Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house", or "environment"; -λογία, "study of") is the scientific analysis and

study of interactions among organisms and their environment.

It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology, geography, and Earth science.

Ecology includes the study of interactions that organisms have with each other, other organisms, and
with abiotic components of their environment.

The word "ecology" ("Ökologie") was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919).

Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics.

Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their
studies on natural history.

Modern ecology became a much more rigorous science in the late 19th century.

Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of
modern ecological theory.

The scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level
(e.g., cells) to a planetary scale (e.g., biosphere) phenomena.

Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms (i.e., individual organisms
that aggregate into populationswhich aggregate into distinct ecological communities).

Ecosystems are dynamic, they do not always follow a linear successional path, but they are always
changing, sometimes rapidly and sometimes so slowly that it can take thousands of years for ecological
processes to bring about certain successional stages of a forest.

An ecosystem's area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of little consequence to the
classification of a forest ecosystem, but critically relevant to organisms living in and on it.

Several generations of an aphid population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids,
in turn, support diverse bacterial communities.

The nature of connections in ecological communities cannot be explained by knowing the details of each
species in isolation, because the emergent pattern is neither revealed nor predicted until the ecosystem
is studied as an integrated whole.

Some ecological principles, however, do exhibit collective properties where the sum of the components
explain the properties of the whole, such as birth rates of a population being equal to the sum of individual
births over a designated time frame.

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life and its processes. It includes the variety of living organisms, the
genetic differences among them, the communities and ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological
and evolutionary processes that keep them functioning, yet ever changing and adapting.

The habitat of a species describes the environment over which a species is known to occur and the type
of community that is formed as a result.

The ecological niche is a central concept in the ecology of organisms and is sub-divided into
the fundamental and the realized niche.

1. The fundamental niche is the set of environmental conditions under which a species is able to
persist.
2. The realized niche is the set of environmental plus ecological conditions under which a species
persists.
3. The Hutchinsonian niche is defined more technically as a
"Euclideanhyperspace whose dimensions are defined as environmental variables and
whose size is a function of the number of values that the environmental values may assume for
which an organism has positive fitness."

Biomes are larger units of organization that categorize regions of the Earth's ecosystems, mainly according
to the structure and composition of vegetation.

The largest scale of ecological organization is the biosphere: the total sum of ecosystems on the planet.
Subdivisions of Ecology

Ecology was earlier divided into plant and animal ecology. However, modem ecology does not make any
such distinction since plants and animals are intimately interconnected and interdependent amongst
themselves and on their environment. The three main subdivisions of ecology today are given below:

i) Autecology: It is the study of individual species or individuals in relation to the environment. There are
two approaches to autecological studies (a) autecology of species where individual species are studied (b)
population ecology where individuals of the same species are studied.

ii) Synecology: It is the study of the community of living organisms as a unit. The difference between
autecology and synecology could be explained by the following example. If a neem tree (or several peem
trees) or a crow (or several crows) are studied in relation to the environment then this would be an
autecological study. However, if the study deals with a forest community as a whole in which many
different buds, trees and animals share the same area, then it would be called a synecological approach.
Synecological studies can be of two types. a) community ecology is concerned with the study of biotic
(living) community comprising of interdependent plants and animals in a particular area, b) ecosystem
ecology which is a recent development in ecology. It deals with the community of living organisms and
their environment as an integrated unit of nature.

1. Population ecology. It deals with the growth, trophic structure, metabolism and regulation of a
population.
2. Community ecology. It deals with the ecology of different populations in the same habitat and
same environmental conditions.
3. Taxonomic ecology. It is concerned with the ecology of different taxonomic groups, viz. microbial
ecology, mammalian ecology, insect ecology and so on.
4. Habitat ecology. It includes the study of animals and plants in different habitats. According to
habitat, it can be further divided into freshwater ecology, marine ecology, terrestrial ecology,
forest ecology and desert ecology.
5. Human ecology. It deals with the effects of human activities on environment and vice versa.
6. Applied ecology. It deals with the application of ecological concepts to human needs including
wild life management, biological control, forestry and conservation of natural resources.
7. Chemical ecology. It is concerned with the chemical affinity or preferences shown by different,
organisms.
8. Physiological ecology (ecophysiology). Physiological adaptation according to ecological conditions
are dealt in ecophysiology.
9. Palaeo-ecology. It deals with the environmental conditions and life of the past ages.
Palaeontology and radioactive dating have aided significandy in the study of palaeo-ecology.
10. Evolutionary ecology. It deals with evolutionary problems like speciation and segregation.
11. Gynaecology(ecological-genetics). Relationship of environment with genetic variability are
considered in gynaecology.
12. Eco-geography. It studies the geographical distribution of plants and animals in different
environments—collectively called as biomes.
13. Pedology. It deals with the study of soil and refers to its nature like acidity, alkalinity, humus
contents, mineral contents, soil types and so forth.
14. Ethology. It is the study of animal behaviour in different environments under their natural
conditions.
15. Sociology. When ecology and ethology are combined it becomes sociology.
16. System ecology. When the structure and function of an ecosystem is analysed using applied
mathematics, statistics or computer, it is called as system ecology.

