE fiber was added. When more than 3.5% was added, the

strength of the concrete began to decrease. Contrary, on the research conducted by Badache

et al. (2018) incorporating 15, 30, 45 and 60% of recycled HDPE sand as aggregate into

mortars results in a decrease in the compressive strength by 2, 6, 13, 16 MPa for the

mortars, respectively, relative to control mortar, at 180 days. However, some researchers

including Malagaveli (2011); Ramadevi and Manju (2012), Pelliser et al. (2012);

Prahallada and Parkash (2013) observed that addition of PET and HDPE fiber in small

amount results in an increase in compressive strength but addition of large amount of

particles reduce the strength. The mechanical property of PET and HDPE are better as

compared to polyethylene fibers which results in improvement in the strength of concrete.

The aspect ratio of fiber also plays the significant role in performance of concrete (Saikia

and Brito, 2014).

2.2.4 Tensile Strength

The split tensile strength of concrete is generally calculated to understand the

behavior of concrete in tension The direct measurement of tensile strength of concrete is

difficult. As, It is almost impossible to apply truly axial load in direct tension. So, behavior

of concrete in tension is studied by doing indirect testing of concrete in tension. The split

tensile test is a good indirect method of finding out the tensile strength of concrete. The

effect of the addition/replacement of various types of plastic with on the split tensile

strength of concrete is discussed.

Rahmani et al. (2013) reported the tensile strength decreases due to the negative

effect of smooth surface texture on the bond strength and increased surface area of PET

particles as compared to sand. (Malagaveli, 2011) conducted an experiment to evaluate the

split tensile strength of concrete at the ages of 7 and 28 days with HDPE fiber contents of

0 to 6%. Overall, the split tensile strength increased by 14% when the fiber content was

3.5% and began to decrease when the HDPE fiber content was increased from 3.5 to 6%.

2.2.5 Flexural Strength

The ability of structural member to resist failure in bending is termed as flexural

strength. The flexural strength of concrete is evaluated by three point loading or four point

loading test. Saikia and Brito (2014) concluded that the flexural strength of concrete

decreases as the amount of PET particles increases. In the study fine aggregates were

replaced with 5% 10% and 15% PET particles were replaced with PET aggregates. On the
other hand, the results of flexural strengths of specimens presented in the research of

Sadrmomtazi et al (2016) indicate the effect of waste PET aggregates in decreasing flexural

strength of waste PET and self-contracting cement mixes. In other words, the reduction in

adhesive strength between waste PET aggregates and cement paste has decreased the

flexural strength of waste PET and self-contracting cement mixes. The flexural strength of

mix, at the age of 28 days, containing silica fume with PET replacement ratio of 5 wt.%

was decreased up to 14.7%. Ramadevi and Manju (2012) concluded that replacing up to

2% of PET fiber with fine aggregates increased the flexural strength of the concrete, which

gradually increased up to 4% and remained constant after 6%. The maximum flexural

(45.77%) was greater relative to the control when 4% PET fiber was used.

Malagaveli (2011) concluded that the maximum flexural strength was obtained

following the addition of HDPE fiber is 3.5% (by volume). In this case, the addition of

HDPE improved the flexural strength of the concrete by 17.47% relative to the control.

The author concluded that a maximum of 2% fiber could be used for strength purposes. In

addition, flexural toughness is one of the key advantageous properties of HPDE fiber

reinforced concrete over the plain concrete according to Pesic et al (2016); as 0.75–1.25%

of added HDPE fibers (by volume) can maintain a constant post-cracking tensile capacity

of concrete at the level of 30–40% of the peak flexural capacity.

2.2.6 Modulus of elasticity

Sadrmomtazi et al. (2016) found out variations of PET content versus modulus of

elasticity for all wastes PET and self-conracting cement mixes are decreases the modulus

of elasticity for the specimens. However, silica fume and fly ash increase the modulus of

elasticity of the mixes.In addtion, Rahmani et al. (2013) determined static modulus of
elasticity for concrete mixtures, when various amount of PET is used in the mixes with

various water-cement ratios. As far as the deformation of concrete is to some extent related

to the aggregates elastic deformation, the eduction in modulus of elasticity can be due to

the small modulus of elasticity of PET particles. Further, the weak joint between the texture

and PET particles can be nominated as another reason for this phenomenon. Therefore, the

fine aggregates replacement with PET would gradually reduce the modulus of elasticity

and this reduction has an approximate linear relationship with the increase of PET particles

content.

The use of HDPE waste in mortars reduces the dynamic modulus of elasticity by

73% compared to the reference mortar. Thus, with HDPE fibers and grains, it is possible

to manufacture cementitious materials that are more flexible and resistant to shocks

(Badache et al., 2018). The modulus of elasticity of HDPE fibres produced from the

recycled sources are lower than those of the engineering grade HDPE but they still

improved a number of serviceability properties of concrete.

