BASIC PROTECTIVE RELAYING

In-
In-house-
house-technical training for Electrical Power Engineers
of Davao Light & Power Co., Inc.

conducted by: Nick Rubia

Training Dept.
Davao Light & Power Co., Inc.
 Basic Protective Relaying

A Man only learns in two ways – “One is by Reading &

the other is by Association with Smarter People”
by Will Rogers
 Protective Relay

According to IEEE standards a “Protective

Relay” is defined as an electric device whose
function is to detect defective lines or apparatus
or other power system conditions of an abnormal
or dangerous nature and to initiate appropriate
control circuit action.
Types of Relays According to Construction

1. Electromechanical (Electromagnetic)
2. Static
3. Microprocessor
a) Digital ( analog hybrid)
b) Numeric (Numerical)
 Electromechanical
An electromechanical relay converts the
voltages & currents to magnetic & electric
forces & torques that press against spring
tensions in the relay. The tension of the spring
& taps on the electromagnetic coils in the relay
are the main process by which the user sets
such a relay.
 Solid State
In a solid state relay, the incoming voltage & current
waveforms are monitored by analog circuits, not
recorded or digitized. The analog values are compared
to settings made by the user via potentiometers in the
relay & in some case, taps on transformers.
In some solid state relays, a simple microprocessor
does some of the relay logic, but the logic is fixed &
simple. In some solid state overcurrent relays, the
incoming AC current is converted in a small signal AC
value, then the AC is fed into a rectifier & filter that
converts the AC to DC value proportionate to the AC
waveform. An op- op-amp & comparator is used to create a
DC that rises when a trip point is reached.
Solid State Relay Logic
 Digital
Digital Relays (also known as the analog hybrid)
utilize analog signal measurement techniques to
provide protective trip functions. The role of the
microprocessor in this class of protective relay
was limited to providing some timing, control,
& ancillary logic functions.
Microprocessor
 Numerical
A numeric (or numerical) relay digitally samples
the incoming analog signals, converts them to a
binary number, & passes them to a
microprocessor chip where algorithms performs
mathematics to measure the condition of the
power system & to provide the protective (trip)
functions.
Numerical Relay Logic Circuit
Numerical Relay Main Components
 Numerical Relay Construction
Numerical Relay Hardware Construction is made of
several subsections:
1. Power Supply
2. Measuring Inputs
3. Input Amplifiers
4. Analog –to
to--Digital (AD)
5. Microcomputer
6. Displays
7. Communications
8. Input/Output (I/O)
9. Enclosure Case
10. Human Machine Interface
 Relay Application Design Criteria
The application logic of protective relays divides the power
system into several zones, each requiring its own group of
relays. In all cases the three design criteria are common to
any well designed & efficient protective system.
Since it is impractical to satisfy fully all these design
criteria simultaneously, the necessary compromises must
be evaluated on the basis of comparative risks.
They are:
1) Reliability
2) Speed
3) Simplicity
 Reliability
System Reliability consists of two elements:
1) Dependability
2) Security.

Dependability is the certainty of correct operation

in response to system trouble, whereas

Security is the ability of the system to avoid

mis--operation with or without faults.
mis
 Speed
High Speed Relays offer greater service continuity by
reducing fault damage & hazards to personnel, but
also have higher initial cost.
Both low & high speed relays are used to protect
power systems. Both have high reliability records.

Example:
Differential Relays – high speed
Time Overcurrent Relays – low speed
 Simplicity
Simplicity in a protective relay system is always
the hallmark of good design. The simplest relay
system, however, is not always the most
economical. Major economies maybe possible
with a complex relay system that uses a
minimum number of circuit breakers.
Simplicity of design improves system reliability –
if only because there are fewer elements that can
malfunction.
Relay Performance Classifications

1) Correct Operation
2) Incorrect Operation
3) No Conclusion
Incorrect Operation & No Conclusion
A. Incorrect Operation - maybe either failure to trip or false tripping.

The cause of incorrect operation maybe.

1) Poor application
2) Incorrect Settings
3) Personnel Error
4) Equipment Failure
equipment that can cause an incorrect operation includes CTs,
VTs, breakers, cable & wiring, relays, channels, or station
batteries.

B. No Conclusion – is the last resort when no evidence is available

for a correct or incorrect operation. Quite often this is a personnel
involvement.
Zone of Protection
Overlapping Zones of Protection
 Instrument Transformers
Instrument Transformers are special types of transformers
intended to measure currents & voltages.

The main tasks of Instrument Transformers are:

1) To transform currents or voltages from a usually high

value to a value, easy & safe to handle for relays &
instruments.
Example: 1000:5 Amps CT, 80,500: 115 volts VT

2) To insulate the metering & relaying circuits from the

primary high voltage.
 Current Transformers
A current transformer transforms line current into values suitable for devices such
as ammeters, watt meters, protective relays, etc. and insulates devices from line
voltages.

