Medical imaging information), can be seen as forms of medical

imaging.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about imaging techniques and Contents

modalities for the human body. For imaging of [hide]

animals in research, see Preclinical imaging.

• 1 Overview
This article needs
additional citations for verif • 2 Imaging technology
ication.
Please help improve this article by • 3 Radiography
adding reliable references. Unsourced
material may o 3.1 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
be challenged and removed.(June
2009) o 3.2 Nuclear medicine

 3.2.1 Photoacoustic imaging

Medical imaging is the technique and process
o 3.3 Breast Thermography
used to create images of the human body (or parts
and function thereof) for clinical purposes (medical o 3.4 Tomography

procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose or o 3.5 Ultrasound

examine disease) or medical science (including the • 4 Medical imaging topics

study of normal anatomy andphysiology). Although o 4.1 Maximizing imaging procedure use

imaging of removed organs and tissues can be o 4.2 Creation of three-dimensional images
performed for medical reasons, such procedures o 4.3 Compression of medical images
are not usually referred to as medical imaging, but o 4.4 Non-diagnostic imaging
rather are a part of pathology. o 4.5 Archiving and recording

As a discipline and in its widest sense, it is part o 4.6 Open source software for medical

of biological imaging and incorporates radiology (in image analysis

the wider sense), nuclear medicine, o 4.7 Use in pharmaceutical clinical trials
investigative radiological sciences, endoscopy, • 5 See also
(medical) thermography, medical photography • 6 References
and microscopy (e.g. for human pathological
• 7 Further reading
investigations).
• 8 External links
Measurement and recording techniques which are
not primarily designed to produce images, such [edit]Overview
as electroencephalography (EEG),magnetoenceph
In the clinical context, "invisible light" medical
alography (MEG), Electrocardiography (EKG) and
imaging is generally equated to radiology or
others, but which produce data susceptible to be
"clinical imaging" and the medical practitioner
represented as maps (i.e. containing positional
responsible for interpreting (and sometimes
acquiring) the images is a radiologist. "Visible light"
medical imaging involves digital video or still
pictures that can be seen without special
equipment. Dermatology and wound care are two
modalities that utilize visible light imagery.
Diagnostic radiography designates the technical
aspects of medical imaging and in particular the
acquisition of medical images.
Theradiographer or radiologic technologist is
usually responsible for acquiring medical images of
diagnostic quality, although some radiological
interventions are performed by radiologists. While
radiology is an evaluation of anatomy, nuclear
medicine provides functional assessment.
As a field of scientific investigation, medical
imaging constitutes a sub-discipline of biomedical
engineering, medical
physics or medicinedepending on the context:
Research and development in the area of
instrumentation, image acquisition
(e.g. radiography), modelling and quantification are
usually the preserve of biomedical
engineering, medical physics and computer
science; Research into the application and
interpretation of medical images is usually the
preserve of radiology and the medical sub-
discipline relevant to medical condition or area of
medical science
(neuroscience, cardiology, psychiatry, psychology,
etc.) under investigation. Many of the techniques
developed for medical imaging also
have scientific and industrial applications.
Medical imaging is often perceived to designate
the set of techniques that noninvasively produce
images of the internal aspect of the body. In this
restricted sense, medical imaging can be seen as
the solution of mathematical inverse problems.
This means that cause (the properties of living
tissue) is inferred from effect (the observed signal).
In the case of ultrasonography the probe consists
of ultrasonic pressure waves and echoes inside the
tissue show the internal structure. In the case of
projection radiography, the probe is X-
ray radiation which is absorbed at different rates in
different tissue types such as bone, muscle and
fat.
The term noninvasive is a term based on the fact
that following medical imaging modalities do not
penetrate the skin physically. But on the
electromagnetic and radiation level, they are quite
invasive. From the high energy photons in X-Ray
Computed Tomography, to the 2+ Tesla coils of an
MRI device, these modalities alter the physical and
chemical reactions of the body in order to obtain
data.
[edit]Imaging technology
This section has no
content. You can help Wikipedia
by introducing information to
it. (October 2010)
[edit]Radiography
Main article: Medical radiography
Two forms of radiographic images are in use in
medical imaging; projection radiography and
fluoroscopy, with the latter being useful for
intraoperative and catheter guidance. These 2D
techniques are still in wide use despite the
advance of 3D tomography due to the low cost,
high resolution, and depending on application,
lower radiation dosages. This imaging modality
utilizes a wide beam of x rays for image acquisition the area of
and is the first imaging technique available in interest. Early on
modern medicine. this was a
fluorescing
 Fluoroscopy pro screen, which
duces real-time gave way to an
images of internal Image Amplifier
structures of the (IA) which was a
body in a similar large vacuum
fashion tube that had the
to radiography, receiving end
but employs a coated
constant input of with cesium
x-rays, at a lower iodide, and a
dose mirror at the
rate. Contrast opposite end.
media, such as Eventually the
barium, iodine, mirror was
and air are used replaced with a
to visualize TV camera.
internal organs as
they work.  Projectional
Fluoroscopy is radiographs, more
also used in commonly known
image-guided as x-rays, are
procedures when often used to
constant feedback determine the
during a type and extent of
procedure is a fracture as well
required. An as for detecting
image receptor is pathological
required to changes in the
convert the lungs. With the
radiation into an use of radio-
image after it has opaque contrast
passed through media, such
 as barium, they signal which is spatially encoded, resulting in
can also be used images of the body. MRI uses
to visualize the three electromagnetic fields: a very strong (on the
structure of the order of units of teslas) static magnetic field to
stomach and polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the static field;
intestines - this a weaker time-varying (on the order of 1 kHz)
can help diagnose field(s) for spatial encoding, called the gradient
ulcers or certain field(s); and a weak radio-frequency (RF) field for
types of colon manipulation of the hydrogen nuclei to produce
cancer. measurable signals, collected through an RF
antenna.
[edit]Magnetic resonance imaging
Like CT, MRI traditionally creates a two
(MRI)
dimensional image of a thin "slice" of the body and
Main article: Magnetic resonance imaging
is therefore considered a tomographic imaging
technique. Modern MRI instruments are capable of
producing images in the form of 3D blocks, which
may be considered a generalisation of the single-
slice, tomographic, concept. Unlike CT, MRI does
not involve the use of ionizing radiationand is
therefore not associated with the same health
hazards. For example, because MRI has only been
in use since the early 1980s, there are no known
long-term effects of exposure to strong static fields
(this is the subject of some debate; see 'Safety'
in MRI) and therefore there is no limit to the
number of scans to which an individual can be
subjected, in contrast with X-ray and CT. However,

A brain MRI representation there are well-identified health risks associated

with tissue heating from exposure to the RF field
A magnetic resonance imaging instrument (MRI
and the presence of implanted devices in the body,
scanner), or "nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
such as pace makers. These risks are strictly
imaging" scanner as it was originally known, uses
controlled as part of the design of the instrument
powerful magnets to polarise and
and the scanning protocols used.
excitehydrogen nuclei (single proton) in water
Because CT and MRI are sensitive to different
molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable
tissue properties, the appearance of the images
obtained with the two techniques differ markedly. which is in turn amplified and converted into count
In CT, X-rays must be blocked by some form of data.
dense tissue to create an image, so the image
quality when looking at soft tissues will be poor. In  Scintigraphy ("sc

MRI, while any nucleus with a net nuclear spin can int") is a form of

be used, the proton of the hydrogen atom remains diagnostic test

the most widely used, especially in the clinical wherein radioisoto

setting, because it is so ubiquitous and returns a pes are taken

large signal. This nucleus, present in water internally, for

molecules, allows the excellent soft-tissue contrast example

achievable with MRI. intravenously or

orally. Then,
[edit]Nuclear medicine
gamma camera
Main article: Nuclear medicine capture and form

Nuclear medicine encompasses both diagnostic two-dimensional[2]

imaging and treatment of disease, and may also be images from the

referred to as molecular medicine or molecular radiation emitted

[1]
imaging & therapeutics . Nuclear medicine uses by the

certain properties of isotopes and the energetic radiopharmaceuti

particles emitted from radioactive material to cals.