2.2.7 Thermal Property

Thermal conductivity measurements were carried out on three specimens for each

plaster by using the guarded hot plate method by Corinadelsi et al. (2015). The

contemporary use of PET as aggregate particles and GFRP powder as filler allowed to

reach extremely low values of thermal conductivity. The values of thermal conductivity

were plotted as a function of plaster density. Only mixture with a thermal conductivity

value comparable to that obtained by using polyurethane foam was the reference mixture

(about 0.35 W m-1 K-1 with a density of about 2 kg/m3) prepared with PET particles but

without pglass fiber reinforced plastic powder. In the other cases, quite lower values of
 thermal conductivity were obtained by using together both PET particles and pulverized

glass fiber reinforced plastic with respect to the values reported in for plasters with plastic

waste.

Badache et al. (2018) illustrated the thermal conductivity of cement mortar at room

temperature and at different ages. The conductivity at young age is high for all the mortars

under study. It is 13, 25, 35 and 47% greater than that of NMC control mortar, after 7 days.

This is probably due to the storage of a significant amount of water in the pores. Beyond

the 90th day, all mortars tend to have a stable conductivity. After 365 days, the replacement

of 15, 30, 45 and 60% of natural sand with HDPE sand tends to reduce the conductivity by

10, 20, 31 and 41%, respectively, relative to the reference mortar. It is also noted that the

conductivity of control mortar is higher than that of the other lightweight composite

mortars. Mortar with 60% HDPE sand has the lowest thermal conductivity, at different

ages, as compared to the other mortars. This can be explained by the low thermal

conductivity of HDPE sand (approximately 0.4 W.m-1 K-1) compared to the conductivity

of conventional sand. As a result, it can be said that using HDPE sand in composite mortars

improves the energy performance of buildings.

Most studies have considered the permeability, carbonation depth, drying shrinkage

and watersorptivity to assess the properties of mortars mixed with plastic fiber. Previously,

little data was provided regarding the above property including frost resistant for assessing

the various properties of plastic fiber reinforced concrete. The durability of plastic

reinforced concrete requires more attention and substantial research.

2.3 Fiber Reinforcement

 Fiber reinforcement contributes to the ability of body to carry a certain amount of load.

This body is surrounded of fibers within its matrix. The fiber acts as the principal-load carrying

members and protects the body form environmental damages due to heat and acidity. At the fiber-

matrix interface, the load is moved from the matrix to the fiber by shear deformation. The transfer

of load occurs because of the different physical properties between the matrix and the fiber (Rivera,

2013).

2.3.1 Different Types of Fibers Used for Concrete Reinforcement

2.3.1.1 Natural Fiber as Fiber Reinforcement

Natural fibers are neither synthetic nor manmade. These can be drawn from

herbs or animals. Natural fibers were said to be low cost fiber reinforcement. It is

also lightweight and a more environmental – friendly substitute to glass fibers. It

also has greater amount on its fiber content which helps in lowering a polluting

content of a base polymer. Since these fibers are lightweight, the composite

enhances its fuel efficiency and lowers emission in the presence of the component’s

phase(Joshi, Drzal, Mohanty, & Arora, 2004).

The composite’s strength has been improved by Fereria et al with the use of

a natural fiber as its fiber reinforcement. A mixture fiber composite was consumed

in this reinforcement. This fiber composite has a propylene hemp layer which is

adjacent to the interface’s bond. The reinforcement done was expected to generate

additional uniform stress in short-term regions. According to the experiment done

by Richardson and Zhang, the use of Eucalyptus urograndis or rose gum pulp as a

reinforcement helped the thermoplastic starch to increase its tensile strength by

100% and it also exhibited a 50% increase on its modulus. Jayaraman and
Bhattacharya stated that with the use of wood fiber, the mechanical performance of

the composite and tensile strength did not change nor showed any difference. A

study by Zulkifli et al. showed that the increased amount of natural fiber in

propylene composites decreases its toughness(Chauhan & Chauhan, 2012).

2.3.1.2 Steel Fiber as Fiber Reinforcement

A high strength composite can be improved by adding steel reinforcement

can increase the mechanical properties of the composite in terms of its compressive

tensile strength, splitting tensile strength, rupture’s modulus and lastly is toughness

index. Marar et al. stated that the compressive strength of a reinforced concrete

increased as the fiber volume increases. Splitting tensile strength and also the

rupture’s modulus also increased when the volume of the fiber increased(Song &

Hwang, 2004).

2.3.1.3 Glass Fiber as Fiber Reinforcement

Glass fiber reinforcement developed the mechanical flexural behavior of the

variable used in an experiment. Eighteen pieces of specimen has been presented to

be tested and observed. A reinforced composite showed a much higher maximum

load compared to the unreinforced composite. The maximum load of the reinforced

composite is six times greater than the unreinforced one. In terms of stiffness, a

slight increase was observed between the two, it still gave a good impact to the

composite(Pazeto, Amaral, Pinheiro, & Paraguassú, 2017).

