2.

Computer System Architecture

The following is the structure of the modern general computer system.

The general purpose computer system contains a CPU and number of device
controllers and those are connected to common bus and share memory. Here each device

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controller is incharge of specific devices i.e., disk controller is incharge of disks etc., Here,
CPU and device controllers can execute concurrently and they competing for memory cycles
to provide a memory accessing in order, a memory controller is placed, whose job is to
synchronize the access to memory.

Boot Strap Program :

When the computer is switched on, it requires to run an initial program known as
Boot Strap Program. It initializes all the computer registers, device controllers, memory
contents. This program knows how to load the OS into the memory.

Interrupt :
The operating system starts to execute the first process in the memory and it waits an
event to occur. The occurrence of an event is generally signaled by interrupt either from
Hardware or Software.

Hardware may trigger interrupt at any time to CPU by using some bus.

Software may trigger interrupt by executing a special operation known as System

Call or Monitor Call.

There are different ways to give the trigger. For example, an I/O device completes its
operation or division by zero or invalid memory access etc.,

When the CPU is interrupted, it stops its current task and immediately transfers
control to fixed location. The fixed location contains starting address of interrupt service
routine, the routine executes. After the interruption, CPU come back to the location where it
stops execution.

Interrupts are important part of the system architecture. Each computer has its own
interrupt handling mechanism, but several functions are common. The straight forward
method is to transfer control to a table. That table contains each device member, its service
routine address and it is known as Interrupt Vector Table. Whenever an interrupt occurs,
searching is done in this table to find the service routine.

I/O Structure :

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 In general purpose computer system consists of a CPU and some device controllers
connected through a common bus. Each device controller is incharge of specific type of
devices. The device controller contains a local storage buffer and a set of special purpose
registers. The device controller is responsible for moving the data between the device and the
device controller varies from one controller to another controller.

For example, the size of buffer in device controller corresponding to disk is equal to a
multiple of 512. Here 512 is smallest addressable partition in the disk, called Sector.

While starting the I/O operation, CPU loads the appropriate registers within the
device controllers.

The device controller then examines the contents of the registers and determines
action there the controller transfers the data from the disk to the local buffer. After the
completion, controller generates a signal to CPU. That signal is called Interrupt.

Once an I/O is started, two actions are possible. In the case, once I/O is started, after
the completion of I/O, control returns to user process. This is known as Synchronous. The
other possibility is Asynchronous. Here, control returns to the user process without waiting
for a I/O complete. These are explained in the following diagram.

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Device Status Table :

The better way of I/O is to start the I/O and then continue to processing Operating
System or Other programming code. Here, a system call is needed to allow the user program
to wait for I/O completion. Here, the operating system maintains a table known as Device
Status Table. Each table entry is the device name and its status ( idle or busy ). If a device is
busy with request, the type of request and other parameters are stored in the entry for that
device. This is also called waiting queue. The following is the device status table.

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 Whenever an I/O operation is needed by a process, CPU checks in the device status
table for corresponding device. If it is idle, I/O starts the status changes busy, control transfers
execute another process. If CPU needs an I/O device and finds that it is busy. It simply adds
the information about request in the waiting queue of that device in the device status table.
The device is going to serve for the processes which in the waiting queue. This method
improves the utilization of I/O devices. Here, the important point is, while I/O is taking place
control transfers to execute other processes.

Storage Structure :

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 The following is the hierarchy of various storage devices of the general purpose
computer system.

At

the higher level high speed, expensive, low capacity storage devices.

At the lower level low speed, less expensive, high capacity storage devices.

In this hierarchy, we have both volatile and non-volatile devices. All the devices
above Electronic devices ( Main Memory, Cache Memory, Registers ) are volatile i.e., they
loss the information when the power is off.

All the devices below the Electronic devices ( Magnetic disk, Optical disk, Magnetic
Tape ) are non-volatile i.e., they do not loss the information when the power is off.

In the normal operation, the electronic disk stores its data in the large DRAM array
which is volatile. But most electronic disks contain a magnetic hard disk in it and a battery is
also placed for the back up power. So, whenever power is off, the electronic disk copies
information from DRAM array to magnetic hard disk, which is not volatile by using the
battery.

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 The design of computer memory system, we place as much expensive memory as
necessary and it must associate with inexpensive high capacity memory.

Caching :

Cache memory is very expensive, low capacity, high speed memory placed in
between CPU and main memory. The information which is frequently needed is to be placed
in cache memory. Whenever an information needed to CPU, it first checks whether it is
present in the cache memory or not. If it is there, CPU uses that information. Otherwise, the
information is accessed from the main memory. The information is also copied into cache
memory. So that, if it CPU needs that information again, it takes information from cache
memory. The cache memory always contains updated information and this is copied into
main memory, when it removed from cache memory. Generally we use the FIFO, RR
algorithms to remove from cache.

Cache Main

Memory Memory
CPU

Suppose if the CPU requested process is not present in the main memory, it takes
from the disk and copied into main memory and the remaining process is same as above.

We observe that the user program may located in different storage devices and the
higher level must contain the updated version . While designing the memory system, care
must be taken. So that whenever a program is accessed, we should get only the latest version.

