Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences

Lecture Notes

The Emergence of Social Sciences

Aristotle (student of Plato) Greek Philosopher
 Who wrote that “man is a rational animal”
 We are all born and raised in a society
 Man is a social being (Hans-Georg Gadamer, German philosopher)
 We interact with one another and build relationship in the hope of pursuing better life
 We may share a distinct culture, same political dynamics, or similar institutions
 As a rational animal, hence, we use our reason in order to satisfy our curiosity and discover the “how and why” of so many
things around us
The Human Knowledge
 In our contemporary times, the human knowledge has so many point of view to use in order to see things
 There exist several classification of the human knowledge that has broad categories such as social science, natural science
and humanities
Natural Science
 In this source of knowledge this includes biology, chemistry, earth sciences, physics
 Natural science actually explain and attempt to predict various phenomena in nature such cellular composition, atomic
particles, weather conditions and earthquake patterns
Philosophy
 It is easier to do rather than to define (Fr. Roque Ferriols)
 It is an Active realization of truth (Indian Philosophy)
 This includes Metaphysics (nature of existence), Epistemology (theory of knowledge), Theodicy (God) , Phenomenology
(exprience and meaning)
 The study of fundamental nature of knowledge, reality and existence
Humanities
 It is a branch of knowledge that tends to humanize human as they express themselves in various forms
 This includes art and art history; literature, and music among others
Important Terms:
 Domain: a sphere of knowledge, influence or activity
 Discipline: a particular branch of learning or body of knowledge, such as physics, sociology and history
 Empiricism: the view that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable or knowable only through experience
or senses – Empirical knowledge
Contemporary Sources of Knowledge
 These are the domains pertain to the applied professions that involves practical application of the theories of knowledge to a
actual or situational phenomena which is applicable for a domain
 Examples: Business Administration, Communications, Technology Criminal Justice, Education, Engineering, Law, Social
Work, Nursing and Medicine
 Social Sciences and Natural Sciences which are based on empirical knowledge – evident phenomena and can be tested for
its accuracy
Society
 Defined as “people in general thought of living together in organized communities with shared laws, traditions and values”
(Merriam-Webster)
 A group of people may be regulated by the same set of norms with shared values and tradition
 Interaction of people they may gain benefits which are impossible when they work individually
 The term ‘social’ is closely related human society as it refers to the interaction of individuals and groups as well as the welfare
of humans as members of the society
Science
 Pertains to “knowledge about or study of the natural world based on facts learned through experiments and observation” in
the strict sense – a body of knowledge
 Refers to the different methods or modes of inquiry utilized in order t obtain knowledge
 Often times the scientific study related with matter, rocks, plants, constellations, motion that in cam be utilized systematically
to study intricacies of human experience, such as attitudes, behaviour, opinions, feeling, and ideologies among others.

Important Characteristics of Science

 Empirical – a phenomenon should be observable using the different senses
 Propositional – things are explained in the form of statements of generalizations
 Logical – employs the rules of logic in order to validate inferences
 Public – ideas are communicated from one scientist to another
 Problem-solving – presents rational explanations about unexplained observations
 Continuous – knowledge is built upon by previous and future research on the subject
The Scientific Method
1. Topic - the researcher selects a particular subject matter depending on his or her interest
2. Problem – the researcher defines the nature of the problem where a theory can be develop along the way; this is the most important
phase of inquiry
3. Hypothesis – the researcher formulates a general statement of the problem that could give him or her idea on what data to gather or
omit. An idea or theory that is not proven but that leads to further discussion
4. Methods of Inquiry or Data Gathering – this is the stage of empirical research involving the use of senses and/or precision
instruments; phenomenon must be carefully and accurately described and recorded
5. Analysis – the researcher may find patterns and relationships that could help in the analysis of gathered data; this the stage of
classifying and organizing data
6. Conclusion – the researcher formulates a scientific theory after a thorough analysis of data; a theory can be changed or revised
depending on the result of future research projects