Types of CT construction for Low Voltage & Medium Voltage:

1) Wound primary type – this has more than one primary turn. The primary and
secondary windings are completely insulated for their respected voltage ratings
and permanently assembled on a laminated iron core.

2) Through or Bar type – this type has the primary & secondary windings
completely insulated and permanently assembled on a laminated iron core.
The primary winding consists of a bar-
bar-type conductor passing through the core
window.

3) Window or bushing type-

type- this type has a secondary winding completely
insulated and permanently assembled on an iron core. The primary conductor
passes through the core window and serves as the primary winding.
 High Voltage CTs
Oil – immersed CTs
Epoxy molded CTs
SF6 Gas Insulated CTs
Silicon Rubber
 Oil--immersed CTs
Oil
Hair pin type – tank with the cores situated in a tank close
to the ground. The conductor is U-
U-shaped (Hair pin type).

Eye-bolt type – tank type with the conductors is

Eye-
coil--shaped (eye-
coil (eye-bolt type)

Top Core type – inverted type with the cores situated at

the top of the transformer. The primary conductor is
usually in the shape of a bar.
CT Constructions
Hair--pin & Top
Hair Top--core design CTs
 Advantages of Hair-
Hair-pin type
1) Low center of gravity
2) High earthquake resistance
3) Using heavy cores without stressing the
porcelain insulator.
4) The tank is part of the support
5) Oil circulation in the primary conductor (tube)
ensures an even temperature & no hot spots
 Disadvantage of Hair-
Hair-pin type
1) Long primary conductor means higher thermal
losses.
2) Limitation of the short circuit currents.
 Advantage of Eye-
Eye-Bolt type
Low center of gravity
High earthquake withstand
 Disadvantages of Eye-
Eye-Bolt type
Long primary conductor means higher thermal stress
Difficult in cooling the primary conductor
Limitation of short circuit currents
Difficult to have large core volumes.
 Advantages of Top-
Top-Core type
Short primary conductor with low thermal losses
High rated current & short time current
 Disadvantage of Top-
Top-Core type
High Center of Gravity
Large Core volume stresses the porcelain insulator
Limited Core Volume
Difficult to cool the secondary windings
Unsuitable in earthquake areas when using big cores
How to Specify Current Transformers
Important main factors when selecting CTs are:

1) Standard (IEEE or IEC)

2) Rated Insulation Level (service voltage)
3) Altitude above sea level (if >1000 m)
4) Ambient Temperature (average temperature over 24 hrs)
5) Rated Primary Current
6) Rating Factor ( maximum continuous current)
7) Rated Secondary Current
8) Short-
Short-time current
9) Dynamic Current
10) Number of Cores
11) Burdens & accuracies for each core
12) Pollution Level (Creepage Distance)
 Rated Insulation Level
The current transformer must withstand the
operational voltages & over voltages in the
network. Test voltages are specified in the
standards in relation to the system voltage.

Example: GE type JKW -350, 69 KV,

350 KV BIL
 Altitude Above Sea Level
The dielectric strength of electrical equipment that
depends on air as insulation, decreases as it applied
higher altitude.

According to IEEE dielectric strength that

depends on air should be multiplied by an altitude
correction factor to obtain the dielectric strength
at the required altitude.
 IEEE Standard Correction Factor for
Dielectric Strength
Altitude Above Sea Level Altitude Correction
( meters) Factor
1000 1.00
1200 0.98
1500 0.95
1800 0.92
2100 0.89
2400 0.86
2700 0.83
3000 0.82
3600 0.75
4200 0.70
4500 0.67
 Rated Primary Current
The current transformer must also withstand the rated
primary current in continuous operation. Current
transformers are normally designed according to IEC
60044 -1 & IEEE C57.13 standards, for 35oC & 30oC
average ambient air temperature.
The primary rated current should be selected to be
approximately 10% - 40% higher than the estimated
operating current, which gives a high resolution on the
metering equipment & instruments. For relaying
purposes it is 25% - 50%.
 CT Rating Factor
Is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT can be
multiplied to determine its absolute maximum measurable primary
current & still remain within certified accuracy.

Hence a 200:5 A rated CT with a rating factor of 2 will remain

within its accuracy certification up to 400 Amps.

The rating factor of a CT is largely dependent upon ambient

temperature.

The rating factor of the CT is stamped on the nameplate of the CT.