diagnose or treat various pathology. Different from  SPECT is a 3D

the typical concept of anatomic radiology, nuclear tomographic
medicine enables assessment of physiology. This technique that
function-based approach to medical evaluation has uses gamma
useful applications in most subspecialties, notably camera data from
oncology, neurology, and cardiology. Gamma many projections
cameras are used in e.g. scintigraphy, SPECT and and can be
PET to detect regions of biologic activity that may reconstructed in
be associated with disease. Relatively short different planes. A
lived isotope, such as 123
I is administered to the dual detector
patient. Isotopes are often preferentially absorbed head gamma
by biologically active tissue in the body, and can be camera combined
used to identify tumors or fracture points in bone. with a CT
Images are acquired after collimated photons are scanner, which
detected by a crystal that gives off a light signal, provides
localization of
 functional SPECT  Positron
data, is termed a emission
SPECT/CT tomography (PET)
camera, and has uses coincidence
shown utility in detection to image
advancing the functional
field of molecular processes. Short-
imaging.In most lived positron
other medical emitting isotope,
imaging such as 18F, is
modalities, energy incorporated with
is passed through an organic
the body and the substance such
reaction or result as glucose,
is read by creating F18-
detectors. In fluorodeoxyglucos
SPECT imaging, e, which can be
the patient is used as a marker
injected with a of metabolic
radioisotope, most utilization. Images
commonly of activity
Thallium 201TI, distribution
Technetium throughout the
99mTC, Iodine body can show
123I, and Gallium rapidly growing
[3]
68Ga tissue, like tumor,
metastasis, or
. The radioactive gamma rays are emitted through infection. PET
the body as the natural decaying process of these images can be
isotopes takes place. The emissions of the gamma viewed in
rays are captured by detectors that surround the comparison
body. This essentially means that the human is to computed
now the source of the radioactivity, rather than the tomography scans
medical imaging devices such as X-Ray, CT, or to determine an
Ultrasound. anatomic
correlate. Modern
 scanners combine [edit]Breast Thermography
PET with a CT, or It has been suggested that this
section be split into a new
even MRI, to
article. (Discuss)
optimize the
Digital infrared imaging thermography is based on
image
the principle that metabolic activity and vascular
reconstruction
circulation in both pre-cancerous tissue and the
involved with
area surrounding a developing breast cancer is
positron imaging.
almost always higher than in normal breast tissue.
This is performed
Cancerous tumors require an ever-increasing
on the same
supply of nutrients and therefore increase
equipment without
circulation to their cells by holding open existing
physically moving
blood vessels, opening dormant vessels, and
the patient off of
creating new ones (neoangiogenesis). This
the gantry. The
process frequently results in an increase in
resultant hybrid of
regional surface temperatures of the breast. Digital
functional and
infrared imaging uses extremely sensitive medical
anatomic imaging
infrared cameras and sophisticated computers to
information is a
detect, analyze, and produce high-resolution
useful tool in non-
diagnostic images of these temperature variations.
invasive diagnosis
Because of DII's sensitivity, these temperature
and patient
variations may be among the earliest signs of
management.
breast cancer and/or a pre-cancerous state of the
[edit]Photoacoustic imaging breast[4].

Main article: Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine [edit]Tomography

Photoacoustic imaging is a recently developed Main article: Computed tomography

hybrid biomedical imaging modality based on the
Tomography is the method of imaging a single
photoacoustic effect. It combines the advantages
plane, or slice, of an object resulting in
of optical absorption contrast with ultrasonic spatial
a tomogram. There are several forms
resolution for deep imaging in (optical) diffusive or
of tomography:
quasi-diffusive regime. Recent studies have shown
that photoacoustic imaging can be used in vivo for  Linear
tumor angiogenesis monitoring, blood oxygenation tomography: This
mapping, functional brain imaging, and skin is the most basic
melanoma detection, etc. form of
tomography. The number of
X-ray tube moved geometrical
from point "A" to movements were
point "B" above programmed,
the patient, while such as
the cassette hypocycloidic,
holder (or circular, figure 8,
"bucky") moves and elliptical.
simultaneously Philips Medical
under the patient Systems [1] produ
from point "B" to ced one such
point "A." device called the
The fulcrum, or 'Polytome.' This
pivot point, is set unit was still in
to the area of use into the
interest. In this 1990s, as its
manner, the resulting images
points above and for small or
below the focal difficult
plane are blurred physiology, such
out, just as the as the inner ear,
background is was still difficult to
blurred when image with CTs at
panning a camera that time. As the
during exposure. resolution of CTs
No longer carried got better, this
out and replaced procedure was
by computed taken over by the
tomography. CT.

 Poly  Zonography:
tomography: This This is a variant of
was a complex linear
form of tomography,
tomography. With where a limited
this technique, a arc of movement
is used. It is still tomography
used in some (latest
centres for generation), which
visualising the traditionally
kidney during an produces a 2D
intravenous image of the
urogram (IVU). structures in a thin

 Orthopantomogr section of the

aphy (OPT or body. It uses X-

OPG): The only rays. It has a

common greaterionizing

tomographic radiation dose

examination in burden than

use. This makes projection

use of a complex radiography;

movement to repeated scans

allow the must be limited to

radiographic avoid health

examination of the effects. CT is

mandible, as if it based on the

were a flat bone. same principles

It is often referred as X-Ray

to as a "Panorex", projections but in

but this is this case, the

incorrect, as it is a patient is

trademark of a enclosed in a

specific company. surrounding ring

 Computed of detectors

Tomography (CT), assigned with

or Computed 500-1000

Axial Tomography scintillation

(CAT: A CT scan, detectors[3]

also known as
. This being the fourth-generation X-Ray CT
a CAT scan), is a
scanner geometry. Previously in older generation
helical
scanners, the X-Ray beam was paired by a
translating source and detector.
[edit]Ultrasound
Main article: Medical ultrasonography
Medical ultrasonography uses high
frequency broadband sound waves in
the megahertz range that are reflected by tissue to
varying degrees to produce (up to 3D) images.
This is commonly associated with imaging
the fetus in pregnant women. Uses of ultrasound
are much broader, however. Other important uses
include imaging the abdominal organs, heart,
breast, muscles, tendons, arteries and veins. While
it may provide less anatomical detail than
techniques such as CT or MRI, it has several
advantages which make it ideal in numerous
situations, in particular that it studies the function of
moving structures in real-time, emits no ionizing
radiation, and contains speckle that can be used
inelastography. Ultrasound is also used as a
popular research tool for capturing raw data, that
can be made available through an Ultrasound
research interface, for the purpose of tissue
characterization and implementation of new image
processing techniques. The concepts of ultrasound
differ from other medical imaging modalities in the
fact that it is operated by the transmission and
receipt of sound waves. The high frequency sound
waves are sent into the tissue and depending on
the composition of the different tissues; the signal
will be attenuated and returned at separate
intervals. A path of reflected sound waves in a
multilayered structure can be defined by an input
acoustic impedance( Ultrasound sound wave) and
the Reflection and transmission coefficients of the
relative structures[3] . It is very safe to use and does
not appear to cause any adverse effects, although
information on this is not well documented. It is
also relatively inexpensive and quick to perform.
Ultrasound scanners can be taken to critically ill
patients in intensive care units, avoiding the
danger caused while moving the patient to the
radiology department. The real time moving image
obtained can be used to guide drainage and biopsy
procedures. Doppler capabilities on modern
scanners allow the blood flow in arteries and veins
to be assessed.
[edit]Medical imaging topics
[edit]Maximizing imaging procedure
use
The amount of data obtained in a single MR or CT
scan is very extensive. Some of the data that
radiologists discard could save patients time and
money, while reducing their exposure to radiation
and risk of complications from invasive procedures.
[5]
[edit]Creation of three-dimensional
images
Recently, techniques have been developed to
enable CT, MRI and ultrasound scanning software
to produce 3D images for the physician.
[6]
Traditionally CT and MRI scans produced 2D
static output on film. To produce 3D images, many
scans are made, then combined by computers to
produce a 3D model, which can then be
manipulated by the physician. 3D ultrasounds are
produced using a somewhat similar technique. In
diagnosing disease of the viscera of
abdomen,ultrasound is particularly sensitive on
imaging of biliary tract,urinary tract and female Some of these techniques are still at a research
reproductive organs(ovary,fallopian tubes).As for stage and not yet used in clinical routines.
example,diagnosis of gall stone by dilatation of
[edit]Compression of medical
common bile duct and stone in common bile duct .
images
With the ability to visualize important structures in
Medical imaging techniques produce very large
great detail, 3D visualization methods are a
amounts of data, especially from CT, MRI and PET
valuable resource for the diagnosis and surgical
modalities. As a result, storage and
treatment of many pathologies. It was a key
communications of electronic image data are
resource for the famous, but ultimately
prohibitive without the use of compression. JPEG
unsuccessful attempt by Singaporean surgeons to
2000 is the state-of-the-art image
separate Iranian twins Ladan and Laleh Bijani in
compression DICOM standard for storage and
2003. The 3D equipment was used previously for
transmission of medical images. The cost and
similar operations with great success.
feasibility of accessing large image data sets over
Other proposed or developed techniques include:
low or various bandwidths are further addressed by
use of another DICOM standard, called JPIP, to
 Diffuse optical
enable efficient streaming of theJPEG
tomography
2000 compressed image data.
 Elastography
[edit]Non-diagnostic imaging
 Electrical
impedance Neuroimaging has also been used in experimental
tomography circumstances to allow people (especially disabled

 Optoacoustic persons) to control outside devices, acting as

imaging a brain computer interface.