iii) Habitat ecology : It is the study of the habitat or environment of organisms and its effect on the
organisms. In this approach different types of habitats such as terrestrial, fresh water, marine, and
estuarine are the focus of study.

Concept of an Ecosystem:
The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley to
encompass the interactions among biotic and abiotic components of the environment at
a given site. The living and non-living components of an ecosystem are known as biotic
and abiotic components, respectively.
Ecosystem was defined in its presently accepted form by Eugene Odum as, “an unit that
includes all the organisms, i.e., the community in a given area interacting with the
physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure,
biotic diversity and material cycles, i.e., exchange of materials between living and non-
living, within the system”.

Smith (1966) has summarized common characteristics of most of the

ecosystems as follows:
1. The ecosystem is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.

2. The structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity in the sense that
complex ecosystem have high species diversity.

3. The function of ecosystem is related to energy flow and material cycles within and
outside the system.

4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its

structure. Complex ecosystems needed less energy to maintain themselves.

5. Young ecosystems develop and change from less complex to more complex
ecosystems, through the process called succession.

6. Each ecosystem has its own energy budget, which cannot be exceeded.

7. Adaptation to local environmental conditions is the important feature of the biotic

components of an ecosystem, failing which they might perish.

8. The function of every ecosystem involves a series of cycles, e.g., water cycle, nitrogen
cycle, oxygen cycle, etc. these cycles are driven by energy. A continuation or existence of
ecosystem demands exchange of materials/nutrients to and from the different
components.

Types of Ecosystem:
We can classify ecosystems as follows:
(a) Natural Ecosystems:
These ecosystems are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any
major interference by man.

A classification based on their habitat can further be made:

1. Terrestrial ecosystems: forest, grassland and desert.

2. Aquatic ecosystems: fresh water ecosystem, viz. pond, lake, river and marine
ecosystems, viz. ocean, sea or estuary.

(b) Artificial Ecosystem:

These are maintained by man. These are manipulated by man for different purposes,
e.g., croplands, artificial lakes and reservoirs, townships and cities.

Basic Structure of an Ecosystem:

Every ecosystem has a non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) components.
Abiotic Components:
Basic inorganic compounds of an organism, habitat or an area like carbon dioxide,
water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, etc. that are involved in the material cycles are
collectively called as abiotic component. The amount of these inorganic substances
present at any given time, in an ecosystem is called as the standing state or standing
quality of an ecosystem.

Whereas, organic components e.g., proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids that
are synthesized by the biotic counterpart of an ecosystem make the biochemical
structure of the ecosystem. The physical environment, viz. climatic and weather
conditions are also included in the abiotic structure of the ecosystem.

Abiotic factors refer to non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem.
Abiotic resources are usually obtained from the lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere. Examples of abiotic factors are water, air, soil, sunlight, and minerals.

Water and Temperature are

the two abiotic factors that
affect most organisms in the
Environment.
Solar Radiation – the sun’s energy which is the product of massive nuclear fusion
reaction
Light – is necessary for photosynthesis which in turn is the source of energy in almost
all ecosystem
Temperature – the ability to withstand and extremes in temperature widely vary among
plants and animals
Climate – is an average conditions and the extremes that occur in a given place over a
period of years
The Atmosphere – is an invisible layer of gases that envelops Earth

Biotic Components:
From the trophic (nutritional) point of view, an ecosystem has autotrophic (self-
nourishing) and a heterotrophic (other nourishing) components:

(a) Autotrophic component (Producers):

This component is mainly constituted by the green plants, algae and all photosynthetic
organisms. Chemosynthetic bacteria, photosynthetic bacteria, algae, grasses, mosses,
shrubs, herbs and trees manufacture food from simple inorganic substances by fixing
energy and are therefore called as producers.

