Trigonometry

Reciprocal Identities
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 =
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
1 1
cos 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
1 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
Rational Function
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
Cofunctions Identities
sin 𝜃 = cos(90 − 𝜃) csc 𝜃 = sec(90 − 𝜃)
cos 𝜃 = sin(90 − 𝜃) tan 𝜃 = cot(90 − 𝜃)
sec 𝜃 = csc(90 − 𝜃) cot 𝜃 = tan(90 − 𝜃)
Pythagorean Identities
sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 𝜃
1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃
Sum of Angles Formulas
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
cos (A + B) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵) =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
Difference of Angles Formulas
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
co𝑠 (𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
Double Angle Formulas
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝐴 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝐴 =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴
co𝑠 2𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
Powers of Functions
1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 = (1 − co𝑠 2𝐴) 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴 =
2 1 + co s 2𝐴
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 = (1 + co𝑠 2𝐴)
2
Functions of Half Angles
𝐴 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
𝐴 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 = ±√ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 1 + co s 𝐴
2 2

𝐴 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠 = ±√
2 2
Sum of Two Angles
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 2
1 1
cos 𝐴 + cos 𝐵 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
Difference of Two Functions
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 2
1 1
co s 𝐴 − cos 𝐵 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 − 𝐵)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
Product of Two Functions
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 − 𝐵) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
Solutions to Oblique Triangle
Law of Sines Law of Cosines
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶
Law of Tangents
1
𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 (𝐴 − 𝐵)
=
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛 1 (𝐴 + 𝐵)
2
Differential Calculus

Algebraic Functions

𝑑 Quotient Rule:
1. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) = 0
𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑(𝑣)
𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 −𝑢 𝑑𝑥
2. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐 6. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑣 ) = 𝑣2
;𝑣 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑(𝑣) Chain Rule:

3. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢 + 𝑣) = +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑(𝑓(𝑔(𝑢))) 𝑑(𝑔(𝑢))
Product Rule: 7. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑔(𝑢))) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑(𝑣) 𝑑(𝑢)
4. (𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 +𝑣 𝑑
𝑑(𝑢)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 8. 𝑑𝑥 (√𝑢) = 𝑑𝑥
;𝑢 ≠ 0
2√ 𝑢
Power Rule:
𝑑(𝑣)
𝑑 𝑐 −𝑐 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑(𝑢)
9. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑣) = 𝑣2
5. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥

Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 𝑑(𝑢)
𝑑
1. 𝑑𝑥 (log 𝑎 𝑢) = 𝑑𝑥 4. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑢 ) = 𝑎𝑢 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 ln 𝑎

𝑑 𝑑(𝑢)
𝑑 log10 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑢) 5. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒 𝑢 ) = 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
2. (log10 𝑢) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑢

𝑑(𝑢)
𝑑
3. (ln 𝑢) = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑢

Trigonometric Functions

𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 𝑑(𝑢)
1. 𝑑𝑥 (sin 𝑢) = cos 𝑢 4. 𝑑𝑥 (cot 𝑢) = −csc 2 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 𝑑(𝑢)
2. (cos 𝑢) = −sin 𝑢 5. (sec 𝑢) = sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 𝑑(𝑢)
3. 𝑑𝑥 (tan 𝑢) = sec 2 𝑢 6. 𝑑𝑥 (csc 𝑢) = −csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

𝑑 1 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 −1 𝑑(𝑢)
1. 𝑑𝑥 (sin−1 𝑢) = √1−𝑢2 4. 𝑑𝑥 (cot −1 𝑢) = 1+𝑢2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 −1 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 1 𝑑(𝑢)
2. 𝑑𝑥 (cos −1 𝑢) = √1−𝑢2 5. 𝑑𝑥 (sec −1 𝑢) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑢√𝑢2 −1 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 −1 𝑑(𝑢)
3. 𝑑𝑥 (tan−1 𝑢) = 1+𝑢2 6. 𝑑𝑥 (csc −1 𝑢) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑢√𝑢2 −1 𝑑𝑥