The Importance of Social Sciences

 The social sciences may help us to figure out the complexities of human behaviour and relations as it attempts to solve the
aforementioned societal problems
 Social science is significant in the society as it may help researchers solve the complexities of human behaviour in order to
help alleviate problems and improve human condition
Anthropology
 The rise of Western imperialism in 18th and 19th centuries prompted interest in the study of culture of the colonies
 Key Personalities: Franz Boas, Bronislaw Malinowski
• Importance: To study the past to interpret the present; to learn the basic assumption of human being about life; to be
interested in the different norms and culture; to know the different cultures of the other nations; to understand them and
respect
• It is the study of humankind
• Greek word anthropos – human and logos – word or study of
• It an amalgamation of natural science particularly in biology and social sciences
• Therefore, anthropology is partly natural science and partly a social science
• Ex. Knowing the origin of humankind
• Compared to other social sciences, anthropology is wider in scope both geographically and historically
• Anthropologist excavate numerous places for fossils and other material remains that once belongs in the past
Branches of Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Cultural anthropology
• Archaeology
Physical Anthropology
• Biological anthropology is its other name
• It is the study of human biology within the milieu (A person’s social environment) of evolution
• This centers primarily on the human biological origins and the variations in human species
• The physical anthropologists also analyse human fossil remains
• They are now thousands specimen of human ancestors being house in museum and research collections all over the world
• They also excavate and study these hardened remains as they try to formulate theories on the origin of humans and
subsequent variation
Sub disciplines of Physical Anthropology
• Paleanthropology – human evolution; earlier hominids
• Genetics – gene structure; patterns of inheritance of traits
• Primatology – non-human primates
• Osteology – skeletal remains
• Paleopathology – traces of disease and injury in human skeletal remains
• Forensic Anthropology – analysis and identification of human remains
Cultural Anthropology
• Involves the study and comparative analysis of literate societies, including all aspects of human behaviour
• This includes religion, ritual, myth, technology, gender roles, kinship forms, economic and political structures; music and
folklore
• Ethnography: a means to study and record the different ways of human societies and provides descriptive accounts which
form the basis for comparative studies of many cultures
Another Sub-Disciplines of Anthropology
• Urban Anthropology – issues of cities such as poverty, immigration and social stratification
• Medical Anthropology – relationship between culture and health or diseases
• Economic Anthropology – distribution of goods and resources within and between cultures

Archaeology
• Involves the study of earlier cultures and ways of life by the way of retrieving and examining the material remains of previous
human societies
• Archaeologist attempt to reconstruct the everyday life and customs of early people, they also seek to explain the different
cultural changes that happened over time

Linguistic Archaeology
• Study of human speech and language as well as the various changes that have taken palace over time
• This tries to comprehend different processes in human communication, language use.

Economics
 Became a separate discipline with the publication of Adams Smith’s The Wealth of Nations in 1776
 Key personalities: Adams Smith(Father of Economics), Karl Marx
 It is the Study of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services; focuses on the behavior and interactions of
economic agents and how economies work.
  Importance: To know how the societies, governments, businesses, households and individuals allocate their scarce resources

and how they interact with each other in producing and maintaining livelihoods.
• Is a discipline that concentrates on how a particular society solves its problem of scarcity of resources
• Greek word oikos – house and nomos – custom or law
• The term oikonomia literally translates as “management of a house hold”
• Goal: to develop better policies in order to minimize problems and maximize the benefits of everyday work
Economist
• Economists seeks to understand people’s activities concerning production, distribution and consumption of goods and
services
• They analyse key concepts pertaining to supply and demand, savings and investments, cost and price; economic fluctuations,
finance, capital and wealth
• In essence, they ask What goods are produced?, How these goods are produced? And For whom they are produced?
Goals of Economics
Economic Growth Price-level stability
Economic Freedom Work efficiency
Equitable distribution of income Economic efficiency
Full employment Economic security
Balance of trade

Macroeconomics
• Analyses how the economics functions as a whole or its basic subdivisions such as the government or the business sectors
• Also study inflation and unemployment why some nations are well-off while some others under huge dept.
• Includes total output, total employment, total income and general level of prices
Microeconomics
• Focuses on the behaviour of individual agents, like household, industries and firms
• Economists evaluate how prices of goods and services are usually pegged and what factors determine the value of land,
labor and capital
• Experts measures price of specific product, number of workers employed by a single firm or expenditures of a certain family