2.3.1.4 Carbon Fiber as Fiber Reinforcement

 Carbon reinforcement can improve the tensile strength and also the flexural

strength of a composite which was proven by an experiment conducted by Fei et al.

In their experiment titanium dioxide nanorods was used as the experimental

variable. A uniform titanium dioxide rod showed a significant change on its flexural

and tensile strength. Eighty Four percent improvements in terms of tensile strength

were observed and almost seventy four percent was noticed in terms of flexural

strength. The carbon reinforcement also helped the titanium dioxide to decrease by

56% in terms of its wear rate(Fei et al., 2018). According to the experiment

conducted by Wang et al. that the carbon reinforcement to a certain composite tend

to be unsteady because of the low wettability and also the surface of the carbon

fiber is said to be chemically inert. These factors limit the effect of reinforcement

to the composite. Even though these factors decreased the potential of carbon fiber

reinforcement, a remarkable improvement was observed in the graphite oxide

sheets which are reinforced with carbon. The composite’s maximum load had

increased by 75.6%(Wang et al., 2017).

2.3.1.5 Synthetic Fiber as Fiber Reinforcement

Synthetic fibers are widely consumed mostly in double walls, pipelines and

also sleepers. Utilization of this type of reinforcement can help to manipulate and

interrupt the growth of the crack and also enhance the toughness of the concrete.

This type of fiber enhances a brittle concrete to make it tougher materials compared

to the unreinforced concrete. This helps the concrete to have a resistance from

cracks and also improves its malleability. Synthetic fiber is a great substitute to

steel fiber reinforcement since it prevents corrosion. It also protects the concrete
 from the negative reactions such as reactions of alkaline, water that is acidic, and

other micro-organisms. A study of Foti confirmed the improvements of a concrete

due to the addition of the fibers. Foti used polyethylene terephthalate bottles being

the fibers to be used in the reinforcement. Result from Foti’s report showed that the

use of synthetic fiber has a higher tensile strength compared to other types of

reinforcements(Khalid, Irwan, Wan Ibrahim, Othman, & Shahidan, 2018).

According to Juhász et al., fiber length has a great impact on its performance

as reinforcement. It was also said that the longer the fiber, a higher post crack

capacity will be obtained. Ochi et al. stated and confirmed that if the fiber and

concrete has a bigger area of contact with each other gives a higher pull out energy.

It was also confirmed that longer fiber gives greater friction energy. Longer fibers

also have a great effect on the strength of the concrete. According to Irwan et al.,

volume of the fiber is not the principal factor that affects the compressive strength

of the concrete, it was said that length and shape are the main contributors why the

concrete has a higher compressive strength(Khalid et al., 2018).

2.4 Variables to be Considered in Preparing Concrete with HDPE and PET fibers

An experimental research conducted by Saxena, R. et al. (2017) determined the impact

resistance of concrete containing plastic waste as fine aggregate and as coarse aggregate. The

results showed that as the percentage of plastic waste in the concrete increases, the impact

resistance also increases. It was also observed that the number of blows needed for the concrete to

have its initial crack is greater in the plastic used as fine aggregate rather than that used as coarse

aggregates. The resistance to elevated temperature was also tested and it was observed that

introduction of plastic waste as fine or coarse aggregate results in higher loss of residual
compressive strength. The higher porous structure of PET waste concrete led to imbalanced

thermal gradient causing formation of cracks. It was stated that the possible reason was that the

thermal degradation of PET results in splitting of ester links to form vinyl ester and carboxylic

acid-ended oligomers wherein the oligomers further decomposes in the gas phase to form CO,

CO2, C1-C2 hydrocarbons, aliphatic aldehydes and aromatic hydrocarbons, acids, ketones and

esters and this decomposition of PET and formation of these products may have led to greater

extent of voids and thermal stress in concrete. The reaction of vinyl aster groups with benzene

rings forms cross-linked char that causes separation of concrete paste, creating holes or fissures.

Another factor to be considered in preparing concrete is the curing time. According to

Zemajtis, J. (2018), curing plays an important role on strength development and durability of

concrete and the length of adequate curing time is dependent on mixture proportions, specified

strength, size and shape of concrete member, ambient weather conditions and future exposure

conditions. Variation in standard curing of test specimens can dramatically affect measured

concrete properties. In a study conducted by Nooman, M.T. (2016), wherein he investigated the

effect of zeolite on compressive strength, bond strength, tensile strength and microstructure of

concrete, maximum increase in compressive strength, in tensile strength and in bond strength was

observed after 28 days of curing process.