Typical rating factors are 1.33, 1.5, 2.0 & 3.0 at 30 degrees C
ambient.
 Rated Secondary Current
The secondary rated current can be 1 or 5 Amps.
1 Amp is commonly used in Europe, 2 amps
frequently used in Sweden while 5 Amps is
common in US & Canada.
Short--time Thermal Current (Ith)
Short

This is the maximum current, which the current transformer

can withstand for a period of one (1) second, without reaching
a temperature that would be disastrous to the insulation, e.g.
250oC for oil immersed CTs.
 Dynamic Current
The maximum peak value of the primary current
which a transformer will withstand without being
damaged electrically or mechanically by the
resulting electromagnetic forces, the secondary
being short-
short-circuited.
 Number of Cores
The number of cores for a CT should be specified.
A maximum of 3 cores could be chosen for a
single CT. Each core winding are separate from
each other. The number of cores could be two for
relaying & one for metering use. They could be
single or multi-
multi-ratio.
CT with two primary windings
 Pollution Level
For outdoor CTs with ceramic insulators susceptible to
contamination, the creepage distance according to IEC
60044--1 for different levels are:
60044

Pollution Level Minimum nominal specific

creepage distance (mm/kv)

I – Light 16
II – Medium 20
III – Heavy 25
IV - Very Heavy 31
Current Transformer Accuracy Class
(Relaying)
Protective relay performance depends on the accuracy
of the current transformers, not only at load currents,
but also at all fault current levels. The accuracy at high
over currents depends on the cross section of the iron
core and the number of turns in the secondary winding.
The bigger the cross section of the iron core, the more
flux can be developed before saturation. The more the
number of turns, the lower the flux can be developed
before saturation. The more the number of turns, the
lower the flux required to force the secondary current
into the relay. Saturation results in an increase of ratio
error.
ANSI Relay Accuracy Class Designation of CTs
The ANSI relay accuracy class by letter designation and voltage rating.

C…indicates that the transformer ratio can be calculated (10L – earlier type)
T…indicates that the transformer ratio must be determined by test (10H –earlier)

The classification number indicates the secondary terminal voltage that the CT
will deliver to a standard burden at 20 times normal secondary current (100A)
without exceeding a 10% ratio correction.

The standard designated secondary terminal voltages are 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 400
& 800V.

For instance a ct with a relaying class of C200 means that the % ratio correction
can be calculated & that it does not exceed 10% at any current from 1 to 20 times
the rated secondary current at standard burden of 2 ohms.

Max terminal voltage = 20 x 5 A x 2 Ohm = 200 V

 Burden Class IEEE/ANSI
Also known as Knee-
Knee-point Voltage is the voltage
at which a CT becomes saturated. When a CT
becomes saturated it can no longer transform
current.
 Knee point Voltage
Vk = 2If(Rct + 2Rl)
where:
If = current reflected to the CT secondary during fault
condition
Rct = Resistance of the CT
Rl = Lead resistance, which is the total resistance of the
wire between the relay & CT & impedance offered
by internal circuitry of the relay.
 CT Saturation
Abnormally high currents, high secondary burdens or a
combination will result to saturation. At this condition,
the accuracy of the ct becomes very poor and the
output waveform maybe distorted by harmonics. The
result is the production of a secondary current lower in
magnitude than indicated by the marked current
transformer ratio. The greatest danger of saturation is
loss of protective device coordination.

Ex. Sta Ana s/s nuisance tripping

 Standard Relaying Burdens
In current transformer technology, a burden is
the load connected to the secondary terminals
and is expressed in volt-
volt-amperes at a given
power factor, or as impedance with a power
factor.
 ANSI STANDARD BURDENS
Std. Burden Impedance Volt Power
Designation (Ohms) Amps Factor

B-1 1.0 25 0.5

B-2 2.0 50 0.5
B-4 4.0 100 0.5
B-8 8.0 200 0.5
 IEC CT Standards
IEC specifies the accuracy classes

15 VA Class 5 P 20

15 VA – continuous VA
Class 5 – Accuracy class
P -- Protection class
20 -- Accuracy limit factor
 CT Accuracy Equivalents

IEC ANSI

5P20 @ 25 VA C--100
C
5P20 @ 50 VA C-200
C-
5P20 @ 100 VA C-400
C-
5P20 @ 200 VA C-800
C-
Choosing Current Transformer for Relaying Use

To be sure that the CTs do not saturate, the relay class rating
of the CT should be twice the voltage necessary to drive the
maximum fault current thru the connected burden.
For example, assume a bus with 24 KA fault current and a CT
rated 600:5A. Divide the 24KA by the ratio 120, to determine
the secondary current, 200A, under maximum fault
conditions.
If the secondary burden is 0.53 ohms, the voltage required is
200 x 0.53 =106 V. A CT with relay class rating of C200 or
T200 or higher accuracy should be chosen for this application.
 Choosing CT
Where low ratio CTs are needed on a system with a high
available fault current, it may be difficult to find with a
necessary relay class rating.