Coherency and Consistency :

In the storage hierarchy system, same data may appear at several levels. For example,
consider a variable ‘A’ in file ‘B’. Suppose A is to be incremented by 1 ( one ). Initially the
file is stored on the disk, inorder to execute this instruction the block of the file ‘B’ is copied
into main memory followed by a copy to cache memory and then a copy to registers is done,
then increment operation is performed i.e., the updated value of A is in register only. After
that any instruction which needs A will be taken from register. While it is removed from
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registers, it is copied into cache memory, later it is copied into main memory and on to the
disk. Here whenever CPU needs an information , it should be taken from higher level device.
So, we may not get any problem.

Consider a multitasking system, CPU switches among the various processes. If

several processes wants to access A and modify A, care must be taken. So that all the accesses
must be done from higher storage devices.

The situation becomes more complicated in the multiprocessor environment. Each

CPU has its own cache memory and registers. In such environment, the copy of A may exists
in several cache memories and these may be different. Here, various CPUs can execute
concurrently. So, care must be taken because one modification of A will reflect all other
registers and cache memory in which A resides. This is known as Cache Coherency.

In the distributed environment, the situation is more complex because several copies
of file kept at several systems. So, care must be taken because the updating of one file at one
location will reflect at all other locations.

Hardware Protection :

Operating System improves the system utilization. We can share the system resources
among several programs. So, if one program executing its I/O, CPU switches to another
program. This type of sharing will improve the utilization and will increase the problems.
When the system runs without sharing , any error in the program can cause to effect only that
program. Otherwise, when the system runs with sharing, many processors will effect with
error in one processor. Sometimes, in multiprogramming environment , any erroneous
program can modify the operating system program or some other process. So, we need some
protection for this type of error. Protection must be required for the I/O devices and operating
system and also to the CPU.

Dual Mode Operation :

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 We have to protect the operating system and user programs. Protection is needed for
all the shared resources. To ensure the proper operation the computer is going to run in two
modes. They are

a) User mode

b) Monitor mode ( Supervisor mode / System mode / Privileged mode )

A bit called mode bit is added to computer hardware. It is ‘0’ for the monitor mode
and ‘1’ for the user mode. By using the mode bit, we can distinguish between task performed
by operating system and task performed by the user. Initially at the system boot time, we are
in monitor mode. After the operating system is loaded, the computer switches to user mode to
execute the user processes. Whenever the user program performs an illegal operation, a trap
( signal ) occurs and the system switches to monitor mode i.e., the operating system takes
over the control.

Memory Protection :

We have to provide protection to memory for the operating system, interrupt vector,
interrupt service routine, device status table and some user programs from other programs in
the multiprogramming environment. This protection can be achieved by the hardware. The
following is one way by using base register always holds the starting address of the current
instruction ( job ) and limit register holds the maximum memory.

Consider the following example.

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 Here, the protection is provided by the CPU hardware . Compare every address
generated by current process using base register and limit register. If it is in the allotted
address space of the current process , accessing is done. Otherwise, a trap occurs and
operating system takes control over the system. This is shown in the following diagram.

CPU Protection :

We must prevent the user program from getting struck infinitely and do not release
processor for any other program. Here, user program get struck in infinite loop and processor
is not released. We can protect our processor from this type of problems by using a timer.

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 A timer is set to interrupt the computer after a specific period of time. Here, the time
may be fixed or variable.

The variable timer is ranging from 1 millisecond to 1024 milliseconds ( if it is a 10-bit

counter ). A variable timer is implemented with a clock and a counter. Initially, the operating
system counter and every time the clock moves, the counter is decrements by ‘1’. Whenever
the counter reaches ‘0’ , an interrupt occurs.

For example, suppose we have a 10-bit counter and we 1 millisecond clock, then the
timer is allowed an interrupt from 1 millisecond to 1024 milliseconds.

In this way, timer can prevent a user program to run for along period of time.
Generally a controller is set to the vale which is equal to the maximum allowed time for the
process.

One more use of timer is to implement time sharing . Here, timer is set to a value ‘N’,
which is known as “Time Slice”. For each every N seconds , interrupt occurs i.e., each user is
allowed to execute N seconds and for every N seconds, operating system takes over the
control and it is going to make various tasks over the control and it is going to make various
tasks such as resetting the values of N, setting the various registers, buffers with the values
currently executing program and selects another process to switch . This switching is known
as “Context Switch”. After switching, the above cycle repeats .

By using timer, we can calculate the current time i.e., a timer interrupt informs
passage of time. We calculate the time with reference to some initial time and number of
interrupts, time interval of the interrupt.

Suppose we have initial time 9 AM ( 9 : 00 : 00 ) and we have an interrupt for every 1

second. Therefore we have totally 1427 interrupts, then the time interval is 9 : 23 : 47 AM
( 1427 / 60 = 23 minutes and 47 seconds ).

I/O Protection :

To prevent the user program from performing illegal I/O operations, we have to define
all the I/O instructions as privileged. Every privileged instruction must be executed in
monitor mode.

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 As all the I/O instructions are privileged, they are executed only by the operating
system. Whenever an I/O instruction occurs, the user must ask the operating system to
execute this instruction on behalf of user . Such a request is known as System Call or Monitor
Call or Operating System function Call.

Whenever a system call occurs, a trap to specific location is happened. This location
is taken from interrupt vector table. When a system call is executed, control passes to the
interrupt service routine in the operating system. The address of this routine is stored in
interrupt vector table. The execution of this routine is done in monitor mode. After executing
this instruction, the mode bit again changed to user mode.

The following diagram shows the system call.

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*********** End of Chapter 2 ************

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