Hyperbolic Functions

𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑
1. 𝑑𝑥 (sinh 𝑢) = cosh 𝑢 5. 𝑑𝑥 (sech 𝑢) =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑢)
𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) −sech 𝑢 tanh 𝑢
2. 𝑑𝑥 (cosh 𝑢) = sinh 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑑 2 𝑑(𝑢) 6. 𝑑𝑥 (csch 𝑢) =
3. 𝑑𝑥 (tanh 𝑢) = sech 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑢)
−csch 𝑢 coth 𝑢
𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑𝑥
4. 𝑑𝑥 (coth 𝑢) = −csch2 𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

𝑑 1 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑 1 𝑑(𝑢)
1. 𝑑𝑥 (sinh−1 𝑢) = √𝑢2 5. 𝑑𝑥 (sech−1 𝑢) = ;
+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑢√𝑢2 −1 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
2. 𝑑𝑥 (cosh−1 𝑢) = √𝑢2
1 𝑑(𝑢)
; |𝑥 | > 1 0<𝑢<1
−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −1 𝑑(𝑢)
𝑑 1 𝑑(𝑢) 6. 𝑑𝑥 (csch−1 𝑢) = |𝑢|√1+𝑢2 ;𝑢 ≠ 0
3. 𝑑𝑥 (tanh−1 𝑢) = 1−𝑢2 ; |𝑥| < 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑(𝑢)
4. 𝑑𝑥 (coth−1 𝑢) = 1−𝑢2 ; |𝑥| > 1
𝑑𝑥

Higher Order Derivatives

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦
𝑛
= ( 𝑛−1 ) = 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑥
Average Rate of Change
Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
=
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥
Instantaneous Rate of Change
Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
Δ𝑥 𝛥𝑥→0 Δ𝑥
Integral Calculus
Basic Integrals

1. ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 + 𝑐

2. ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑐 ; a is a constant

𝑢𝑛+1
3. ∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝑐 ; 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1

𝑑𝑢
4. ∫ = ln 𝑢 + 𝑐
𝑢

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1. ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝑐 4. ∫ ln 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 ln 𝑢 − 𝑢 + 𝑐

𝑎𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2. ∫ 𝑎𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ln 𝑎 + 𝑐 5. ∫ 𝑢 ln 𝑢 = ln|ln 𝑢| + 𝑐

3. ∫ 𝑢𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 (𝑢 − 1) + 𝑐

Trigonometric Functions

1. ∫ sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cos 𝑢 + 𝑐 8. ∫ cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ln|sin 𝑢| + 𝑐

2. ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝑐 9. ∫ sec 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ln|sec 𝑢 + tan 𝑢| + 𝑐

3. ∫ sec 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢 + 𝑐 10. ∫ csc 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ln|csc 𝑢 − cot 𝑢| + 𝑐

1 1
4. ∫ csc 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cot 𝑢 + 𝑐 11. ∫ sin2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑢 − 4 sin 2𝑢 + 𝑐

5. ∫ sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑢 + 𝑐 1 1

12. ∫ cos 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑢 + 4 sin 2𝑢 + 𝑐
6. ∫ csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − csc 𝑢 + 𝑐
13. ∫ tan2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢 − 𝑢 + 𝑐
7. ∫ tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ln|sec 𝑢| + 𝑐
14. ∫ cot 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = −cot 𝑢 − 𝑢 + 𝑐

Transformation by Trigonometric Formulas

Type I

∫ sin𝑚 𝑥 cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ sin𝑚 𝑥 cos 𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Whose either m or n is a positive cos 2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥

odd integer, Use
Type II
∫ tan𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 or ∫ cot 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Where n is an integer, Use
tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1 or cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥 − 1
Type III
∫ tan𝑚 𝑥 sec 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 or ∫ cot 𝑚 𝑥 csc 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Where n is an integer, Use
tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1 or cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥 − 1
Type IV
1
sin2 𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑥)
2
∫ sin𝑚 𝑥 cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
cos 2 𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑥)
Where both m & n are positive even 2
integer, Use 1
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = sin 2𝑥
2
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
𝑑𝑢 𝑢
∫ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin +𝑐 ;𝑎 > 0
√𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑎
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
∫ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan + 𝑐
𝑎2 +𝑢 2 𝑎 𝑎
Integration by parts

∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

Trigonometric Substitution
When the integrand involves
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , use 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , use 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃
𝑥 2 −𝑎2 , use 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃
𝑦
sin 𝜃 =
𝑎
a
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
y
𝑥
𝜃 cos 𝜃 =
𝑎
z
𝑎 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
Integration of Rational Functions of Sines and Cosines
Use the substitution
𝑥
𝑧 = tan
2
Which gives us
1 − 𝑧2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑧2
2𝑧
sin 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑧2
2𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥 =
1 + 𝑧2
Applications of Indefinite Integration
1. Family of Curves (differential equation)
𝑑𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥) , then
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥) SLOPE
𝑑𝑥

From 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
Integrate both Sides
𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐2
𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐2 − 𝑐1
Where 𝑐 = 𝑐2 − 𝑐1
Thus, 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐
2. Rectilinear Motion
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑠
𝑎= 𝑉=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝑐

Definite Integration
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥)|𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑥)|𝑎
𝑎
Properties of Definite Integral
𝑎 𝑏
1. ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
2. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
3. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ; given that 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏
𝑏 𝑏
4. ∫𝑎 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ; where 𝑘 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
5. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Wallis Formula (John Wallis)

𝜋
2
[(𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 3) … 1 𝑜𝑟 2][(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 3) … 1 𝑜𝑟 2]
∫ sin𝑚 𝜃 cos 𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝛼
(𝑚 + 𝑛)(𝑚 + 𝑛 − 2)(𝑚 + 𝑛 − 4) … 1 𝑜𝑟 2
0

Where:
𝜋
𝛼= if both m and n are even
2

𝛼 = 1 if otherwise
Geometrical Application of Definite Integral
1. Area under the curve

For Vertical Strip For Horizontal Strip

𝑏 𝑑
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑐

2. Area between two curves

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

For Vertical Strip For Horizontal Strip

𝑏 𝑏
∫ (𝑦𝑈 − 𝑦𝐿 ) 𝑑𝑥 ∫ (𝑥𝑅 − 𝑥𝐿 ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎

Where: Where:
𝑦𝑈 − 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥𝑅 − 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑦𝐿 − 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥𝐿 − 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3. Area in Polar Coordinates
1 𝛼 2 1 𝛼 2
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝐴 = ∫ (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 2 )𝑑𝜃
2 𝛽 2 𝛽

4. Volume of a Solid Revolution

a. Disc Method
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑ℎ
𝑎

b. Washer/Ring Method
𝑏 𝑏
2
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )𝑑ℎ 2
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑥2 2 − 𝑥1 2 )𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑦2 2 − 𝑦1 2 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎
c. Cylindrical Shell Method
For Vertical Strip For Horizontal Strip
𝑏 𝑏
𝑉 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑉 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎

5. Volume with Known Cross Sections

𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝐴(𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑎

6. Length of an Arc (s)

𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑏
𝑑𝑟 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃
𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝜃
𝑏
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑑𝑦
7. Area of Surface Revolution
𝑏 2 2
𝐴 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑠 √(𝑑𝑥 ) + (𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝜃 if 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝜃), 𝑦 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑎
𝑔(𝜃)
Where 𝑑𝑠 =
2
𝑑𝑦 2
√𝑟 2 + ( 𝑑𝑟 ) 𝑑𝜃 if 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃)
√1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥

2
√1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦 if 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
Physical Apparatus of Definite Integral
1. Force of Fluid Pressure
𝐹 = 𝑊ℎ𝐴
𝑏
𝐹 = 𝑊 ∫ ℎ 𝑑𝐴
𝑎

2. Work
a. For Springs
𝑏
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Where
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥
And k is a spring constant
b. Pumping Volumes
𝑏
𝑊 = 𝑊 ∫ ℎ 𝑑𝑉
𝑎

3. First Moment of Plane Areas

𝑀𝜆 = ∫ 𝑙 𝑑𝐴

Where 𝑙 − distance between the fixed line 𝜆 and typical rectangular 𝑑𝐴