Several ways to improve the situation are:

1. Use Higher CT ratios

2. Use higher Accuracy CTs
3. Use lower burden relays
4. Divide the burden between two sets of CTs
5. Use separate instantaneous OC relays connected to a
separate set of high ratio CTs.
 CT Polarity
Polarity marks designate the relative instantaneous
directions of currents. At the same instant of time that
the primary current is entering the marked primary
terminal, the corresponding secondary current is leaving
the similarly marked secondary terminal, having
undergone a magnitude change within the CT.

All CT are subtractive polarity. On subtractive polarity

transformers the H1 primary lead & the X1 secondary
lead will be on the same side of the transformer (the
left side when facing the low side bushings)
CT Polarity
 CT Connections
1. WYE Connection – a ct is placed in each phase with phase
relays (51) in two or three secondaries to detect phase faults.
On grounded systems, a relay (51N) in the CT common wire
detects any ground or neutral load currents.

2. VEE or Open Delta Connection – it is basically a wye

connection with one leg omitted, using only two CTs.

3. Delta Connection – this connection uses three CTs with the

secondaries connected in delta before the connections are made
to the relays. It produce a current to the relays equal to 1.732
times the ct secondary current.
WYE Connected CTs
Delta Connected CTs
CT Location for a Bus Bar Protection
CT Locations for a Phase & Ground
Fault Protection for Power Cables
Bushing Current Transformers (BCT)
A BCT is a current transformer mounted in a bushing of an
electrical apparatus like the power transformers, reactors,
switchgears & circuit breakers used for metering & protection
purposes.
The BCTs in transformers, reactors, metal-
metal-clad switchgears,
OCBs & vacuum circuit breakers, are mounted internally.
In the SF6 circuit breakers the BCTs are externally mounted.
The BCT could be a Relaying class or Metering class. It could
be a single ratio, dual ratio or multi-
multi-ratio.
Up to 3 sets of BCTs can be mounted on the bushings of high
voltage circuit breakers & power transformers.
Current Transformer Ratios
CT & VT Locations for Substation
Protection
 Voltage Transformer
It is basically a conventional transformer with
primary & secondary windings on a common
core. It is used to step down the voltage at safe
value of 120 Volts or 69.3 Volts, for relaying or
metering use.
Voltage Transformer Connections
VT with WYE Primary & Dual Secondary, one with
grounded wye & the other broken delta
Wye--wye grounded VT Connection
Wye
Open Delta - open delta VT
How to specify Voltage Transformers
Important factors when selecting voltage transformers:
a. Standard (ANSI or IEC)
b. Inductive or Capacitive Voltage Transformers
c. Insulation Level
d. Altitude above sea level
e. Rated Primary Voltage
f. Rated Secondary Voltage
g. Ratio
h. Rated Voltage Factor
i. Burdens (outputs) & accuracy for each winding
k. Pollution Levels (Creepage Distance)
 Rated Primary & Secondary Voltage
VTs for outdoor installation are normally connected between phase
& ground, with some medium voltage VTs connected line-line-line.
The standard values of rated primary voltage are 1/1.732 times the
value of the rated system voltage.

The rated secondary voltage is chosen according to local practice;

in Europe 100/1.732 or 110/1.732 V;
in US & North America 120, & 67.08 Volts.

In IEC the normal measuring range of a voltage transformer is for

metering winding 80-
80-120% of the rated voltage.
The relay winding has a voltage range from 0.05 to 1.5 or 1.9
of the rated.
VT Standard Ratings (ANSI)
Voltage Rating Ratio KV BIL
2400:120 20:1 60
4200:120 35:1 75
4800:120 40:1 75
7200:120 60:1 95
8400:120 70:1 95 or 110
12000:120 100:1 110
14400:120 120:1 110 or 125
18000:120 150:1 125 or 150
24000:120 200:1 150
27600:115 240:1 200
34500:115 300:1 200
46000:115 400:1 250
40250:115 350:1 350
69000:115 600:1 350 or 450 or 550
80500:115 700:1 550 or 650
92000:115 800:1 650 or 750
138000:115 1200:1 900
 Rated Voltage Factor (IEC)
In the event of a disturbance in a 3-
3-phase network, the voltage
across the VT may sometimes be increased even up to the voltage
factor, Vf times the nominal rated voltage.

IEC specifies the Voltage Factors:

• 1.9 for systems not being solidly grounded
• 1.5 for systems with solidly earthed neutral

The duration is specified to be 30 seconds if automatic fault tripping

is used during earth faults, in other cases 8 hours. Because of the
above mentioned requirement the VTs operate with low flux density
at rated voltage. The VT core must not be saturated at the voltage
factor.
 Pollution Level
The effects of pollution on voltage transformer
insulators are the same as described for current
transformers.
Pollution Level Minimum Creepage Distance
(mm/kv)
I – Light 16
II – Medium 20
III – Heavy 25
IV – Very Heavy 31
 VT Burden (ANSI)
Since accuracy is dependent on the burden, standard burdens have
been designated, and these are the burdens at which the accuracy is
to be classified.