In a research by Foti, D. (2012) wherein recycled waste pet bottles fibers were used for

reinforcement of concrete, specimens containing different percent by weight of PET fibers were

tested and it was observed that for a specimen with 0.50% in weight of fibers, the compressive

strength was measured to be 36.9 N/mm2 and the splitting tensile strength was 3.65 N/mm2. For

another specimen with 0.75% in weight of fibers, compressive strength was 39.27 N/mm2 and

splitting tensile strength was 4.55 N/mm2. In another research by Rahim et al. (2013) wherein they
used HDPE in concrete mixture as aggregate replacement, the compressive strength of concrete

was maintained compared with controlled concrete samples. Despite that, strength noticeably

decreased when the HDPE used was more than 20% by weight. The drop in compressive strength

when HDPE was added was because of the lower bond between the cement paste and HDPE

aggregates and the low strength of plastic.

In a research by Banzen et al. (2015), it was recommended that during sample mixing,

researchers may add the smallest particle size of PET fiber specifically those that will pass for

sieve number 8 for the development of compressive strength and those that will pass sieve number

4, retaining sieve number 8 for flexural strength.

Another important variable that affects the concrete mix is the water cement ratio. Upon

experimentation, it was observed in a research by Apebo et al. (2013) that reducing the water-

cement ratio increases the compressive strength of a concrete mix.

2.5 Physical Properties of Portland Cement

2.5.1 Fineness

The hydration process of cement was affected by the fineness of cement or the

particles size of the cement which would in turn affects the rate of strength gain by the

cement. (Biswas, 2013) According to , the smaller the size of the particle, the greater the

surface area – to – volume ratio, which means more area available for water – cement

reaction per unit volume. According to Building Research Institute (2008), fineness of

cement is a measure of its specific surface area which is the total surface area of cement in

a given weight of cement. It is generally measured in m2/kg. The number of particles of

cement powder in unit weight also affects the fineness of cement. The development of
strength of cement is proportional to its fineness. The effects of greater fineness on strength

are generally seen on the first seven days. Fineness of cement is tested in 2 ways which is

by sieving and by determination of specific surface by Blaine air permeability apparatus.

IS 269-1989, IS 8112-1989 & IS 12269-1987 required minimum value of fineness as 225

m2/kg for ordinary Portland cement & IS 1489-1991 requires a minimum fineness of PPC

as 300 m2/kg.

2.5.2 Soundness

Goodness of cement is when the cement has the trend to shrink when it is hardened.

Good soundness cement doesn’t shrink after hardening. (Biswas, 2013) There are common

tests used for ensuring soundness of cement and they are the Le Chatelier Test and

Autoclave Test.( Civil Engineering, ) In the Le Chatelier’s Test, it is done by using Le

Chatelier Apparatus that tests the expansion of cement due to lime. Cement paste (normal

consistency) is taken between glass slides and submerged in water for 24 hours at 20+1°C.

It is taken out to measure the distance between the indicators and then returned under water,

brought to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an hour. After cooling the device, the distance

between indicator points is measured again. In a good quality cement, the distance should

not exceed 10 mm.

2.5.3 Compressive Strength

Cement has three types of strengths, compressive strength, tensile strength and

flexural strength. However, compressive strength is taken into consideration, the rest can

be ignored. For knowing compressive strength of cement, only the cement paste cannot be

tested. For this purpose, either cement-sand mortar cubes or “cement-concrete cubes” are
 made. The testing result of cubes can be affected by several things such as water-cement

ratio, curing and dampness of cubes during testing. Minimum compressive strength result

for 3 days mortar cube should be 16 N/mm2 and for 7 days cube should be 22 N/mm2.

(Biswas,2013)

2.5.4 Setting Time

According to Building Research Institute (2008), setting time refers to the required

time to stiffen the cement paste. It is a required time for cement paste to change from fluid

to rigid stage. Normally there are two setting times defined which are the initial setting and

final setting time. The initial setting time is regarded as the time elapsed between the

moments that the water is added to the cement, to the time that the pastes start losing its

plasticity. The final setting time is the time elapsed between the moment that the water is

added to the cement, and the time when the paste completely lost its plasticity and has

attained sufficient firmness to resist definite pressure.

2.6 Chemical Properties

2.6.1 Basic Chemistry of Portland Cement

According to Ali, et al (2008), during calcination or when heating to high

temperatures like oxygen and air, the volume contracts, and during hydration or the process

of combining a substance chemically with water molecules it swells. Two possible

reactions take place :

Calcination: CaCO3(s) = CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

Hydration: CaO(s) + H2O (l) = Ca (OH) 2(s)

 2.6.2 Chemical Composition of Portland Cement

According to Bediako (2015), the chemical composition of Portland cement

involves both major and minor oxides. The major oxides include CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, and

Fe2O3 whereas the minor oxides also include MgO, SO3, and some alkali oxides (K2O

and Na2O) and sometimes the inclusion of other compounds, P2O5, Cl, TiO2, MnO3, and

so forth. Each of the oxides performs unique work during cement hydration; however, each

content of the oxide must be in the right quantity during proportioning of raw materials.