Geography
 Became academic discipline in Europe during 18th and 19 centuries while many geographic societies were founded in the 19th
century
 Key personalities: Immanuel Kant, Alexader von Humboldt, Carl Ritter
 The study of the places and the relationships between people and their environments.
 To study the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena of the earth and planets. (Science)
 Importance: to learn how the world’s basic physical systems work and affect our everyday life; to know other cultural
locations, how their locations and climates affects their lifestyles.
• It the of the features of the earth and and the location living things on the planet
• Greek word geographia – to describe the earth (literal)
• Geo – earth; graphe; – to describe
• Also deals with different human activities aside from studying mountains, rivers and plants

History
 The Greeks were the first writers of history is one of the oldest of the social sciences
 Key Personalities: Herodotus (the father of History),Thucydides, Leopold von Ranke
 Study of the past, its events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation and interpretation of
information about these events
 Importance: It allows us to understand the past and the present; it provides insights into our cultures of origin as well as
cultures with which we might be less familiar.
• Is a branch of knowledge that attempts to ascertain, record and explain facts and events that happened in the past
• Greek word historia – inquiry
• One of the oldest Social Science tracing its origin in the myths and traditions of early people that were passed from one
generation to the other
• For the historians, it very ambitious to unfold and interpret human thoughts and actions that are ever changing while relying
on written accounts that may have incompletely survive in the past
Social History
• Experiences of common people
• Sample work: Crime, Society and the State in the 19th Century Philippines (Greg Bakoff, Atenoe de Manila University, 1996)
Cultural History
• Customs, arts, traditions
• Sample work: Balatik:Etnoastronomiya Kalangitan sa Kabihasnang Pilipino (Dante L. Ambrosio, The University of the
Philippines Press, 2010)
Political History
• Political ideas, events, movements, parties leaders
• Sample work: Illustrado Politics: Filipino Elite Responses to American Rule (Micheal Cullinane, Ateneo de Manila University
Press, 2003
Economic History
• Economic occurrences , way of living distribution of goods
 • Sample work: The Tobacco Monopoly in the Philippines: Bureaucratic Enterprise and Social Change 1766 – 1880 (Ed. C. de
Hesus, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1980)

Diplomatic History
• International relations between states
• Sample work: The United States and the Philippines: A Study of Neocolonialism (Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, New Day
Publishers, 1986)
Military History
• Military affairs, strategies, doctrine, armed conflict
• Sample work: Filipino – American War 1899 – 1913 (Samuel K. Tan University of the Philippines Press, 2002)
Other Branches of History
• History of Religion
• History of Women
• Environmental History

Linguistics
 Modern linguistics started to develop in the 18 century with philology reaching its zenith in the 19 century
 Key personalities: Ferdinand de Saussure, Jacques Derrida, Hans Georg- Gadamer, Jurgen Habermas
 The study of language and of the way language work, its structure, including the study of morphology, syntax, phonetics and
semantics.
 Importance: to communicate to the other nations; to understand the language of the other nations; to understand how
language change over time; to easily identify the people you are communicating with.

• Is a field of knowledge involving the scientific study of language as a universal and recognizable aspect of human behaviour
and capacity
• Linguists study changes that have taken place on various language over time as well as their modern variations
• “man is a linguistic being” – Hans Georg Gadamer (Man and Language)
• “A good speaker do not borrow words from the other languages rather steals words from other language” - Fr. Roque
Ferriols, SJ (A Memoir of 6 Years, 1978)
General Linguistics
• Concepts and categories of language or languages; theory of language
Micro Linguistics
• Structure of language systems
• Phonetics – study of correct pronunciations of words
• Phonology – study of sounds of the language
• Morphology – study of language form
• Syntax – study of how words form into phrases
• Semantics – the study of meanings of words or terms
Macro Linguistics
• External view of language
• Stylistics - the study of the distinctive styles found in particular literary genres and in the works of individual writers.
• Developmental Linguistics - the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly the acquisition of
language in childhood
• Historical Linguistics - the study of language change
• Language Geography - the study of the spatial patterns of languages
• Psycholinguistics - the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use
• Sociolinguistics - the study of social patterns and norms of linguistic variability
• Clinical Linguistics - the application of linguistic theory to the area of Speech-Language Pathology