ANSI STANDARD BURDEN

Burden VA at 120 or 69.3 volts Burden Pf

W 12.5 0.10
X 25.0 0.70
M 35.0 0.20
Y 75.0 0.85
Z 200 0.85
ZZ 400 0.85
 VT ANSI ACCURACY CLASS
Accuracy Limits of Correction Limits of Power Factor
Class Factor & Transformer Lagging of Load

Min Max
0.3 0.997 1.003 0.6 – 1.0
0.6 0.994 1.006 0.6 – 1.0
1.2 0.988 1.012 0.6 – 1.0

The limits given for each accuracy class apply from 10 %

above rated voltage to 10 % below rated voltage, at rated
frequency.
 VT Accuracy & Burden (ANSI)
For example a voltage transformer accuracy & burden is specified:

0.3WXYZ, ZZ or 0.15 WXY or 0.3Z

0.3 thru Burden ZZ

0.3 or 0.15 specify the percentage accuracy

W = 12.5VA, X = 25 VA, Y = 75VA, Z = 200VA & ZZ = 400VA

burdens as defined by the standards.

This means that the vt will remain within 0.3% or 0.15%

accuracy from 0 VA up to the maximum designated burden.
 VT Accuracy & Burden (IEC)
The accuracy class & rated burden are normally selected as follows:

• When the burden consists of metering & relaying components, the

higher accuracy class for metering must be selected.
• The burden requirements must be equivalent to the total burden of
all the equipment connected to the VT.

• For example: Metering eqpt = 25VA; Accuracy = 0.5

Relays = 100 VA; Accuracy = 3P

The VT selected should then be able to supply 100VA at an accuracy

corresponding to class 0.5.
 Cont.
The metering class of IEC 60044-
60044-2 are valid for
80
80--120% of rated voltage & 25 -100% rated
burden.

The protective classes are valid from 5% to

voltage factor time rated voltage & for 25 -100%
of rated burden.
 VT Thermal Rating (IEEE)
Voltage Transformer have a thermal rating
rather than a rating factor as with the CT & it
designates the maximum volt-
volt-ampere burden,
which maybe connected to its secondary at
specified ambient of either 30 or 55oC.
VT Overvoltage Requirements (IEEE)
A voltage transformer must be capable of
operating at 110% above rating voltage
continuously provided the secondary burden
does not exceed the thermal rating.
The emergency rating of VT is defined at one
minute operation, thus enough time for
protective equipment to operate.
 VT Ratings & Characteristics (IEEE)
Group Bushings Rating RVF

1 2 L--G
L 1.25/8hr
2 2 L-L
L- -
3 1 L-G
L- 25 -161kv, 1.74/1min
230
230--750kv, 1.40/1min
4A 1 L--G
L 1.25/8hr
4B 1 L-L
L- -
5 1 L-G
L- 1.40/1 min
 Coupling Capacitor VT
It is a voltage transformer tapped across part of
a capacitor unit connected from the conductor
to ground.
It is widely used at the system voltages of 115KV
& above.
It is suitable for Power Line Carrier Coupling.
CCVT
 System Neutral Grounding
Primary Purposes of System Grounding