Lea provided the required oxide composition of Portland cement. A deviation from

standard specifications of the oxide composition may lead to unsoundness and sometimes

failure of concrete structures. Many experienced authors have shown that cement oxides

which fall very close to the average values are more suitable to maintain concrete integrity.

2.7 Raw Materials in the Manufacture of Cement

The raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland cement consist mainly of lime

silica, alumina and iron oxide. These compounds interact with one another in the kiln to form a

series of more complex products, and apart from a small residue of uncombined lime, which has

not had sufficient time to react; a state of chemical equilibrium is reached. (Ali, 2008)

According to Gopal (2018), the principal raw materials used in the manufacture of cement

are: a) Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shales. b) Calcareous or calcium

carbonate, in the form of limestone, chalk and marl which is a mixture of clay and calcium

carbonate.The ingredients are mixed in the proportion of about two parts of calcareous materials

to one part of argillaceous materials and then crushed and ground in ball mills in a dry state or

mixed in wet state. The dry powder or the wet slurry is then burnt in a rotary kiln at a temperature
between 1400 degree C to 1500 degree C. the clinker obtained from the kiln is first cooled and

then passed on to ball mills where gypsum is added and it is ground to the requisite fineness

according to the class of product.

2.8 Types of Portland Cement

Here are the ASTM types of Portland Cement according to Building Research Institute (P) Ltd.,

Breins Engineering (2008) :

TYPE NAME PURPOSE

General purpose cement

I Normal
suitable for most purposes

An air – entraining
IA Normal Air Entraining
modification of Type I

Used as a precaution against

moderate sulphate attack. It

II Moderate Sulphate Resistance will usually generate less heat

at a lower rate than Type I

Cement

Moderate Sulphate Resistance An air – entraining

II A
-Air Entraining modification of Type II

Used when high early strength

III High Early Strength is needed. It has more C3S

than type I cement and has

 been ground finer to provide a

higher-to surface-volume ratio

both of which speed

hydration. Strength gain is

double that of Type I cement

in the first 24 hours.

High Early Strength - Air An air – entraining

IIIA
Entraining modification of Type III

Used when heat of hydration

must be minimized in large

volume applications such as

IV Low Heat of Hydration gravity dams. Contains about

half the C3S and C3A and

double the C2S of Type I

cement.

Used as a precaution against

severe sulphate action –

principally where soils or

V High Sulphate Resistance ground waters have a high

sulphate content. It gains

strength at a slower rate than

Type I cement. High sulphate

 resistance is attributable to

low C3A content.

2.8 National Standard for Making Cement

According to the Philippine Philippine National Standard Specification for Portland

cement PNS 07:2005 prepared by the Bureau of Product Standards’ Technical Committee on

Cement and Lime (BPS/TC 3) and was approved for adoption as Philippine National Standard, the

fourth revision of the Standard introduced the following changes :

1. Exclusion of minor and trace oxides, titanium dioxide (TiO2) and phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5)

in reporting alumina (Al2O3).

2. Enhance the marking requirement to add the following:

a. Product quality mark for local brands and ICC mark and number for imported Portland cement.

b. Batch identification number and manufacturing date for product traceability.

c. Shipping information for cement shipped in bulk.

3. Addition of provisions for manufacturer’s statement on the processing additions used and

manufacturer’s certification on compliance to this standard.

4. Revision of the reference test methods to align with current version of ASTM.

2.8.1 Chemical Requirements

According to Philippine National Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic

Cement, blended hydraulic cements shall conform to the applicable chemical requirements

prescribed in table 1 when tested in accordance with PNS 693/ASTM C114.

 Table 2- Chemical requirements

Chemical composition Percent by mass, max.

Magnesium oxide ( MgO ) 5.0

Sulfur trioxide ( SO3 ) 4.0

Loss on Ignition ( LOI ) 10.0

At the request of the purchaser, the manufacturer shall state in writing the amount

and composition of the essential constituents used in the manufacture of the finished

cement and the composition of the blended cement purchased. f the purchaser has requested

the manufacturer to state in writing the composition of the blended cement purchased, the

composition furnished shall conform within the following tolerances:

Silicon dioxide ( SiO2 ) : + 3%

Aluminum oxide ( Al2O3 ) : + 2%

Calcium oxide ( CaO ) : + 3%

This means that if the manufacturer’s statement of the composition says “SiO2:

32 %” , the cement when analyzed, shall be found to contain between 29 and 35% SiO2.

The manufacturer shall also state in writing that the amount of pozzolan in the finished

cement will not vary more than +5 mass % of the finished cement from lot to lot or within

a lot.
 2.8.2 Physical requirements

Blended hydraulic cements of the types specified, and pozzolan material shall

conform to the applicable physical requirements prescribed in table 2 and annex A

respectively.

