12.

CHEMICAL FACT SHEETS

Assessment date
The risk assessment was originally conducted in 1993. The Final Task Force Meeting
in 2003 agreed that this risk assessment be brought forward to this edition of the
Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.

Principal reference
WHO (2003) Chloride in drinking-water. Background document for preparation of
WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, World Health Organization
(WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/3).

12.23 Chlorine
Chlorine is produced in large amounts and widely used both industrially and domes-
tically as an important disinfectant and bleach. In particular, it is widely used in the
disinfection of swimming pools and is the most commonly used disinfectant and
oxidant in drinking-water treatment. In water, chlorine reacts to form hypochlorous
acid and hypochlorites.

Guideline value 5 mg/litre

Occurrence Present in most disinfected drinking-water at concentrations of
0.2–1 mg/litre
TDI 150 mg/kg of body weight, derived from a NOAEL for the absence of
toxicity in rodents ingesting chlorine in drinking-water for 2 years
Limit of detection 0.01 mg/litre following pre-column derivatization to
4-bromoacetanilide by HPLC; 10 mg/litre as free chlorine by
colorimetry; 0.2 mg/litre by ion chromatography
Treatment achievability It is possible to reduce the concentration of chlorine effectively to zero
(< 0.1 mg/litre) by reduction. However, it is normal practice to supply
water with a chlorine residual of a few tenths of a milligram per litre to
act as a preservative during distribution.
Guideline derivation
• allocation to water 100% of TDI
• weight 60-kg adult
• consumption 2 litres/day
Additional comments • The guideline value is conservative, as no adverse effect level was
identified in the critical study.
• Most individuals are able to taste chlorine at the guideline value.

Toxicological review
In humans and animals exposed to chlorine in drinking-water, no specific adverse
treatment-related effects have been observed. IARC has classified hypochlorite in
Group 3.

325
 GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY

History of guideline development

The 1958, 1963 and 1971 WHO International Standards for Drinking-water and the
first edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, published in 1984, did not
refer to chlorine. The 1993 Guidelines established a guideline value of 5 mg/litre for
free chlorine in drinking-water, but noted that this value is conservative, as no adverse
effect level was identified in the study used. It was also noted that most individuals
are able to taste chlorine at the guideline value.

Assessment date
The risk assessment was originally conducted in 1993. The Final Task Force Meeting
in 2003 agreed that this risk assessment be brought forward to this edition of the
Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.

Principal reference
WHO (2003) Chlorine in drinking-water. Background document for preparation of
WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, World Health Organization
(WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/45).

12.24 Chlorite and chlorate

Chlorite and chlorate are DBPs resulting from the use of chlorine dioxide as a disin-
fectant and for odour/taste control in water. Chlorine dioxide is also used as a bleach-
ing agent for cellulose, paper pulp, flour and oils. Sodium chlorite and sodium chlorate
are both used in the production of chlorine dioxide as well as for other commercial
purposes. Chlorine dioxide rapidly decomposes into chlorite, chlorate and chloride
ions in treated water, chlorite being the predominant species; this reaction is favoured
by alkaline conditions. The major route of environmental exposure to chlorine
dioxide, sodium chlorite and sodium chlorate is through drinking-water.

Provisional guideline
values
Chlorite 0.7 mg/litre
Chlorate 0.7 mg/litre The guideline values for chlorite and chlorate are
designated as provisional because use of chlorine dioxide as a
disinfectant may result in the chlorite and chlorate guideline values
being exceeded, and difficulties in meeting the guideline value must
never be a reason for compromising adequate disinfection.
Occurrence Levels of chlorite in water reported in one study ranged from 3.2 to
7.0 mg/litre; however, the combined levels will not exceed the dose of
chlorine dioxide applied.

326