1. Limitation of Ground Fault Current

2. Limitation of transient overvoltages, caused by
restriking ground faults, to the level the equipment is
designed to withstand.
3. Personnel Safety
4. Compliance with Codes
5. Fast, selective isolation of ground faults.
 Categories of Power Distribution
System Neutral Grounding
1. Ungrounded Systems
2. Solidly Grounded Systems
3. Reactance Grounded Systems
4. Low--resistance Grounded Systems
Low
5. High--resistance Grounded Systems
High
 Ungrounded System
1. Ungrounded System – which there is no
intentional connection between the neutral or
any phase and ground; i.e., the system is
capacitively coupled to ground.
They are mostly used in low voltage systems
600 V, 480 Volts & 240 Volts.
Ungrounded System
 2. Solid Grounded System
Which the neutral (or occasionally one phase) is
connected to ground without intentional intervening
impedance. Typical ground fault current are several
thousand amperes and may exceed the calculated 3 –
phase fault current. They are applied on low-
low-voltage
& high voltage systems, because it has the lowest initial
cost of all grounding methods. It is recommended for
overhead distribution systems and for systems supplied
by transformers which are protected by primary fuses.
This is necessary to provide enough fault current to
melt the primary fuses on secondary ground fault.
Solidly Grounded Systems
 3. Reactance Grounded Systems
Where a Reactor is connected from neutral to
ground. Typical ground fault currents are 60% -
100% of 3 – phase fault current.
They are applied in a distribution system where the
magnitude of the line-
line-to
to--ground fault exceeds the
the short circuit current duty of circuit breakers.
Reactance Grounded Systems
Low--Resistance Grounded Systems
Low
Which the neutral is grounded through a considerably
smaller resistance. Typical ground fault currents are 50
to 600 A on the primary system. It is preferred for most
systems, especially those which serve directly-
directly-connected
rotating apparatus, like motors. It is mostly used in
medium voltage systems. It is not used on low voltage
systems, because the limited ground fault current is
insufficient to positively operate the series trip units &
fuses that would be dependent upon for both phase-phase-
phase and phase – ground fault protection on some or
all circuits.
Low--Resistance Grounding
Low
NGR
High--Resistance Grounded Systems
High
Which the neutral is grounded through a predominantly resistive
impedance. Typical ground fault currents are 1 to 10 A on the
primary system. The resistor can be connected either directly
from neutral – ground, or in the secondary circuit of one or
more transformers. High resistance grounding limits fault
damage to a minimum. It is applied in any of the
following:
- when it is essential to prevent unplanned shutdowns
- when an existing system has previously been operated
ungrounded and no ground relaying has been installed
- large generator
- underground mining distribution
High--Resistance Grounding
High
Direct High Resistance Grounding
 Short--Circuit Calculations
Short
Short-circuit currents can create massive destruction to
Short-
the power system. Short-
Short-circuits have magnitudes many
times greater than load currents. The presence of short-
short-
circuit currents in system conductors results in
additional heating, which the system is usually not
designed to sustain continuously. These currents also
introduce severe mechanical forces on conductors,
which can break insulators, distort transformer
windings, or cause other physical damage.
Short Circuit Calculations are necessary to determine
breaker short circuit duty & for relaying purposes.
 Short--Circuit Calculation Procedure
Short
a) Develop a one-
one-line diagram of the system or
part of the system to be studied, with symbolic
voltage sources & circuit impedances.
b) Develop an impedance diagram.
c) Calculate the total impedance from the source
of current to the point at a short circuit current
is to be calculated.
d) Knowing the open circuit pre-
pre-fault voltage, use the
formulas to calculate short circuit current magnitude.
 Per Unit Method
In fault calculations the quantities together with
kws, kvars, amperes, ohms & so on are usually
expressed in per unit or percent of a reference or
base value. Per unit & percent nomenclatures are
widely used because they simplify specifications &
computations especially when different voltage
levels & equipment are involved.
 Advantages using Per Unit
1. The p.u. equivalent impedance of any transformer is the same
when referred to either the primary or the secondary side.

2. The p.u. impedance of a transformer in a 3-

3-phase system is the
same regardless of the type of winding winding connections.

3. The p.u method is independent of voltage changes & phase shifts

through transformers; for which the base voltages in the windings
are proportional to the number of turns in the windings.

4. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of the equipment in

p.u. or % on the base of its nameplate rating of power (KVA or
MVA) & voltage (V or KV). Thus the rated impedance can be
used directly if the bases chosen are the same as the nameplate
ratings.
 Fault Calculations
PER UNIT RELATIONSHIP & FORMULAS

Actual Volts Base Kva

Pu volts = -------------------- Base amps = ----------------------
Base volts Base Kv x 1.732

Actual Amps Base Volts

Pu Amps = ------------------ Base ohms = ------------------------
Base amps Base amps x 1.732

Actual Ohms Base KV 2

PU Ohms = ------------------- Base ohms = ----------------
Base Ohms Base MVA

Changing from per unit on an old base to per-

per-unit on a new base

new base MVA

New Xpu = old Xpu {--------------------
{--------------------}}
old base MVA
 Types of Shunt Faults
1) Single-
Single- Line – Ground Faults (65 – 70%)
2) Line – Line – Ground Faults (10 - 20%)
3) Line - Line – Faults (10 – 15%)
4) Three Phase Fault (5%)

Statistics published in 1967 CEGB Report, but are

similar today all over the world.
 3-Phase Fault Circuit Diagram

The boundary conditions:

Va = Vb = Vc = 0; Ia = Ib = Ic
 3-phase Fault Network

The magnitude of the fault current:

Ia = Ib = Ic = Vf/Z1
Line - Line Fault Circuit Diagram

The boundary conditions:

Vb = Vc; Ia = 0; Ib = -Ic
Line--Line Fault Network Interconnection
Line

The magnitude of the fault current Ib & Ic:

1.732 x Vf
Ib = Ic = ----------------
Z1 + Z2
Single--Line
Single Line--Ground Fault Diagram

The boundary condition:

Va = 0; Ib = Ic = 0
Single--Line
Single Line--Ground Fault Network Interconnection

The magnitude of the fault current:

3 Vf
Ia = -------------------
Z1 + Z2 + Z0
Double--Line
Double Line--Ground Fault Circuit Diagram

The boundary conditions:

Vb = Vc = 0; Ia = 0
 Double--Line
Double Line--Ground Fault Network
Interconnection

The magnitude of the fault current Ib & Ic:

Ib = a2Ia1 + aIa2 + Ia0
Ic = aIa1 + a2Ia2 + Ia0
 Short Circuit Current Formulas
Vf
3 Phase Fault If 3ph = ---------- x Base I
Z1

1.732 x Vf
Line--Line Fault
Line If line-
line-line = -------------------- x Base I
Z1 + Z2

3 x Vf
Single--line
Single line--to
to--Grd If slgd = ---------------------- x Base I
Z1+Z2+Z0+Zn
 Relay Classification According to
Operating Time Characteristics
1. Instantaneous Relays – are those with no intentional
time delay. Operating maybe ½ cycle or less.
2. Definite – time Relays – those with a preset time that
is not dependent on the magnitude of the actuating
current or voltage once pick-
pick-up value is exceeded.
3. Inverse time delay relays – those whose operating time
is long for small values of actuating current (or voltage)
and becomes progressively less for increasingly higher
values of current.
Types of Overcurrent Relay Curves
Inverse Relay Curve – Least Steep

Very Inverse Curve - Steeper

Extremely Inverse Curve – Steepest

Note: For any given relay the curve is relatively constant,

but the relay action time can be varied (curve increased-
increased-
moved upward or curved decreased – moved downward)
by adjusting the time dial setting.
Time Current Characteristic Curves
Applications of Different Time Characteristic
Curves of Overcurrent Relays
Inverse – Transmission Line Back-
Back-up Protection
Transformer Protection
Distribution Line Protection
Ground Protection
Generator Protection

Very Inverse – Distribution Line Protection

Ground Protection
Back--up protection for other relays
Back

Extremely Inverse – Motor Protection

Overcurrent Protection where Coordination with
fuses and reclosers is involved, or where cold load
pickup transformer inrush are factors.
 Applications of Overcurrent Relays
1. Distribution Line
2. Transmission Line
3. Transformer
4. Motor
5. Capacitor
6. AC Generator
7. Bus
8. Reactor
Example: Time Overcurrent Relay Application

Assume that the 7SJ relay should trip on sustained current at 500
amps minimum and 3000 amps in 1 second. The CT ratio is 600:5 A.

Step 1 – Select Tap

Minimum tap = 500/120 = 4.16

Step 2 - Select Time dial

3000/120 = 25 amps
25/4.16 = 6 multiples of tap

By interpolation using the TCC curve of SIEMENS 51 Relay

type 7SJ Very Inverse, the Time Dial for 1 sec @ 6 multiples of
tap = TD 0.37
 Cont.

Using the formula for Very inverse relay

13.5
t = ________ . Tp
(I/
(I/Ip
Ip)) – 1

13.5
t = ________ . Tp
(25/4.16) – 1

t = 2.7

@ t = 1 sec Tp=1/2.7
Tp=1/2.7

Time Dial Tp=0.37

Tp=0.37
 Differential Protective Relay
Is a protective relay that functions on a
percentage or phase angle or other quantitative
difference of two currents or some other
electrical quantities. They are inherently selective.

They are used for protection of Medium & Large

Generators, Transformers, Large Motors, Reactors,
Bus Bars, Transmission Lines.
Differential Relay Principles
Differential Relay Principles
Differential Scheme with External Fault
Differential Relaying with External Fault
 Percentage Differential Relay
The inputs from the two sets of CTs are used to generate
a restraint quantity. This is then compared to the difference
of these two currents. Operation or restraint is produced as
a result of the comparison of the difference to the restraint.
They have characteristics known as “slope”.
Slope can be defined as the relay’s tolerance for normal
system imbalances. The relay will operate only if the
percentage imbalance is exceeded.
% Slope setting of electromechanical transformer differential
relays are 15%, 25% & 40%.
Percentage Differential Relay Characteristics
 From Fig 4
Subtracting the two secondary currents (now
referred as “restraint currents”) the operating
current is
Ir1 = 5.0 A
Ir2 = 4.9 A
-------
Iop 0.1 A
 Cont.
To determine if the relay will operate during
normal operation, apply these values to the
percent slope equation:

Iop 0.1
% slope = ------------ x 100 = ------- x 100 = 2%
Ir (smaller) 4.9
 From fig. 8
To determine if the relay will operate during
external fault, apply these values to the percent
slope equation:

Iop 1
% slope = ------------- x 100 = --------- x 100 = 2%
Ir (smaller) 49

Even though the actual currents have increased

dramatically, the percentage imbalance has not, &
the relay will not operate.
In case of an internal fault feed from one source, one current
will fall to zero(0). For purposes of this discussion, assume
some current reaches the load.
 From fig. 9