Table 2.8.2 - Physical requirements

Physical requirements Limits Method of test

P IP

Fineness (Blaine method), 280 280 PNS 700/ASTM C 204

m2/kg, minimum

Autoclave expansion or 0.50 0.50 PNS 701/ASTM C 151

contraction, %, maximum

Time of Setting, Vicat test PNS 703/ASTM C 191

Initial set, hr-min, minimum 00 – 45’ 00 – 45’

Final set, hr-min, maximum 70 – 00’ 70 – 00’

 Compressive strength, MPa PNS 704/ASTM C 109

(psi), minimum

3 days - 12.4

(1800 psi)

7 days 10.3 19.3

(1500 psi) (2800 psi)

28 days 20.7 24.1

(3000 psi) (3500 psi)

2.9 Materials

2.9.1 Cements

Cement is used as a binder of substance that sets and hardens. The cement and water

forms paste that binds materials together as the concrete hardens. The ordinary cement

contains two basic components namely argillaceous and calcareous materials calcium

carbonate predominate (Achas, 2015). Most of the studies about the utilization of cement

as binder for waste plastic aggregates used type I Portland cement for the general casting.

2.9.2 Aggregates

The aggregates for this study are waste plastics consisting of polyethylene

terephthalate and high-density polyethylene. Polyethylene terephthalate and high-density

polyethylene plastic waste can be obtained from waste produce by household consumer
 then it will be first separated, washed, shredded and sieved to become an efficient aggregate

(Marzouk et al., 2016).

2.9.3 Polyethylene Tetraphthalate as Aggregate

The polyethylene (PET) aggregate was obtained from the environment with almost

no cost and was shredded into a specific sieve number. It was added into an ordinary

cement binder and was examined. Thermal insulation enhancement in concretes by adding

waste PET and rubber pieces can also be studied. According to J. C. Achas (2015) the

plastic waste was found to have no water absorption and hence corrosion control analysis

can be done. (Achas et al., 2015)

2.9.4 High-Density Polyethylene Aggregate

According to Zawawi (2015) High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) product is one of

the most popular recyclable plastic solid wastes. Due its mechanical and chemical

characteristics of this plastic, it is suitable to be used as modifier in asphalt and concrete

mixture.

2.10 Equipment

A study about the effects of different size of shredded waste Polyethylene Teraphthlate

(PET) as a partial replacement to fine aggregates in concrete was conducted in Adamson

University. After the curing the concretes for 28 days, the product was subjected in to several tests

that conforms on the national standard. List of the tests they have conducted and the standards that

it conforms were shown in table 3.1.

Table 2.10 List of Test, Test Standard and Equipment Used

 Test Conducted Test Standard Equipment Used Laboratory Used

Fourier Transformed Fourier Transformed Chemistry

Infrared Spectrometry ASTM E168 Infrared Spectrometer Laboratory, Adamson

Test University

Advanced Device and

Material Testing

Flexural Test ASTM D790 Shimadzu UTM, Laboratory,

Model: AGS 10kNG Department of

Science and

Technology.

Advanced Device and

Material Testing

Tensile Test ASTM D638 Shimadzu UTM, Laboratory,

Model: AGS 10kNG Department of

Science and

Technology.

Advanced Device and

Zwick/ Roell 5.5P Material Testing

Izod Impact Test ASTM D265 Izod Pendulum Tester Laboratory,

(1 J Izod Pendulum Department of

Hammer) Science and

Technology.

Note. Retrieved from “List of Test and Laboratories” by J. P. Banzen et al, 2015, 48-49.
2.11 Procedure and Preparation of Concrete

A research about recycling of polyethylene waste to produce plastic cement was made in

the University of Basrah in Iraq. In this work, a concrete mix was designed to study the effect of

replacement of the fine aggregate by fine High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) waste. For the

preparation of concretes, Portland cement was mixed with fine polyethylene wastes and water

using nine (9) different percentages of wastes. The percentages of waste for mixture 1 to 9 was

15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 80%, respectively. The cement and fine HDPE

waste was mixed with water to get a homogenous concrete to cast on the small mold. Samples

were left in the mold until it dries and was placed in water for 3 to 4 days until it solidifies and was

cured to increase its cohesion. The samples were removed from water for drying and testing of its

properties. For the researcher to be able to study the stability and the effect of moisture on the

properties of the cement it was then again placed in water for another 7 and 28 days. (Jassim ,

2016)