 Ophthalmology [edit]Archiving and recording

 A-scan
Used primarily in ultrasound imaging, capturing the
 B-scan
image a medical imaging device is required for
 Corneal archiving and telemedicine applications. In most
topography scenarios, a frame grabber is used in order to
 Optical capture the video signal from the medical device
coherence and relay it to a computer for further processing
tomography and operations.[7]
 Scannin
[edit]Open
source software for
g laser
medical image analysis
ophthalmosco
py
Several open source software packages are sizes, obtaining quick results with good statistical
available for performing analysis of medical power.[8]
images:
Imaging is able to reveal subtle change that is
indicative of the progression of therapy that may be
 ImageJ
missed out by more subjective, traditional
 3D Slicer
approaches. Statistical bias is reduced as the
 ITK
findings are evaluated without any direct patient
 OsiriX
contact.
 GemIdent
For example, measurement of tumour shrinkage is
 MicroDicom
a commonly used surrogate endpoint in solid
 FreeSurfer
tumour response evaluation. This allows for faster

[edit]Use in pharmaceutical clinical and more objective assessment of the effects of

trials anticancer drugs. In evaluating the extent

of Alzheimer’s disease, it is still prevalent to use
Medical imaging has become a major tool in
behavioural and cognitive tests. MRI scans on the
clinical trials since it enables rapid diagnosis with
entire brain can accurately pinpoint hippocampal
visualization and quantitative assessment.
atrophy rate while PET scans is able to measure
A typical clinical trial goes through multiple phases the brain’s metabolic activity by measuring regional
and can take up to eight years. Clinical glucose metabolism.[8]
endpoints or outcomes are used to determine
An imaging-based trial will usually be made up of
whether the therapy is safe and effective. Once a
three components:
patient reaches the endpoint, he/she is generally
excluded from further experimental interaction. 1. A
Trials that rely solely on clinical endpoints are very realistic
costly as they have long durations and tend to imaging
need large number of patients. protocol. The

In contrast to clinical endpoints, surrogate protocol is an

endpoints have been shown to cut down the time outline that

required to confirm whether a drug has clinical standardizes

benefits. Imaging biomarkers (a characteristic that (as far as

is objectively measured by an imaging technique, practically

which is used as an indicator of pharmacological possible) the

response to a therapy) and surrogate endpoints way in which

have shown to facilitate the use of small group the images

are acquired
using the format to
various maintain the
modalities reliability of
(PET, SPEC the
T, CT, MRI). evaluation.
It covers the Certain
specifics in specialised
which images imaging
are to be contract
stored, research
processed organizations
and provide to
evaluated. end medical

2. An imaging

imaging services,

centre that is from protocol

responsible design and

for collecting site

the images, management

perform through to

quality data quality

control and assurance

provide tools and image

for data analysis.

storage, 3. Clinical
distribution sites that
and analysis. recruit
It is important patients to
for images generate the
acquired at images to
different time send back to
points are the imaging
displayed in centre.
a
[edit]See also
standardised
  Preclinical imaging  McGraw-Hill

 Cardiac PET  Concise

 Biomedical informatics  Dictionary of

 Digital Imaging and Communications in  Modern

Medicine Medicine,

2002 by The
 Digital Mammography and PACS 
McGraw-Hill
 EMMI European Master in Molecular 
Companies
Imaging 
3. ^ a b c Dh
 eMix
 awan P, A.
 Fotofinder
(2003).
 Full-body scan
Medical

 VoluMedic Imaging

[edit]References Analysis.

Hoboken, NJ:

1. ^ Societ Wiley-

y of Nuclear Interscience

Medicine Publication

2. ^ thefree 4. ^ http://

dictionary.co www.breastth

m- ermography.c

scintigraphy C om/breast_the

iting: rmography_m

Dorland's f.htm

Medical 5. ^ Freihe

Dictionary for rr G. Waste

Health not, want not:

Consumers, Getting the

2007 by most from

Saunders; imaging

Saunders procedures. D

Comprehensi iagnostic

ve Veterinary Imaging. Marc

Dictionary, 3 h 19, 2010.

ed. 2007;
 6. ^ Udupa York: Springer
, J.K. and Science+Business
Herman, G. Media. doi:10.100
T., 3D 7/978-1-84628-
Imaging in 968-2. ISBN 978-
Medicine, 2nd 1-84628-379-6.
Edition, CRC  Baert, Albert L.,
Press, 2000 ed
7. ^ Treatin (2008). Encyclope
g Medical dia of Diagnostic
Ailments in Imaging. Berlin: S
Real Time pringer-Verlag. do
8. ^ a b Haj i:10.1007/978-3-

nal, J. V., 540-35280-8. ISB

Hawkes, D. N 978-3-540-

J., & Hill, D. L. 35278-5.

(2001).  Tony F.
Medical Imag Chan and Jackie
e Shen
Registration. (2005). Image
CRC Press. Processing and
Analysis -
[edit]Further reading Variational, PDE,
Wavelet, and
 Burger, Wilhelm;
Stochastic
Burge, Mark
Methods. SIAM
James, eds
 Terry
(2008). Digital
Yoo(Editor)
Image
(2004), Insight
Processing: An
into Images.
Algorithmic
 Robb, RA
Introduction using
(1999). Biomedic
Java. Texts in
al Imaging,
Computer
Visualization, and
Science
Analysis. John
series. New
 Wiley & Sons, v•d•e
Visualization of
Inc. ISBN 047128
3533. v•d•e
Medical testing : Medical imag
 Journal of Digital
Categories: Image processing | Medical
Imaging (New
imaging | Medical physics | Nuclear
York: Springer
medicine | Radiology
Science+Business
Media). ISSN 089 • New features

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are not usually referred to as medical imaging, but
rather are a part of pathology.
As a discipline and in its widest sense, it is part
of biological imaging and incorporates radiology (in
the wider sense), nuclear medicine,
investigative radiological sciences, endoscopy,
(medical) thermography, medical photography
and microscopy (e.g. for human pathological
investigations).
Measurement and recording techniques which are
not primarily designed to produce images, such
as electroencephalography (EEG),magnetoenceph

• Disclaimers alography (MEG), Electrocardiography (EKG) and

others, but which produce data susceptible to be
•
represented as maps (i.e. containing positional
• information), can be seen as forms of medical

Medical imaging imaging.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents

This article is about imaging techniques and [hide]

modalities for the human body. For imaging of

• 1 Overview
animals in research, see Preclinical imaging.
• 2 Imaging technology
This article needs
additional citations for verif • 3 Radiography
ication.
Please help improve this article by o 3.1 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
adding reliable references. Unsourced
material may o 3.2 Nuclear medicine
be challenged and removed.(June
  3.2.1 Photoacoustic imaging
o 3.3 Breast Thermography
o 3.4 Tomography
o 3.5 Ultrasound
• 4 Medical imaging topics
o 4.1 Maximizing imaging procedure use
o 4.2 Creation of three-dimensional images
o 4.3 Compression of medical images
o 4.4 Non-diagnostic imaging
o 4.5 Archiving and recording
o 4.6 Open source software for medical
image analysis
o 4.7 Use in pharmaceutical clinical trials
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links
[edit]Overview
In the clinical context, "invisible light" medical
imaging is generally equated to radiology or
"clinical imaging" and the medical practitioner
responsible for interpreting (and sometimes
acquiring) the images is a radiologist. "Visible light"
medical imaging involves digital video or still
pictures that can be seen without special
equipment. Dermatology and wound care are two
modalities that utilize visible light imagery.
Diagnostic radiography designates the technical
aspects of medical imaging and in particular the
acquisition of medical images.
Theradiographer or radiologic technologist is
usually responsible for acquiring medical images of
diagnostic quality, although some radiological
interventions are performed by radiologists. While
radiology is an evaluation of anatomy, nuclear
medicine provides functional assessment.
As a field of scientific investigation, medical
imaging constitutes a sub-discipline of biomedical
engineering, medical
physics or medicinedepending on the context:
Research and development in the area of
instrumentation, image acquisition
(e.g. radiography), modelling and quantification are
usually the preserve of biomedical
engineering, medical physics and computer
science; Research into the application and
interpretation of medical images is usually the
preserve of radiology and the medical sub-
discipline relevant to medical condition or area of
medical science
(neuroscience, cardiology, psychiatry, psychology,
etc.) under investigation. Many of the techniques
developed for medical imaging also
have scientific and industrial applications.
Medical imaging is often perceived to designate
the set of techniques that noninvasively produce
images of the internal aspect of the body. In this
restricted sense, medical imaging can be seen as
the solution of mathematical inverse problems.
This means that cause (the properties of living
tissue) is inferred from effect (the observed signal).
In the case of ultrasonography the probe consists
of ultrasonic pressure waves and echoes inside the
tissue show the internal structure. In the case of
projection radiography, the probe is X-
ray radiation which is absorbed at different rates in
different tissue types such as bone, muscle and
fat.
The term noninvasive is a term based on the fact but employs a
that following medical imaging modalities do not constant input of
penetrate the skin physically. But on the x-rays, at a lower
electromagnetic and radiation level, they are quite dose
invasive. From the high energy photons in X-Ray rate. Contrast
Computed Tomography, to the 2+ Tesla coils of an media, such as
MRI device, these modalities alter the physical and barium, iodine,
chemical reactions of the body in order to obtain and air are used
data. to visualize
internal organs as
[edit]Imaging technology
they work.
This section has no
Fluoroscopy is
content. You can help Wikipedia
by introducing information to also used in
it. (October 2010)
image-guided
[edit]Radiography
procedures when
constant feedback
Main article: Medical radiography
during a
Two forms of radiographic images are in use in
procedure is
medical imaging; projection radiography and
required. An
fluoroscopy, with the latter being useful for
image receptor is
intraoperative and catheter guidance. These 2D
required to
techniques are still in wide use despite the
convert the
advance of 3D tomography due to the low cost,
radiation into an
high resolution, and depending on application,
image after it has
lower radiation dosages. This imaging modality
passed through
utilizes a wide beam of x rays for image acquisition
the area of
and is the first imaging technique available in
interest. Early on
modern medicine.
this was a
fluorescing
 Fluoroscopy pro
screen, which
duces real-time
gave way to an
images of internal
Image Amplifier
structures of the
(IA) which was a
body in a similar
large vacuum
fashion
tube that had the
to radiography,
receiving end
coated [edit]Magnetic resonance imaging
with cesium (MRI)
iodide, and a Main article: Magnetic resonance imaging
mirror at the
opposite end.
Eventually the
mirror was
replaced with a
TV camera.

