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FOUNDATION OF METHEMATICS LECTURE 2 (Please indicate Student name , Student #, Category –ET or ICT)
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Dr. Sanjaya Thilakarathne
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Department of Engineering Technology
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Reports Workshop Technology I - On or before 3rd Friday, February 2017, have to

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Objectives
Introduction
Sets Venn
diagrams

Objectives
Explanation
about types of Sets
sets

Complement,
intersection
and union .
Introduction
about set
theories
Cartesian
product
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Sets Element of sets

A set is a well defined collection of objects, whose elements can

be clearly determined.
Read this as ‘5’ is an element of the set {2,3,5}
A specific set can be defined in two ways-
1. If there are only a few elements, they can be listed individually, by Read this as ‘1’ is not an element of the set {2,3,5}
writing them between curly braces ‘{ }’(set notation) and placing commas in
between. E.g.- {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Types of sets
2. The second way of writing set is to use a property that defines
elements of the set. (the elements are described, not listed.) 1. Subsets
e.g.- {x | x is odd and 0 < x < 100}
If every element of a set A is also an element of set B, we say set A is a
subset of set B.

If A={1,2,3,4,5,6} and B={1,2,3,4} Then B A

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One set is a subset of another set if every object in the first set is an object of the 2. Equal sets
second set as well. The set of weekdays is a subset of the set of days of the week, Two sets A and B are called equal if they have equal numbers and similar types of
since every weekday is a day of the week. A more succinct way to express the elements.
concept of a subset is as follows: i.e. A B and B A.
This implies, A=B

For e.g. If A={1, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B={4, 1, 5, 6, 3} then both Set A and B are equal.

3. Set minus
If A and B are sets, we can create a new set named A − B (spoken as “A minus
B”) by starting with the set A and removing all of the objects from A that are also
contained in the set B.

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4. Empty sets 5. Singleton set

A set which does not contain any elements is called as Empty set or Null or Void set.
denoted by  or { }.
example: The set of whole numbers less than 0.
Clearly there is no whole number less than 0. Therefore, it is an
empty set.
Let A = {x : 2 < x < 3, x is a natural number}
Here A is an empty set because there is no natural number between 2
and 3.
Let B = {x : x is a composite number less than 4}.
Here B is an empty set because there is no composite number less
than 4.
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A set containing exactly one element.
Example:
Let B = {x : x is a even prime number}
Here B is a singleton set because there is only one prime number which is
even, i.e. 2,
A = {x : x is neither prime nor composite}
It is a singleton set containing one element, i.e., 1.
6. Finite set
A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set. Empty set is
also called a finite set.
Example:
• The set of all colors in the rainbow.
• N = {x : x ∈ N, x < 7}
• P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...... 97}
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7. Infinite set 8. Disjoint sets

The set whose elements cannot be listed, i.e., set containing never-ending elements Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if they do not have any element in common.
is called an infinite set. Example:
For example: A = {x : x is a prime number}
B = {x : x is a composite number}.
• Set of all points in a plane A = {x : x ∈ N, x > 1}
Clearly, A and B do not have any element in common and are disjoint sets.
• Set of all prime numbers B = {x : x ∈ W, x = 2n}
Note:
• All infinite sets cannot be expressed in roster form. 9. Power set
The collection of all subsets of set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted by
The Roster Method- lists the elements of the set, with commas P(A).
in between. The three dots (ellipsis) indicate that the listing In P(A), every element is a set.
continues for ever.
Example;
If A = {p, q} then all the subsets of A will be
P(A) = {∅, {p}, {q}, {p, q}}

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10. Universal Set Cardinal number of a set

A set which contains all the elements of other given sets is called a universal set. The
The number of distinct elements in a given set A is called the cardinal number of A.
symbol for denoting a universal set is ∪ or ξ.
It is denoted by n(A).
Example: Example:
A {x : x ∈ N, x < 5}
1. If A = {1, 2, 3} B = {2, 3, 4} C = {3, 5, 7} A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7} Therefore, n(A) = 4
[Here A ⊆ U, B ⊆ U, C ⊆ U and U ⊇ A, U ⊇ B, U ⊇ C]
B = set of letters in the word ALGEBRA
2. If P is a set of all whole numbers and Q is a set of all negative numbers then the B = {A, L, G, E, B, R}
universal set is a set of all integers. Therefore, n(B) = 6

3. If A = {a, b, c} B = {d, e} C = {f, g, h, i}

then U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i} can be taken as universal set.

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Exercises 1 The Set of Real Numbers

1. Specify the set A by listing its elements, where A = { whole numbers less than
100 divisible by 16 }.
2. Specify the set B by giving a written description of its elements, where B = { 0, 1,
4, 9, 16, 25 }.
Every Real Number is either rational or irrational. We refer to these sets as
subsets of the real numbers, meaning that all elements in each subset are also
elements in the set of real numbers.
x | x is rational or x is irrational

3. Does the following sentence specify a set? C = { whole numbers close to 50 }.

4. Use dots to help list each set, and state whether it is finite or infinite.
i A = { even numbers between 10 000 and 20 000 }
ii B = { whole numbers that are multiples of 3 }

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Among the most common sets appearing in math are sets of numbers. There are Numbers with their symbols
many different kinds of numbers. Below is a list of those that are most important for
this course.
Numbers Examples
Natural Numbers 2,3,4,17
Whole Numbers 0,2,3,4,17
Integers -5,-2,0,2,5
1 5 1 2
Rational Numbers ,  ,.4  ,0,.6 
2 1 5 3
Irrational Numbers 2,  ,  3

25 is a rational number because 25  5.