A research in Shahjalal University of Science and Technology about the usage of recycled

polymer materials as aggregates for concretes also uses HDPE wastes as a partial concrete

reinforcement. The concrete was prepared in the ratio of 1:2:4 (cement: fine aggregates, sand:

coarse aggregate, stone chip and HDPE) in weight basis and water: cement ratio of 0.40:1 was

used. The amounts of waste plastic (HDPE) added were 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% based on the

weight of stone chips which are approximately equivalent to 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% of total

volume of the sample. Fresh concrete was prepared by mixing the calculated amount of cement,
sand, stone chips, waste plastic (HDPE) and water were according to the method and technique as

prescribed by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C 31-84. Workability of the

concrete was examined through slump test. The test procedure described in ASTM C 143-78

involved a cone shape mold, 203 mm in bottom diameter and 102 mm in top diameter. The fresh

concretes were cast into 152.4 mm cube molds with vibration following the procedure prescribed

by ASTM, C31-84. The concrete specimens were separated out from the mold after 24 hours of

molding and kept in water for 7-28 days for curing. (Mostafizur et al., 2012)

In Khalsa College of Engineering and Technology, another study about replacement of fine

aggregate in concrete by Polyethylene bottles was conducted. To prepare for their concrete, the

actual quantities of the raw materials of concrete was mixed in a concrete mixer for 3 minutes. The

mixture was placed in cube molds. The cubes were prepared conforming to Indian Standard 456-

2000. For most of the product has a cubical dimension of 15cm x 15cm x 15cm. The cubes were

stored in moisture for 24 hours and period were marked the removed from the molds and kept

submerged in fresh water until test is performed. Test cubes were taken under compressive testing

machine and load applied gradually at rate of 1.4 to 2.1 MPa/min till specimen fails. Load at the

failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete. (Verma et al, 2015)

A research that both used recycled polyethylene terephthalate (RPET) and recycled high-

density polyethylene (RHDPE) as cement concrete composite was conducted in the University of

Picardie Jules Verne in France. To constitute the reference concrete to be used in comparison of

their experimental concretes, the reference mortar was first optimized based on mechanical

criteria. The composites containing RPET or RHDPE aggregates were then produced. Granular

particles were added to the mixture by means of volumetric substitution. A volumetric percentage

of sand was then replaced by the same volumetric percentage of recycled aggregates: 2%, 5%,
10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 50% and 100%. Only one kind of aggregate was systematically used. A

quantity of aggregate was added to sand and was mixed for 2 minutes to obtain a homogeneous

distribution. Cement was added to the mixture and was continuously mixed for 2 minutes. A

necessary quantity of water was added in the mixture. The entire composition was subsequently

mixed for 2 minutes at low speed and then 1 minute at high speed. For each sample type, the

quantity of water was determined in such a way that paste subsidence in the cone equaled that of

the reference mortar, i.e. 0.5 cm. The fresh concrete was poured in the molds, the samples were

stored in a hydrometrically-controlled and temperature-controlled room with 95% relative

humidity ant 20°C for 24 hours. The molds were removed, and the concretes were kept in a storage

room for another 28 days. The composites were dried in an aerated oven at 50°C until constant

mass was achieved. (Marzouk et al, 2016)

 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Chemicals, Materials and Equipment

3.1.1 Chemicals

Sulfuric and Hydrochloric Acid solutions having 2% concentration.

3.1.2 Materials and Equipment

A cast will be used to mold the cement mixture. Oven for curing the

specimen for 28 days and furnace for the thermal resistance testing.

ASTM E-18 Rockwell Hardness at the Industrial Technology Development

Institute at Department of Science and Technology in Taguig, Manila will be used

to measure the hardness of the concrete.

Universal Testing Machine at Adamson University, Manila in the Civil

Engineering Department will be used to test the compressive strength, flexural

strength and tensile properties of the control specimen and concrete in cylindrical

samples.

Zwick Charpy Impact test equipment, UMH-100 Machine, at Adamson

University, Manila to evaluate the impact test of rectangular bars of geopolymer

concrete.

3.2 Experimental Set up

3.2.1 Preparation of Plastic Aggregate

 Figure 3.2.1 Preparation of Plastic Aggregate

3.2.2 Preparation of Concrete

Figure 3.2.2 Preparation of Concrete

Figure 3.2.2 shows the preparation process of the concrete for curing. The

temperatures that will be used was based on the study conducted by Ekaputri,

Junaedi, &Wijaya, (2017) wherein the specimen was cured at temperature ranging

at 40, 60 and 80 for 24 hours.

3.2.3 Testing of Concrete

Figure 3.2.3 Testing of Concrete

Figure 3.2.3 shows the process for the property’s evaluation of the concrete.

According to Ekaputri, Junaedi, &Wijaya, (2017) comparing to the first

temperature used (40˚C), the strength is increased up to 14% at 80oC. The hardness

of the specimen was increased form 70 up to 93% with a o0.5% wt % fiber using

Rockwell hardness. This is due to the uniform distribution of load on the concrete

(Alomayri & Low, 2013). At 0.5 wt %, the impact strength of the concrete increases

and then decreases right afterwards. The thermal properties of the geopolymer
 concrete will be determined using 500, 1000 and 1500°C furnace temperatures,

these temperatures were based on the study conducted by Fenghong Fan (2015).