 Projectional
radiographs, more
commonly known
as x-rays, are
often used to
determine the
type and extent of
a fracture as well A brain MRI representation

as for detecting
A magnetic resonance imaging instrument (MRI
pathological
scanner), or "nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
changes in the
imaging" scanner as it was originally known, uses
lungs. With the
powerful magnets to polarise and
use of radio-
excitehydrogen nuclei (single proton) in water
opaque contrast
molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable
media, such
signal which is spatially encoded, resulting in
as barium, they
images of the body. MRI uses
can also be used
three electromagnetic fields: a very strong (on the
to visualize the
order of units of teslas) static magnetic field to
structure of the
polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the static field;
stomach and
a weaker time-varying (on the order of 1 kHz)
intestines - this
field(s) for spatial encoding, called the gradient
can help diagnose
field(s); and a weak radio-frequency (RF) field for
ulcers or certain
manipulation of the hydrogen nuclei to produce
types of colon
measurable signals, collected through an RF
cancer.
antenna.
Like CT, MRI traditionally creates a two
dimensional image of a thin "slice" of the body and
is therefore considered a tomographic imaging
technique. Modern MRI instruments are capable of
producing images in the form of 3D blocks, which
may be considered a generalisation of the single-
slice, tomographic, concept. Unlike CT, MRI does
not involve the use of ionizing radiationand is
therefore not associated with the same health
hazards. For example, because MRI has only been
in use since the early 1980s, there are no known
long-term effects of exposure to strong static fields
(this is the subject of some debate; see 'Safety'
in MRI) and therefore there is no limit to the
number of scans to which an individual can be
subjected, in contrast with X-ray and CT. However,
there are well-identified health risks associated
with tissue heating from exposure to the RF field
and the presence of implanted devices in the body,
such as pace makers. These risks are strictly
controlled as part of the design of the instrument
and the scanning protocols used.
Because CT and MRI are sensitive to different
tissue properties, the appearance of the images
obtained with the two techniques differ markedly.
In CT, X-rays must be blocked by some form of
dense tissue to create an image, so the image
quality when looking at soft tissues will be poor. In
MRI, while any nucleus with a net nuclear spin can
be used, the proton of the hydrogen atom remains
the most widely used, especially in the clinical
setting, because it is so ubiquitous and returns a
large signal. This nucleus, present in water
molecules, allows the excellent soft-tissue contrast
achievable with MRI.
[edit]Nuclear medicine
Main article: Nuclear medicine
Nuclear medicine encompasses both diagnostic
imaging and treatment of disease, and may also be
referred to as molecular medicine or molecular
imaging & therapeutics [1]. Nuclear medicine uses
certain properties of isotopes and the energetic
particles emitted from radioactive material to
diagnose or treat various pathology. Different from
the typical concept of anatomic radiology, nuclear
medicine enables assessment of physiology. This
function-based approach to medical evaluation has
useful applications in most subspecialties, notably
oncology, neurology, and cardiology. Gamma
cameras are used in e.g. scintigraphy, SPECT and
PET to detect regions of biologic activity that may
be associated with disease. Relatively short
lived isotope, such as 123I is administered to the
patient. Isotopes are often preferentially absorbed
by biologically active tissue in the body, and can be
used to identify tumors or fracture points in bone.
Images are acquired after collimated photons are
detected by a crystal that gives off a light signal,
which is in turn amplified and converted into count
data.
 Scintigraphy ("sc
int") is a form of
diagnostic test
wherein radioisoto
pes are taken
internally, for
example
intravenously or
orally. Then,
gamma camera is passed through
capture and form the body and the
two-dimensional[2] reaction or result
images from the is read by
radiation emitted detectors. In
by the SPECT imaging,
radiopharmaceuti the patient is
cals. injected with a

 SPECT is a 3D radioisotope, most

tomographic commonly

technique that Thallium 201TI,

uses gamma Technetium

camera data from 99mTC, Iodine

many projections 123I, and Gallium

and can be 68Ga [3]

reconstructed in
. The radioactive gamma rays are emitted through
different planes. A
the body as the natural decaying process of these
dual detector
isotopes takes place. The emissions of the gamma
head gamma
rays are captured by detectors that surround the
camera combined
body. This essentially means that the human is
with a CT
now the source of the radioactivity, rather than the
scanner, which
medical imaging devices such as X-Ray, CT, or
provides
Ultrasound.
localization of
functional SPECT
 Positron
data, is termed a
emission
SPECT/CT
tomography (PET)
camera, and has
uses coincidence
shown utility in
detection to image
advancing the
functional
field of molecular
processes. Short-
imaging.In most
lived positron
other medical
emitting isotope,
imaging
such as 18F, is
modalities, energy
incorporated with
an organic physically moving
substance such the patient off of
as glucose, the gantry. The
creating F18- resultant hybrid of
fluorodeoxyglucos functional and
e, which can be anatomic imaging
used as a marker information is a
of metabolic useful tool in non-
utilization. Images invasive diagnosis
of activity and patient
distribution management.
throughout the
body can show [edit]Photoacoustic imaging

rapidly growing Main article: Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine

tissue, like tumor,
Photoacoustic imaging is a recently developed
metastasis, or
hybrid biomedical imaging modality based on the
infection. PET
photoacoustic effect. It combines the advantages
images can be
of optical absorption contrast with ultrasonic spatial
viewed in
resolution for deep imaging in (optical) diffusive or
comparison
quasi-diffusive regime. Recent studies have shown
to computed
that photoacoustic imaging can be used in vivo for
tomography scans
tumor angiogenesis monitoring, blood oxygenation
to determine an
mapping, functional brain imaging, and skin
anatomic
melanoma detection, etc.
correlate. Modern
[edit]Breast Thermography
scanners combine
It has been suggested that this
PET with a CT, or
section be split into a new
even MRI, to article. (Discuss)
optimize the
Digital infrared imaging thermography is based on
image
the principle that metabolic activity and vascular
reconstruction
circulation in both pre-cancerous tissue and the
involved with
area surrounding a developing breast cancer is
positron imaging.
almost always higher than in normal breast tissue.
This is performed
Cancerous tumors require an ever-increasing
on the same
supply of nutrients and therefore increase
equipment without
circulation to their cells by holding open existing point "A."
blood vessels, opening dormant vessels, and The fulcrum, or
creating new ones (neoangiogenesis). This pivot point, is set
process frequently results in an increase in to the area of
regional surface temperatures of the breast. Digital interest. In this
infrared imaging uses extremely sensitive medical manner, the
infrared cameras and sophisticated computers to points above and
detect, analyze, and produce high-resolution below the focal
diagnostic images of these temperature variations. plane are blurred
Because of DII's sensitivity, these temperature out, just as the
variations may be among the earliest signs of background is
breast cancer and/or a pre-cancerous state of the blurred when
breast[4]. panning a camera
during exposure.
[edit]Tomography
No longer carried
Main article: Computed tomography
out and replaced
Tomography is the method of imaging a single by computed
plane, or slice, of an object resulting in tomography.
a tomogram. There are several forms  Poly
of tomography: tomography: This
was a complex
 Linear
form of
tomography: This
tomography. With
is the most basic
this technique, a
form of
number of
tomography. The
geometrical
X-ray tube moved
movements were
from point "A" to
programmed,
point "B" above
such as
the patient, while
hypocycloidic,
the cassette
circular, figure 8,
holder (or
and elliptical.
"bucky") moves
Philips Medical
simultaneously
Systems [1] produ
under the patient
ced one such
from point "B" to
device called the tomographic
'Polytome.' This examination in
unit was still in use. This makes
use into the use of a complex
1990s, as its movement to
resulting images allow the
for small or radiographic
difficult examination of the
physiology, such mandible, as if it
as the inner ear, were a flat bone.
was still difficult to It is often referred
image with CTs at to as a "Panorex",
that time. As the but this is
resolution of CTs incorrect, as it is a
got better, this trademark of a
procedure was specific company.
taken over by the  Computed
CT. Tomography (CT),
 Zonography: or Computed
This is a variant of Axial Tomography
linear (CAT: A CT scan,
tomography, also known as
where a limited a CAT scan), is a
arc of movement helical
is used. It is still tomography
used in some (latest
centres for generation), which
visualising the traditionally
kidney during an produces a 2D
intravenous image of the
urogram (IVU). structures in a thin