Political Science
 As an academic discipline. Political Science is a relatively new field that was principally worked on by American scholars in
the 19th and 20th centuries
 Key personalities: Plato, Aristotle, Augustine of Hippo, Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke
 The branch of social science which deals with systems of governance, and the analysis of political activities, political thoughts
and political behavior.
 Importance: to understand the mechanism and constitutional systems of modern government; to understand the principles of
government, the domestic and foreign policies of the nation.
• It deals with both theory and practice of politics, including analysis on public policies and laws
• Study of governments and need for the institution, its form and its processes
• Key concepts: state, politics, power and ideology as well as the effects of these notions on individuals and groups, country
• People or Nation
• Government
• Territory
• Sovereignty and Jurisdiction
• Independence
• Recognition from the other country
Democracy
• It is the government of the people, by the people and for the people
Sociology
 As a formal academic field of study was founded by Emile Durkheim during late 19th century with establishment of the first
sociology department in Europe

 Key Personalities: Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim
 The study of society; the social problems, the functioning of human society, its relationships
 Importance: to find out what are the possible solutions to be applied for the social problems being encountered by the society
• Is a field of study dealing with systematic study of patterns of human interaction
• Patterns are affected, controlled or arrange by historical events, beliefs and practices or various social influences on an
individual , a family or larger group of people
• Latin word socius – companion; Greek word logos – word of study of
• Concentrates on the social influences or processes occurring within the group of people rather that those forces affecting an
individual
• The science of society
• Interested in discovering repetitive and general patterns in human behaviour as people interact with one another
General Sociology
• Deals with the properties and homogeneity common to all social and cultural phenomena, including those characteristics
found among groups and institutions
• Concern may include the conditions, forms and forces of human association
Special Sociology
• Focuses on specific sociocultural phenomenon usually selected for further study, including socialization, interaction, conflict
and denomination
• Examples of the most developed sociologies as field of study include sociology of population, sociology of law, sociology of
religion and sociology of knowledge
Social Organization
• Topics: social institutions, groups, inequality, mobility, stratification, bureaucracy, ethnic groups, family, education, politics,
religion
Social Change
• Topics: changes in culture and social relations and the disruptions occurring in society; ecological changes, cultural change,
modernization

Sociological Theory and Method

• Topic: principles and theories about the social environment
Applied Sociology
• Topics: resolution of social problems through research in social work, counselling, criminology

Psychology
 In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig (Germany) thereby effectively making
Psychology a formal field of study
 Key personalities: Wilhelm Wundt, G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, Sigmund Freud
 The study of the mind and behavior.
 Importance: to explore behavior and mental processes of a person; to treat mental health issues and improve education,
employment and relationships
• Deals with the nature of human behaviours, both internal and external factors that affects these behaviours
• Latin word psychologia combining psych – spirit or soul; and logia – study of
• Literal meaning study of soul
• Concentrates individuals and various forces that mold them
• Physical Sciences: it draws out knowledge on the physical structure of humans, including nervous system and stages
maturation
• Social Sciences: it obtains information about the social world such as motivation emotions, behaviour and attitude
• Four Goals: to describe, explain, predict and change behaviours
• Key concepts: Cognition, perception, thought, personality and motivation

Demography
 The 19th century saw the emergence of demography when it separated from statistics as field of study
 Key personalities: Thomas Malthus, Adolphe Quetelet, William Farr
 The study of the statistics such as births, deaths, income or incidence of disease which illustrates the changing structure of
human population; statistical study of populations especially human beings
• Is the science and statistical study of human population
• French word demographie derive from Greek word demos – people; and graphie
• Three Demographic processes: 1. Birth; 2. Migration; 3. Aging and Death
• To comprehend the mechanisms behind human population
• Categorized under the disciplines in the Social Science
• Also in Sociology – Topics: population dynamics, change, composition, quality