3.3 Experimental Design

Design Expert is a software used particularly in performing design of experiment. It used

for comparative tests, optimization, characterization etc. It offers multi-factorial data analysis

which can help researchers to determine the optimum output or result they needed. Design Expert

can provide matrices which can hold up to 50 factors. These factors can be statistically treated or

established using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). It can also provide graphs that can determine

the outliers or the dependent variables in a design of experiment.

In this experiment, Design Expert v.7 will be used. Multilevel Category or most commonly

known as “general factorial” will be utilized because it can be useful in determining the effect of

one or more factors in a specimen. In this research, four factors will be used. The first factor will

have 3 levels, the second factor will have 5 levels, the third factor will have 3 levels and last factor

will only have 1 level. The first factor will be the oven temperature varied at 40, 60 and 80 oC. The

second factor will be the fiber content varied at 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 and 1 % by weight. The third

factor will be the furnace temperature varied at 500°C, 1000°C and 1500°C. The last factor will

be the concentration of Hydrochloric and Sulfuric Acid solution which will have a 2%

concentration. The experiment will be performed in triplicates. A total of 45 runs will be performed

for the first part of the experiment and another 45 runs for the thermal testing.

3.4 Methodology

3.4.1 Preparation of Aggregate

 To prepare the plastics for the mixing process, several steps were followed. Plastic

wastes were collected from different areas and separated into the desired classification

namely HDPE and PET. Washing then followed to remove undesired particles from the

plastic waste. After washing, the plastics were exposed to air for the drying process.

Finally, the plastics were cut separately into strips – HDPE plastics were cut using 0.8 mm

sieve size while sieve no. 100 was used for PET.

3.4.2 Preparation of Concrete

The prepared plastic strips were used as the aggregates, specifically, the HDPE

plastic strips were used as fine aggregates and the PET plastic strips were used as coarse

aggregates. The following HDPE-to-PET ratios were used – 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25,

and 100:0. The aforementioned aggregates with varying composition of plastic fine

aggregates and coarse aggregates were mixed with cement paste (composed of water and

Portland cement) to form the concrete mix with 6:1 ratio. The concrete mixes were molded

in a cylinder cast with a diameter of ____ and length of ____. After the molding process,

the samples were placed in an oven at different temperatures of 40 ˚C, 60 ˚C and 80 ˚C.

3.4.4 Testing of the Concrete

3.4.4.1 Mechanical Properties Determination

3.4.4.1.1 Compressive Strength of Concrete

The compressive strength of the plastic reinforced concrete will

be determined using Universal Testing Machine.

3.4.4.1.2 Hardness of Concrete

 The hardness of the plastic reinforced concrete will be determined

using ASTM E-18 Rockwell Hardness.

3.4.4.1.3 Impact Strength of Concrete

The impact strength of the plastic reinforced concrete will be

determined using UMH-100 machine.

3.4.4.1.4 Tensile Strength of Concrete

The tensile strength of the plastic reinforced concrete will be

determined using Universal Testing Machine.

3.4.4.1.5 Flexural Strength

The flexural strength of the plastic reinforced concrete will be

determined using Universal Testing Machine.

3.4.4.2 Thermal Properties

The twenty-one (21) samples having the highest mechanical properties will

be exposed to a furnace with 500, 1000 and 1500°C temperature in which 5 samples

will be exposed for each temperature. For the set-up of the furnace temperature, a

heating rate of 25°C/min will be adopted until it reaches the required/designated

temperature. This temperature will be maintained for 1 hour then the furnace will

be left to cool down to the room temperature at a rate of -40°C/min. The change in

weight and mechanical properties will be determined.

3.4.4.3 Acid Test

3.4.4.3.1 Hydrochloric Acid Test

 Twelve (12) samples with the highest mechanical properties will be

submerged in 2% Hydrochloric Acid at room temperature for 28 days. The

solution will be replaced at regular intervals to maintain the concentration

of the solution throughout the test period. The change in weight and

mechanical properties will be determined.

3.4.4.3.2 Sulfuric Acid Test

Twelve (12) samples with the highest mechanical properties will be

submerged in 2% Sulfuric Acid at room temperature and changes in weight

and mechanical properties will be recorded after 28 days. The solution will

be replaced at regular intervals to maintain the concentration of the solution

throughout the test period.

3.4.5 Comparison of the concrete with plastic reinforcements to the control specimen

The mechanical properties, chemical and thermal properties of the specimens that

were cured in an oven will be compared to the control specimen that is pure Portland Cement

which will determine the effect of the curing temperature and variation of the plastic

concentration added. The control specimen will also undergo with mechanical, chemical

and thermal properties test.

3.5 Statistical Treatment

Experimental data was analyzed statistically using General Factorial by Analysis of

Variance. ANOVA was used to compare the result under varying conditions. ANOVA is computed

using Design Expert v. 7.