 Orthopantomogr section of the

aphy (OPT or body. It uses X-

OPG): The only rays. It has a

common greaterionizing
 radiation dose include imaging the abdominal organs, heart,
burden than breast, muscles, tendons, arteries and veins. While
projection it may provide less anatomical detail than
radiography; techniques such as CT or MRI, it has several
repeated scans advantages which make it ideal in numerous
must be limited to situations, in particular that it studies the function of
avoid health moving structures in real-time, emits no ionizing
effects. CT is radiation, and contains speckle that can be used
based on the inelastography. Ultrasound is also used as a
same principles popular research tool for capturing raw data, that
as X-Ray can be made available through an Ultrasound
projections but in research interface, for the purpose of tissue
this case, the characterization and implementation of new image
patient is processing techniques. The concepts of ultrasound
enclosed in a differ from other medical imaging modalities in the
surrounding ring fact that it is operated by the transmission and
of detectors receipt of sound waves. The high frequency sound
assigned with waves are sent into the tissue and depending on
500-1000 the composition of the different tissues; the signal
scintillation will be attenuated and returned at separate
detectors[3] intervals. A path of reflected sound waves in a
multilayered structure can be defined by an input
. This being the fourth-generation X-Ray CT acoustic impedance( Ultrasound sound wave) and
scanner geometry. Previously in older generation the Reflection and transmission coefficients of the
scanners, the X-Ray beam was paired by a relative structures[3] . It is very safe to use and does
translating source and detector. not appear to cause any adverse effects, although

[edit]Ultrasound information on this is not well documented. It is

also relatively inexpensive and quick to perform.
Main article: Medical ultrasonography
Ultrasound scanners can be taken to critically ill
Medical ultrasonography uses high
patients in intensive care units, avoiding the
frequency broadband sound waves in
danger caused while moving the patient to the
the megahertz range that are reflected by tissue to
radiology department. The real time moving image
varying degrees to produce (up to 3D) images.
obtained can be used to guide drainage and biopsy
This is commonly associated with imaging
procedures. Doppler capabilities on modern
the fetus in pregnant women. Uses of ultrasound
scanners allow the blood flow in arteries and veins
are much broader, however. Other important uses
to be assessed.
[edit]Medical imaging topics 2003. The 3D equipment was used previously for
similar operations with great success.
[edit]Maximizing imaging procedure
use Other proposed or developed techniques include:

The amount of data obtained in a single MR or CT

 Diffuse optical
scan is very extensive. Some of the data that
tomography
radiologists discard could save patients time and
 Elastography
money, while reducing their exposure to radiation
 Electrical
and risk of complications from invasive procedures.
impedance
[5]

tomography
[edit]Creation of three-dimensional  Optoacoustic
images imaging

Recently, techniques have been developed to  Ophthalmology

enable CT, MRI and ultrasound scanning software  A-scan
to produce 3D images for the physician.  B-scan
[6]
Traditionally CT and MRI scans produced 2D  Corneal
static output on film. To produce 3D images, many topography
scans are made, then combined by computers to  Optical
produce a 3D model, which can then be coherence
manipulated by the physician. 3D ultrasounds are tomography
produced using a somewhat similar technique. In
 Scannin
diagnosing disease of the viscera of
g laser
abdomen,ultrasound is particularly sensitive on
ophthalmosco
imaging of biliary tract,urinary tract and female
py
reproductive organs(ovary,fallopian tubes).As for
example,diagnosis of gall stone by dilatation of Some of these techniques are still at a research
common bile duct and stone in common bile duct . stage and not yet used in clinical routines.
With the ability to visualize important structures in
[edit]Compression of medical
great detail, 3D visualization methods are a
images
valuable resource for the diagnosis and surgical
Medical imaging techniques produce very large
treatment of many pathologies. It was a key
amounts of data, especially from CT, MRI and PET
resource for the famous, but ultimately
modalities. As a result, storage and
unsuccessful attempt by Singaporean surgeons to
communications of electronic image data are
separate Iranian twins Ladan and Laleh Bijani in
prohibitive without the use of compression. JPEG
2000 is the state-of-the-art image [edit]Use in pharmaceutical clinical
compression DICOM standard for storage and trials
transmission of medical images. The cost and
Medical imaging has become a major tool in
feasibility of accessing large image data sets over
clinical trials since it enables rapid diagnosis with
low or various bandwidths are further addressed by
visualization and quantitative assessment.
use of another DICOM standard, called JPIP, to
A typical clinical trial goes through multiple phases
enable efficient streaming of theJPEG
and can take up to eight years. Clinical
2000 compressed image data.
endpoints or outcomes are used to determine
[edit]Non-diagnostic imaging whether the therapy is safe and effective. Once a
Neuroimaging has also been used in experimental patient reaches the endpoint, he/she is generally
circumstances to allow people (especially disabled excluded from further experimental interaction.
persons) to control outside devices, acting as Trials that rely solely on clinical endpoints are very
a brain computer interface. costly as they have long durations and tend to
need large number of patients.
[edit]Archiving and recording
In contrast to clinical endpoints, surrogate
Used primarily in ultrasound imaging, capturing the
endpoints have been shown to cut down the time
image a medical imaging device is required for
required to confirm whether a drug has clinical
archiving and telemedicine applications. In most
benefits. Imaging biomarkers (a characteristic that
scenarios, a frame grabber is used in order to
is objectively measured by an imaging technique,
capture the video signal from the medical device
which is used as an indicator of pharmacological
and relay it to a computer for further processing
response to a therapy) and surrogate endpoints
and operations.[7]
have shown to facilitate the use of small group
[edit]Open
source software for
sizes, obtaining quick results with good statistical
medical image analysis
power.[8]
Several open source software packages are
Imaging is able to reveal subtle change that is
available for performing analysis of medical
indicative of the progression of therapy that may be
images:
missed out by more subjective, traditional
approaches. Statistical bias is reduced as the
 ImageJ
findings are evaluated without any direct patient
 3D Slicer
contact.
 ITK
 OsiriX For example, measurement of tumour shrinkage is

 GemIdent a commonly used surrogate endpoint in solid

tumour response evaluation. This allows for faster
 MicroDicom
and more objective assessment of the effects of
 FreeSurfer
anticancer drugs. In evaluating the extent and
of Alzheimer’s disease, it is still prevalent to use evaluated.
behavioural and cognitive tests. MRI scans on the 5. An
entire brain can accurately pinpoint hippocampal imaging
atrophy rate while PET scans is able to measure centre that is
the brain’s metabolic activity by measuring regional responsible
glucose metabolism.[8] for collecting
the images,
An imaging-based trial will usually be made up of
perform
three components:
quality
4. A control and
realistic provide tools
imaging for data
protocol. The storage,
protocol is an distribution
outline that and analysis.
standardizes It is important
(as far as for images
practically acquired at
possible) the different time
way in which points are
the images displayed in
are acquired a
using the standardised
various format to
modalities maintain the
(PET, SPEC reliability of
T, CT, MRI). the
It covers the evaluation.
specifics in Certain
which images specialised
are to be imaging
stored, contract
processed research
organizations
 provide to  Full-body scan
end medical
imaging  VoluMedic

services, [edit]References

from protocol
design and
9. ^ Societ

site y of Nuclear

management Medicine

through to 10. ^ thefree

data quality dictionary.co

assurance m-

and image scintigraphy C

analysis. iting:

6. Clinical Dorland's

sites that Medical

recruit Dictionary for

patients to Health

generate the Consumers,

images to 2007 by

send back to Saunders;

the imaging Saunders

centre. Comprehensi

ve Veterinary
[edit]See also Dictionary, 3

ed. 2007;
 Preclinical imaging 
McGraw-Hill
 Cardiac PET 
Concise
 Biomedical informatics 
Dictionary of
 Digital Imaging and Communications in  Modern
Medicine  Medicine,
 Digital Mammography and PACS  2002 by The
 EMMI European Master in Molecular  McGraw-Hill
Imaging  Companies
 eMix 11. ^ a b c Dh
 Fotofinder 
awan P, A.