(b) Heterotrophic component (Consumers):

The members of this component cannot make their own food. They consume the matter
built by the producers and are therefore called as consumers. They may be herbivores,
carnivores or omnivores. Herbivores are called as primary consumers whereas
carnivores and omnivores are called as secondary consumers. Collectively we can call
them as macro-consumers.

(c) Decomposers:
Heterotrophic organisms chiefly bacteria and fungi that breakdown the complex
compounds of dead protoplasm, absorb some of the products and release simple
substances usable by the producers are called as decomposers or reducers. Collectively
we call them as micro consumers.

Biotic factors are living or once-living organisms in the ecosystem. These are obtained
from the biosphere and are capable of reproduction. Examples of biotic factors are
animals, birds, plants, fungi, and other similar organisms.

Examples

Water, light, wind, All living things —

soil, humidity, autotrophs and
minerals, gases. heterotrophs —
plants, animals,
fungi, bacteria.

Factors

Affect the ability Living things that

of organisms to directly or
survive, indirectly affect
reproduce; help organisms in
determine types environment;
and numbers of organisms,
organisms able to interactions,
exist in waste;
environment; parasitism,
limiting factors disease,
restrict growth. predation.

Affects

Individual of a Individual of a
species, species,
population, population,
community, community,
ecosystem, ecosystem,
biome, biosphere. biome,
biosphere.
 Ecosystems can be described as closed or openaccording to whether matter moves into
and out of the system
 A closed ecosystem exchanges energy but not matterwith its surroundings – it is self-contained
(e.g. mesocosm)
 An open ecosystem exchanges both energy and matter with surrounding environments (e.g. a
natural ecosystem)
Processes of Ecosystems
This figure with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth illustrates the two main ideas about how
ecosystems function: ecosystems have energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials.
These two processes are linked, but they are not quite the same (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Energy flows and material cycles.

Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into
chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and
respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it
is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the continued
input of solar energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the Earth is
an open system with respect to energy.

Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of

ways. Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils. Animals
may also obtain elements directly from the physical environment, but usually they obtain
these mainly as a consequence of consuming other organisms. These materials are
transformed biochemically within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to
 excretion or decomposition, they are returned to an inorganic state (that is, inorganic
material such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, instead of those elements being bound
up in organic matter). Often bacteria complete this process, through the process called
decomposition or mineralization (see next lecture on microbes).

During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the Earth is a closed
system with respect to elements (with the exception of a meteorite entering the system
now and then). The elements are cycled endlessly between their biotic and abiotic states
within ecosystems. Those elements whose supply tends to limit biological activity are
called nutrients.

What is Biological Control?

Biological control is a component of an integrated pest management strategy. It is defined as the reduction of pest populations by natural enemies

and typically involves an active human role. Keep in mind that all insect species are also suppressed by naturally occurring organisms and

environmental factors, with no human input. This is frequently referred to as natural control. This guide emphasizes the biological control of

insects but biological control of weeds and plant diseases is also included. Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control

agents, include predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control of weeds includes insects and pathogens. Biological control agents of

plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists.

Predators, such as lady beetles and lacewings, are mainly free-living species that consume a large number of prey during their lifetime.

Parasitoids are species whose immature stage develops on or within a single insect host, ultimately killing the host. Many species of wasps and

some flies are parasitoids. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their host and

are relatively specific to certain insect groups. Each of these natural enemy groups is discussed in much greater detail in following sections.

The behaviors and life cycles of natural enemies can be relatively simple or extraordinarily complex, and not all natural enemies of insects are

beneficial to crop production. For example, hyperparasitoids are parasitoids of other parasitoids. In potatoes grown in Maine, 22 parasitoids of

aphids were identified, yet these were attacked by 18 additional species of hyperparasitoids.

This guide concentrates on those species for which the benefits of their presence outweigh any disadvantages. A successful natural enemy

should have a high reproductive rate, good searching ability, host specificity, be adaptable to different environmental conditions, and be

synchronized with its host (pest).

A high reproductive rate is important so that populations of the natural enemy can rapidly increase when hosts are available. The natural enemy

must be effective at searching for its host and it should be searching for only one or a few host species. Spiders, for example, feed on many

different hosts including other natural enemies. It is also very important that the natural enemy occur at the same time as its host. For example, if

the natural enemy is an egg parasitoid, it must be present when host eggs are available. No natural enemy has all these attributes, but those with

several characteristics will be more important in helping maintain pest populations.

There are three broad and somewhat overlapping types of biological control: conservation, classical biological control (introduction of natural
enemies to a new locale), and augmentation