Iop = 50 – 10 = 40 A

40
% slope = ------ x 100% = 400%
10

The relay’s slope characteristics is greatly exceeded, &

the relay not only operates, but operates very quickly
If an internal fault is feed from two sources, one current will
reverse & feed back into the fault. When the current reverses
in that side of the secondary circuit causing the currents to
add through the operating coil rather subtract.
High Impedance Differential Relaying
 High Impedance Differential Relay
The relays are connected between phase & neutral leads
of the paralleled CTs. CT secondary circuits are connected
so that through fault currents circulate, as is also the case
with normal flow (low impedance current differential.
The differential relay is connected as a shunt & is made up
of a sensitive current relay with high resistance connected
in series. The current relay & series resistance correspond
to a voltage relay.
 High Impedance Differential
For external faults, the voltage across the relay will be low,
because the current circulates between the two sets of
CTs. For internal faults, the fault currents must pass
through the exciting branch & high impedance relay of
each CT, so that the CTs are saturated for most faults,
producing a high voltage approaching the open-
open-circuited
CT, to operate the relay. A varistor is connected parallel to
the relay to limit the high voltage. In general this scheme
is not as sensitive as the percentage differential scheme
but more secure.
High Impedance Bus Differential
 Voltage Relays
Voltage Relays have similar characteristics as that
of the overcurrent relays by using voltage as the
actuating quantity in the operating element.

There are two types of voltage relays. They are:

a) Overvoltage Relays
b) Undervoltage Relays
 Overvoltage Relay (59)
Overvoltage relay - is a relay that functions on a given value of
overvoltage. It is calibrated on increasing voltage
to close a set of normally open contacts at a
specified voltage.

They are mostly used to protect generators, motors, & capacitor

banks against overvoltage, which could cause insulation failure.

Three classifications of overvoltage relays:

a) Inverse time
b) Definite time
c) Instantaneous
Inverse Time Overvoltage Relay
Voltage Relaying
3-phase Voltage Relaying
 Undervoltage Relay (27)
Undervoltage Relay – is a relay that functions on a given value of undervoltage.
It is calibrated on decreasing voltage to close a set of
contacts at a specified voltage.

They are mostly used as bus undervoltage protection either, to alarm or trip
voltage sensitive loads, such as induction motors whenever the line voltage drops
below the calibrated setting.

They are also used for Source Transfer Scheme, where it will initiate transfer &
when desired, retransfer of a load from its normal source to a standby or
emergency power source.

Three classifications of undervoltage relay:

a) Inverse time
b) Definite time
c) Instantaneous
Inverse Time Undervoltage Relay
 Frequency Relay (81O/U)
Is a relay that functions on a predetermined value
of frequency (either under or over or on normal
system frequency) or rate of change of frequency.

They are mostly used in the protection of Steam

or Gas Turbine Driven Generators.

Underfrequency Relays are also employed for

automatic load shedding schemes of feeder lines.
 Lockout Relay (86)
This relay is high speed, multi-
multi-contact, manually or electrically reset
auxiliary relay for multiplying contacts, increasing contact rating,
isolating circuits & tripping & lockout breakers.

The relay is operated by differential relays, such as transformer

differential or bus differential & other protective relays. The lockout
relay in turn trips all source & feeder breakers.

The relay must be reset before the any of the breakers can be
reenergized. The manual reset prevents reclosing the breakers
before the fault is cleared.
 AC Reclosing Relay (79)
Is a relay that controls the automatic reclosing
& locking out of an ac-
ac-circuit interrupter.
 Distance Relay (21)
It is a relay that functions when the circuit
admittance, impedance or reactance increases or
decreases beyond predetermined limits.
For line protection, it measures the impedance on
the distance from the relay location to the point of
fault.
 Types of Distance Relays
Reactance type – measures the reactive component of system
complex impedance. They are inherently non-
non-directional.
Operation is practically unaffected by arc resistance, but may
operate on load current.

Impedance type – measures the magnitude of the complex impedance.

Operation of impedance relay occurs when the impedance from the
relay to the point of fault lies within the circle having radius
impedance setting on the relay. It is non-
non-directional.

Mho type – measures complex admittance. It has a circular

characteristic & it is directional.
Reactance Relay RX Diagram
Impedance Relay R-
R-X Diagram
Directional Impedance Relay R-
R-X Diagram
MHO Relay R-
R-X Diagram
Generator Loss of Field MHO Supervised
Reactance Relay R-R-X Diagram
3-Zone Mho type Distance Relay
Distance Relay Characteristics
 END

THANKS FOR LISTENING

 References

GE Art & Science of Protective Relaying

ABB Protective Relaying Theory & Applications edited by
Walter Elmore
Introduction to Protective Relaying by Arthur Evangelista