(2003).
Medical 16. ^ a b Haj
Imaging nal, J. V.,

Analysis. Hawkes, D.

Hoboken, NJ: J., & Hill, D. L.

Wiley- (2001).

Interscience Medical Imag

Publication e

12. ^ http:// Registration.

www.breastth CRC Press.

ermography.c
[edit]Further reading
om/breast_the

rmography_m
 Burger, Wilhelm;
f.htm
Burge, Mark
13. ^ Freihe
James, eds
rr G. Waste
(2008). Digital
not, want not:
Image
Getting the
Processing: An
most from
Algorithmic
imaging
Introduction using
procedures. D
Java. Texts in
iagnostic
Computer
Imaging. Marc
Science
h 19, 2010.
series. New
14. ^ Udupa
York: Springer
, J.K. and
Science+Business
Herman, G.
Media. doi:10.100
T., 3D
7/978-1-84628-
Imaging in
968-2. ISBN 978-
Medicine, 2nd
1-84628-379-6.
Edition, CRC
 Baert, Albert L.,
Press, 2000
ed
15. ^ Treatin
(2008). Encyclope
g Medical
dia of Diagnostic
Ailments in
Imaging. Berlin: S
Real Time
pringer-Verlag. do
i:10.1007/978-3- Sharing of
540-35280-8. ISB Medical Image
N 978-3-540- Data a white
35278-5. paper by Aware

 Tony F. Inc.

Chan and Jackie

[edit]External links
Shen
(2005). Image
Wikimedia Commons has
Processing and media related to: Medical
Analysis - imaging
Variational, PDE,
Wavelet, and  Medical
Stochastic imaging at
Methods. SIAM the Open
 Terry Directory Project
Yoo(Editor)  Medical Image
(2004), Insight Database Free
into Images. Indexed Online
 Robb, RA Images
(1999). Biomedic
al Imaging, Medical imaging
Visualization, and From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Analysis. John This article is about imaging techniques and
Wiley & Sons, modalities for the human body. For imaging of
Inc. ISBN 047128 animals in research, see Preclinical imaging.
3533.
This article needs
 Journal of Digital additional citations for verif
ication.
Imaging (New Please help improve this article by
adding reliable references. Unsourced
York: Springer material may
be challenged and removed.(June
Science+Business 2009)

Media). ISSN 089

Medical imaging is the technique and process
7-1889.
used to create images of the human body (or parts
 Using JPIP for
and function thereof) for clinical purposes (medical
Standard-
procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose or
Compliant
examine disease) or medical science (including the
study of normal anatomy andphysiology). Although
imaging of removed organs and tissues can be
performed for medical reasons, such procedures
are not usually referred to as medical imaging, but
rather are a part of pathology.
As a discipline and in its widest sense, it is part
of biological imaging and incorporates radiology (in
the wider sense), nuclear medicine,
investigative radiological sciences, endoscopy,
(medical) thermography, medical photography
and microscopy (e.g. for human pathological
investigations).
o 4.2 Creation of three-dimensional images
o 4.3 Compression of medical images
o 4.4 Non-diagnostic imaging
o 4.5 Archiving and recording
o 4.6 Open source software for medical
image analysis
o 4.7 Use in pharmaceutical clinical trials
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links

Measurement and recording techniques which are [edit]Overview

not primarily designed to produce images, such
In the clinical context, "invisible light" medical
as electroencephalography (EEG),magnetoenceph
imaging is generally equated to radiology or
alography (MEG), Electrocardiography (EKG) and
"clinical imaging" and the medical practitioner
others, but which produce data susceptible to be
responsible for interpreting (and sometimes
represented as maps (i.e. containing positional
acquiring) the images is a radiologist. "Visible light"
information), can be seen as forms of medical
medical imaging involves digital video or still
imaging.
pictures that can be seen without special
Contents
equipment. Dermatology and wound care are two
[hide]
modalities that utilize visible light imagery.

• 1 Overview Diagnostic radiography designates the technical

• 2 Imaging technology aspects of medical imaging and in particular the

acquisition of medical images.
• 3 Radiography
Theradiographer or radiologic technologist is
o 3.1 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
usually responsible for acquiring medical images of
o 3.2 Nuclear medicine
diagnostic quality, although some radiological
 3.2.1 Photoacoustic imaging
interventions are performed by radiologists. While
o 3.3 Breast Thermography
radiology is an evaluation of anatomy, nuclear
o 3.4 Tomography
medicine provides functional assessment.
o 3.5 Ultrasound
As a field of scientific investigation, medical
• 4 Medical imaging topics
imaging constitutes a sub-discipline of biomedical
o 4.1 Maximizing imaging procedure use
engineering, medical
physics or medicinedepending on the context:
Research and development in the area of
instrumentation, image acquisition
(e.g. radiography), modelling and quantification are
usually the preserve of biomedical
engineering, medical physics and computer
science; Research into the application and
interpretation of medical images is usually the
preserve of radiology and the medical sub-
discipline relevant to medical condition or area of
medical science
(neuroscience, cardiology, psychiatry, psychology,
etc.) under investigation. Many of the techniques
developed for medical imaging also
have scientific and industrial applications.
Medical imaging is often perceived to designate
the set of techniques that noninvasively produce
images of the internal aspect of the body. In this
restricted sense, medical imaging can be seen as
the solution of mathematical inverse problems.
This means that cause (the properties of living
tissue) is inferred from effect (the observed signal).
In the case of ultrasonography the probe consists
of ultrasonic pressure waves and echoes inside the
tissue show the internal structure. In the case of
projection radiography, the probe is X-
ray radiation which is absorbed at different rates in
different tissue types such as bone, muscle and
fat.
MRI device, these modalities alter the physical and
chemical reactions of the body in order to obtain
data.
[edit]Imaging technology
This section has no
content. You can help Wikipedia
by introducing information to
it. (October 2010)
[edit]Radiography
Main article: Medical radiography
Two forms of radiographic images are in use in
medical imaging; projection radiography and
fluoroscopy, with the latter being useful for
intraoperative and catheter guidance. These 2D
techniques are still in wide use despite the
advance of 3D tomography due to the low cost,
high resolution, and depending on application,
lower radiation dosages. This imaging modality
utilizes a wide beam of x rays for image acquisition
and is the first imaging technique available in
modern medicine.
 Fluoroscopy pro
duces real-time
images of internal
structures of the
body in a similar
fashion
to radiography,

The term noninvasive is a term based on the fact but employs a

that following medical imaging modalities do not constant input of

penetrate the skin physically. But on the x-rays, at a lower

electromagnetic and radiation level, they are quite dose

invasive. From the high energy photons in X-Ray rate. Contrast

Computed Tomography, to the 2+ Tesla coils of an media, such as

barium, iodine, mirror was
and air are used replaced with a
to visualize TV camera.
internal organs as
they work.  Projectional

Fluoroscopy is radiographs, more

also used in commonly known

image-guided as x-rays, are

procedures when often used to

constant feedback determine the

during a type and extent of

procedure is a fracture as well

required. An as for detecting

image receptor is pathological

required to changes in the

convert the lungs. With the

radiation into an use of radio-

image after it has opaque contrast

passed through media, such

the area of as barium, they

interest. Early on can also be used

this was a to visualize the

fluorescing structure of the

screen, which stomach and

gave way to an intestines - this

Image Amplifier can help diagnose

(IA) which was a ulcers or certain

large vacuum types of colon

tube that had the cancer.

receiving end
[edit]Magnetic resonance imaging
coated
(MRI)
with cesium
iodide, and a Main article: Magnetic resonance imaging

mirror at the
opposite end.
Eventually the
 technique. Modern MRI instruments are capable of
producing images in the form of 3D blocks, which
may be considered a generalisation of the single-
slice, tomographic, concept. Unlike CT, MRI does
not involve the use of ionizing radiationand is
therefore not associated with the same health
hazards. For example, because MRI has only been
in use since the early 1980s, there are no known
long-term effects of exposure to strong static fields
(this is the subject of some debate; see 'Safety'
in MRI) and therefore there is no limit to the
number of scans to which an individual can be
subjected, in contrast with X-ray and CT. However,