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Numbers as subsets Example

Consider the following set of numbers.

 1 
3, 0, , .95,  , 8, 16 
 2 
List the numbers in the set that are:
a. Natural Numbers
b. Whole Numbers
c. Integers
d. Rational Numbers
e. Irrational Numbers
f. Real numbers

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Exercises 2 Exercises
Decide whether the following statements are true or false.

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Venn Diagrams Venn diagrams

A Venn Diagram is a way of visually representing sets of items or numbers by
using their logical relationships to decide how they should be grouped together. Diagrams make mathematics easier because they help us to see the whole
situation at a glance. The English mathematician John Venn (1834–1923) began
PIRATE VENN DIAGRAM
using diagrams to represent sets. His diagrams are now called Venn diagrams.
Has 1 leg

Has a Universal set

beard
The larger set is called the universal set, and is usually given the symbol “E”. In a
Venn diagram, the universal set is generally drawn as a large rectangle, and then
other sets are represented by circles within this rectangle.
For example, if V = { vowels }, we could choose the universal set as E = { letters of
the alphabet } and all the letters of the alphabet would then need to be placed
somewhere within the rectangle E
bcdfghjklmn
pqrstvwxyz

Has a parrot.

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Example Representing subsets on a Venn diagram

If S is a subset of T, we place the circle representing S inside the circle representing
T. For example, let the universal set is E = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 }, S = { 0,
1, 2 }, and T = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }. Then S is a subset of T, as illustrated in the Venn
diagram below.
E
5
6
7
8
9
10

The numbers 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are placed outside both circles

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Complements , Intersections and Unions

The complement of a set

The intersection of two sets

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Intersection and the word ‘and’

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The union of two sets

The union of two sets A and B consists of all elements belonging to A or to B. This is
written as “A U B ”. Elements belonging to both set belong to the union. Continuing
with the example of singers and instrumentalists:

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Union and the word ‘or’

Example
The word ‘or’ tells us that there is a union of two sets.

For example:
For the following sets of numbers find the Union and the Intersection.
{ singers } U{ instrumentalists } = { people who sing or play an instrument }
{ vowels } U { letters in ‘dingo’ } = { letters that are vowels or are in ‘dingo’ }
The word ‘or’ in mathematics always means ‘and/or’, so there is no need to add ‘or
both’ to these descriptions of the unions.
2, 4,6,8,10 3, 4,5,6,7
For example,
If A = { 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 } and B = { 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 }, then
A U B = { 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14 }. Here the elements 6 and 12 are in both sets A and B.

2, 4,6,8,10 3, 4,5,6,7

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Disjoint sets Summery : Complement, intersection and union

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Representing the intersection and union on a Venn diagram

Exercises
The Venn diagram below shows the two sets
A = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 } and B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }.
• The numbers 1, 3 and 5 lie in both sets, so we place them in the overlapping region
of the two circles.
• The remaining numbers in A are 7 and 9. These are placed inside A, but outside B.
• The remaining numbers in B are 2 and 4. These are placed inside B, but outside A

Thus the overlapping region represents the intersection A B = { 1, 3, 5 }, and

the two circles together represent the union A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 }.
The four remaining numbers 0, 6, 8 and 10 are placed outside both circles.
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Cartesian product
The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B is the set of all Ordered Pairs (a,b) where
the first element of order pairs “a” belongs to first set “A” and second element of
ordered pairs “b” belongs or second set “B”.
Or a∈A and b∈B

Note: Cartesian product of set A and B is not equal to Cartesian product of set B
and A.

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Denotation of Cartesian product:

Using matrices to denote Cartesian product
Cartesian product of sets “A” and “B” is denoted by : A×B
And Cartesian product of sets “B” and “A” is denoted by: B×A
For Cartesian Product of two sets, you can use a matrix to find the sets.
For example:
If set A={1,2} and set B={4,5} Example: Assume A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}. The table below represents A × B.
Then,
A×B=[ {1,4} , {1,5} , {2,4} , {2,5} ]
And
B×A=[ {4,1} , {4,2} , {5,1} , {5,2} ]

Note: If “m” is the number of elements in set “A” and “n” is number of elements in
set “B” then the numbers of elements of A×B and B×A is m×n
For example:
If set A have 2 elements and Set B have 3 elements the number of elements that A × B = {(1,a), (1,b), (1,c), (2,a), (2,b), (2,c), (3,a), (3,b), (3,c)}
A×B and B×A have is 3×2=6.

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Practice problems on Cartesian products

1. Suppose A={1,2} and B={a,b}. Find A×B.

2. Suppose A={1,2} and B={a,b}. Find B×A.

3. Suppose Z={0,1,7,8} and Y={0,1}. Find Z×Y.

4. Suppose A={f,k} and B=∅. Find A×B.

5. Suppose V={f,t} and S={c,d,u}. Find V×S.

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Homework
Document : Scan File Student Version
Exercise : 1.1- 1.32
Exercise : A, B, C, D

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