A brain MRI representation there are well-identified health risks associated

with tissue heating from exposure to the RF field
A magnetic resonance imaging instrument (MRI
and the presence of implanted devices in the body,
scanner), or "nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
such as pace makers. These risks are strictly
imaging" scanner as it was originally known, uses
controlled as part of the design of the instrument
powerful magnets to polarise and
and the scanning protocols used.
excitehydrogen nuclei (single proton) in water
Because CT and MRI are sensitive to different
molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable
tissue properties, the appearance of the images
signal which is spatially encoded, resulting in
obtained with the two techniques differ markedly.
images of the body. MRI uses
In CT, X-rays must be blocked by some form of
three electromagnetic fields: a very strong (on the
dense tissue to create an image, so the image
order of units of teslas) static magnetic field to
quality when looking at soft tissues will be poor. In
polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the static field;
MRI, while any nucleus with a net nuclear spin can
a weaker time-varying (on the order of 1 kHz)
be used, the proton of the hydrogen atom remains
field(s) for spatial encoding, called the gradient
the most widely used, especially in the clinical
field(s); and a weak radio-frequency (RF) field for
setting, because it is so ubiquitous and returns a
manipulation of the hydrogen nuclei to produce
large signal. This nucleus, present in water
measurable signals, collected through an RF
molecules, allows the excellent soft-tissue contrast
antenna.
achievable with MRI.
Like CT, MRI traditionally creates a two
[edit]Nuclear medicine
dimensional image of a thin "slice" of the body and
is therefore considered a tomographic imaging Main article: Nuclear medicine
Nuclear medicine encompasses both diagnostic images from the
imaging and treatment of disease, and may also be radiation emitted
referred to as molecular medicine or molecular by the
[1]
imaging & therapeutics . Nuclear medicine uses radiopharmaceuti
certain properties of isotopes and the energetic cals.
particles emitted from radioactive material to  SPECT is a 3D
diagnose or treat various pathology. Different from tomographic
the typical concept of anatomic radiology, nuclear technique that
medicine enables assessment of physiology. This uses gamma
function-based approach to medical evaluation has camera data from
useful applications in most subspecialties, notably many projections
oncology, neurology, and cardiology. Gamma and can be
cameras are used in e.g. scintigraphy, SPECT and reconstructed in
PET to detect regions of biologic activity that may different planes. A
be associated with disease. Relatively short dual detector
123
lived isotope, such as I is administered to the head gamma
patient. Isotopes are often preferentially absorbed camera combined
by biologically active tissue in the body, and can be with a CT
used to identify tumors or fracture points in bone. scanner, which
Images are acquired after collimated photons are provides
detected by a crystal that gives off a light signal, localization of
which is in turn amplified and converted into count functional SPECT
data. data, is termed a
SPECT/CT
 Scintigraphy ("sc
camera, and has
int") is a form of
shown utility in
diagnostic test
advancing the
wherein radioisoto
field of molecular
pes are taken
imaging.In most
internally, for
other medical
example
imaging
intravenously or
modalities, energy
orally. Then,
is passed through
gamma camera
the body and the
capture and form
reaction or result
two-dimensional[2]
 is read by creating F18-
detectors. In fluorodeoxyglucos
SPECT imaging, e, which can be
the patient is used as a marker
injected with a of metabolic
radioisotope, most utilization. Images
commonly of activity
Thallium 201TI, distribution
Technetium throughout the
99mTC, Iodine body can show
123I, and Gallium rapidly growing
[3]
68Ga tissue, like tumor,
metastasis, or
. The radioactive gamma rays are emitted through infection. PET
the body as the natural decaying process of these images can be
isotopes takes place. The emissions of the gamma viewed in
rays are captured by detectors that surround the comparison
body. This essentially means that the human is to computed
now the source of the radioactivity, rather than the tomography scans
medical imaging devices such as X-Ray, CT, or to determine an
Ultrasound. anatomic
correlate. Modern
 Positron
scanners combine
emission
PET with a CT, or
tomography (PET)
even MRI, to
uses coincidence
optimize the
detection to image
image
functional
reconstruction
processes. Short-
involved with
lived positron
positron imaging.
emitting isotope,
This is performed
such as 18F, is
on the same
incorporated with
equipment without
an organic
physically moving
substance such
the patient off of
as glucose,
the gantry. The
 resultant hybrid of process frequently results in an increase in
functional and regional surface temperatures of the breast. Digital
anatomic imaging infrared imaging uses extremely sensitive medical
information is a infrared cameras and sophisticated computers to
useful tool in non- detect, analyze, and produce high-resolution
invasive diagnosis diagnostic images of these temperature variations.
and patient Because of DII's sensitivity, these temperature
management. variations may be among the earliest signs of
breast cancer and/or a pre-cancerous state of the
[edit]Photoacoustic imaging breast[4].
Main article: Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine
[edit]Tomography
Photoacoustic imaging is a recently developed Main article: Computed tomography
hybrid biomedical imaging modality based on the
Tomography is the method of imaging a single
photoacoustic effect. It combines the advantages
plane, or slice, of an object resulting in
of optical absorption contrast with ultrasonic spatial
a tomogram. There are several forms
resolution for deep imaging in (optical) diffusive or
of tomography:
quasi-diffusive regime. Recent studies have shown
that photoacoustic imaging can be used in vivo for
 Linear
tumor angiogenesis monitoring, blood oxygenation
tomography: This
mapping, functional brain imaging, and skin
is the most basic
melanoma detection, etc.
form of
[edit]Breast Thermography tomography. The
It has been suggested that this X-ray tube moved
section be split into a new
from point "A" to
article. (Discuss)
point "B" above
Digital infrared imaging thermography is based on
the patient, while
the principle that metabolic activity and vascular
the cassette
circulation in both pre-cancerous tissue and the
holder (or
area surrounding a developing breast cancer is
"bucky") moves
almost always higher than in normal breast tissue.
simultaneously
Cancerous tumors require an ever-increasing
under the patient
supply of nutrients and therefore increase
from point "B" to
circulation to their cells by holding open existing
point "A."
blood vessels, opening dormant vessels, and
The fulcrum, or
creating new ones (neoangiogenesis). This
pivot point, is set
to the area of use into the
interest. In this 1990s, as its
manner, the resulting images
points above and for small or
below the focal difficult
plane are blurred physiology, such
out, just as the as the inner ear,
background is was still difficult to
blurred when image with CTs at
panning a camera that time. As the
during exposure. resolution of CTs
No longer carried got better, this
out and replaced procedure was
by computed taken over by the
tomography. CT.

 Poly  Zonography:
tomography: This This is a variant of
was a complex linear
form of tomography,
tomography. With where a limited
this technique, a arc of movement
number of is used. It is still
geometrical used in some
movements were centres for
programmed, visualising the
such as kidney during an
hypocycloidic, intravenous
circular, figure 8, urogram (IVU).
and elliptical.  Orthopantomogr
Philips Medical aphy (OPT or
Systems [1] produ OPG): The only
ced one such common
device called the tomographic
'Polytome.' This examination in
unit was still in use. This makes
use of a complex radiography;
movement to repeated scans
allow the must be limited to
radiographic avoid health
examination of the effects. CT is
mandible, as if it based on the
were a flat bone. same principles
It is often referred as X-Ray
to as a "Panorex", projections but in
but this is this case, the
incorrect, as it is a patient is
trademark of a enclosed in a
specific company. surrounding ring

 Computed of detectors

Tomography (CT), assigned with

or Computed 500-1000

Axial Tomography scintillation

(CAT: A CT scan, detectors[3]

also known as
. This being the fourth-generation X-Ray CT
a CAT scan), is a
scanner geometry. Previously in older generation
helical
scanners, the X-Ray beam was paired by a
tomography
translating source and detector.
(latest
generation), which [edit]Ultrasound
traditionally Main article: Medical ultrasonography
produces a 2D
Medical ultrasonography uses high
image of the
frequency broadband sound waves in
structures in a thin
the megahertz range that are reflected by tissue to
section of the
varying degrees to produce (up to 3D) images.
body. It uses X-
This is commonly associated with imaging
rays. It has a
the fetus in pregnant women. Uses of ultrasound
greaterionizing
are much broader, however. Other important uses
radiation dose
include imaging the abdominal organs, heart,
burden than
breast, muscles, tendons, arteries and veins. While
projection
it may provide less anatomical detail than
techniques such as CT or MRI, it has several
advantages which make it ideal in numerous
situations, in particular that it studies the function of
moving structures in real-time, emits no ionizing
radiation, and contains speckle that can be used
inelastography. Ultrasound is also used as a
popular research tool for capturing raw data, that
can be made available through an Ultrasound
research interface, for the purpose of tissue
characterization and implementation of new image
processing techniques. The concepts of ultrasound
differ from other medical imaging modalities in the
fact that it is operated by the transmission and
receipt of sound waves. The high frequency sound
waves are sent into the tissue and depending on
the composition of the different tissues; the signal
will be attenuated and returned at separate
intervals. A path of reflected sound waves in a
multilayered structure can be defined by an input
acoustic impedance( Ultrasound sound wave) and
the Reflection and transmission coefficients of the
relative structures[3] . It is very safe to use and does
not appear to cause any adverse effects, although
information on this is not well documented. It is
also relatively inexpensive and quick to perform.
Ultrasound scanners can be taken to critically ill
patients in intensive care units, avoiding the
danger caused while moving the patient to the
radiology department. The real time moving image
obtained can be used to guide drainage and biopsy
procedures. Doppler capabilities on modern
scanners allow the blood flow in arteries and veins
to be assessed.
[edit]Medical imaging topics
[edit]Maximizing imaging procedure
use
The amount of data obtained in a single MR or CT
scan is very extensive. Some of the data that
radiologists discard could save patients time and
money, while reducing their exposure to radiation
and risk of complications from invasive procedures.
[5]
[edit]Creation of three-dimensional
images
Recently, techniques have been developed to
enable CT, MRI and ultrasound scanning software
to produce 3D images for the physician.
[6]
Traditionally CT and MRI scans produced 2D
static output on film. To produce 3D images, many
scans are made, then combined by computers to
produce a 3D model, which can then be
manipulated by the physician. 3D ultrasounds are
produced using a somewhat similar technique. In
diagnosing disease of the viscera of
abdomen,ultrasound is particularly sensitive on
imaging of biliary tract,urinary tract and female
reproductive organs(ovary,fallopian tubes).As for
example,diagnosis of gall stone by dilatation of
common bile duct and stone in common bile duct .
With the ability to visualize important structures in
great detail, 3D visualization methods are a
valuable resource for the diagnosis and surgical
treatment of many pathologies. It was a key
resource for the famous, but ultimately
unsuccessful attempt by Singaporean surgeons to
separate Iranian twins Ladan and Laleh Bijani in
2003. The 3D equipment was used previously for
similar operations with great success.
Other proposed or developed techniques include: feasibility of accessing large image data sets over
low or various bandwidths are further addressed by
 Diffuse optical use of another DICOM standard, called JPIP, to
tomography enable efficient streaming of theJPEG
 Elastography 2000 compressed image data.
 Electrical
[edit]Non-diagnostic imaging
impedance
Neuroimaging has also been used in experimental
tomography
circumstances to allow people (especially disabled
 Optoacoustic
persons) to control outside devices, acting as
imaging
a brain computer interface.
 Ophthalmology
 A-scan [edit]Archiving and recording
 B-scan Used primarily in ultrasound imaging, capturing the
 Corneal image a medical imaging device is required for
topography archiving and telemedicine applications. In most

 Optical scenarios, a frame grabber is used in order to

coherence capture the video signal from the medical device

tomography and relay it to a computer for further processing

 Scannin and operations.[7]

g laser [edit]Open
source software for
ophthalmosco medical image analysis
py
Several open source software packages are
available for performing analysis of medical
Some of these techniques are still at a research
images:
stage and not yet used in clinical routines.

[edit]Compression of medical  ImageJ

images  3D Slicer

Medical imaging techniques produce very large  ITK

amounts of data, especially from CT, MRI and PET  OsiriX
modalities. As a result, storage and  GemIdent
communications of electronic image data are  MicroDicom
prohibitive without the use of compression. JPEG  FreeSurfer
2000 is the state-of-the-art image
compression DICOM standard for storage and [edit]Use in pharmaceutical clinical
transmission of medical images. The cost and trials
Medical imaging has become a major tool in
clinical trials since it enables rapid diagnosis with
visualization and quantitative assessment.
A typical clinical trial goes through multiple phases
and can take up to eight years. Clinical
endpoints or outcomes are used to determine
whether the therapy is safe and effective. Once a
patient reaches the endpoint, he/she is generally
excluded from further experimental interaction.
behavioural and cognitive tests. MRI scans on the
entire brain can accurately pinpoint hippocampal
atrophy rate while PET scans is able to measure
the brain’s metabolic activity by measuring regional
glucose metabolism.[8]
An imaging-based trial will usually be made up of
three components:
7. A

Trials that rely solely on clinical endpoints are very realistic

costly as they have long durations and tend to imaging

need large number of patients. protocol. The

protocol is an
In contrast to clinical endpoints, surrogate
outline that
endpoints have been shown to cut down the time
standardizes
required to confirm whether a drug has clinical
(as far as
benefits. Imaging biomarkers (a characteristic that
practically
is objectively measured by an imaging technique,
possible) the
which is used as an indicator of pharmacological
way in which
response to a therapy) and surrogate endpoints
the images
have shown to facilitate the use of small group
are acquired
sizes, obtaining quick results with good statistical
using the
power.[8]
various
Imaging is able to reveal subtle change that is modalities
indicative of the progression of therapy that may be (PET, SPEC
missed out by more subjective, traditional T, CT, MRI).
approaches. Statistical bias is reduced as the It covers the
findings are evaluated without any direct patient specifics in
contact. which images

For example, measurement of tumour shrinkage is are to be

a commonly used surrogate endpoint in solid stored,

tumour response evaluation. This allows for faster processed

and more objective assessment of the effects of and

anticancer drugs. In evaluating the extent evaluated.

of Alzheimer’s disease, it is still prevalent to use

8. An services,
imaging from protocol
centre that is design and
responsible site
for collecting management
the images, through to
perform data quality
quality assurance
control and and image
provide tools analysis.
for data 9. Clinical
storage, sites that
distribution recruit
and analysis. patients to
It is important generate the
for images images to
acquired at send back to
different time the imaging
points are centre.
displayed in
a [edit]See also
standardised
 Preclinical imaging  Magnetic fie
format to
 Cardiac PET  Medical exa
maintain the
 Biomedical informatics  Medical radi
reliability of
 Digital Imaging and Communications in  Medical test
the
Medicine  Neuroimagin
evaluation.
 Digital Mammography and PACS  Non-invasiv
Certain
 EMMI European Master in Molecular  PACS
specialised
Imaging  JPEG 2000 c
imaging
contract  eMix
 Fotofinder  JPIP streami
research
organizations  Full-body scan
provide to
 VoluMedic
end medical
[edit]References
imaging
17. ^ Societ Wiley-

y of Nuclear Interscience

Medicine Publication

18. ^ thefree 20. ^ http://

dictionary.co www.breastth

m- ermography.c

scintigraphy C om/breast_the

iting: rmography_m

Dorland's f.htm

Medical 21. ^ Freihe

Dictionary for rr G. Waste
Health not, want not:
Consumers, Getting the
2007 by most from
Saunders; imaging
Saunders procedures. D
Comprehensi iagnostic
ve Veterinary Imaging. Marc
Dictionary, 3 h 19, 2010.
ed. 2007; 22. ^ Udupa
McGraw-Hill , J.K. and
Concise Herman, G.
Dictionary of T., 3D
Modern Imaging in
Medicine, Medicine, 2nd
2002 by The Edition, CRC
McGraw-Hill Press, 2000
Companies 23. ^ Treatin
19. ^ a b c
Dh g Medical
awan P, A. Ailments in
(2003). Real Time
Medical 24. ^ a b Haj
Imaging nal, J. V.,
Analysis. Hawkes, D.
Hoboken, NJ: J., & Hill, D. L.
 (2001).  Tony F.
Medical Imag Chan and Jackie
e Shen
Registration. (2005). Image
CRC Press. Processing and
Analysis -
[edit]Further reading Variational, PDE,
Wavelet, and
 Burger, Wilhelm;
Stochastic
Burge, Mark
Methods. SIAM
James, eds
 Terry
(2008). Digital
Yoo(Editor)
Image
(2004), Insight
Processing: An
into Images.
Algorithmic
 Robb, RA
Introduction using
(1999). Biomedic
Java. Texts in
al Imaging,
Computer
Visualization, and
Science
Analysis. John
series. New
Wiley & Sons,
York: Springer
Inc. ISBN 047128
Science+Business
3533.
Media. doi:10.100
 Journal of Digital
7/978-1-84628-
Imaging (New
968-2. ISBN 978-
York: Springer
1-84628-379-6.
Science+Business
 Baert, Albert L.,
Media). ISSN 089
ed
7-1889.
(2008). Encyclope
 Using JPIP for
dia of Diagnostic
Standard-
Imaging. Berlin: S
Compliant
pringer-Verlag. do
Sharing of
i:10.1007/978-3-
Medical Image
540-35280-8. ISB
Data a white
N 978-3-540-
35278-5.
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