Bio Oil

Effect of Additives on the Performance of Biodiesel fueled Diesel Engine 2019
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
In modern society day by day the non–conventional energy sources are continuously
expanding owing to the increasing demands in the use of petroleum products like petrol,
diesel and white petrol. India imports more than 70% petroleum products from other
countries. Hence it is necessary to find an alternative fuel. Biodiesel is considered as suitable
alternative to the diesel. However, has lower oxidation stability. Hence, we have found
suitable fuel additives which can be added with the biodiesel. Biodiesel, a diesel fuel
substitute that can be made from a variety of fats, oils, and greases, is of interest to farmers
for a number of reasons: It can provide an additional market for vegetable oils and animal
fats, it can allow farmers to grow the fuel they need for farm machinery, and it can decrease
nation’s dependence on imported oil since fuel feedstock can be grown domestically.
Biodiesel is a renewable source of energy that can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
minimize the “carbon footprint” of agriculture. It contributes less to global warming because
the carbon in the fuel was removed from the air by the plant feedstock.
The concerns related to the scarcity of petroleum diesel and environmental degradation. It is
produced from renewable source such as vegetable oils or animal fats and has properties very
close to that of petroleum diesel. However, biodiesel has been found to be more corrosive to
automotive materials than diesel. This is more likely to be due to the presence of oxygen
moieties, auto-oxidation, increased polarity of biodiesel and its hygroscopic nature. Corrosion
behavior of different metals such as copper, brass, bronze, cast iron, carbon steel etc. in diesel
and biodiesel was investigated by several researchers.
The manufacturing process is a significant potential source of stability problems, and process
controls are the first line of defence to achieve and maintain stability of biodiesel. Fuel
blending strategies and fuel additives are now gaining interest to meet market demands for
viable fuels containing blends of biodiesel. Fuel additives are successfully being used to
improve operability by preventing oxidation and thermal degradation of B100 and biodiesel
blends.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 1

The B100 is here and there created in a group procedure by trans-esterification of

methanol with triglycerides, otherwise called glycerol unsaturated fats, within the sight of
harsh. The "level of finish" of the response to supplant the glycerol with a liquor, for
example, methanol was perceived as imperative to fuel quality right off the bat in the
advancement of biodiesel. The response is directed at raised temperatures of 120° to 150° F
to finish the response. The blend is then killed with a corrosive and washed to evacuate
overabundance methanol, salts and free glycerol. Compelling balance is required to expel
soluble base metals from the oil stage. In the case of washing isn't viable, the salts and
glycerol may stay in the B100. Limiting glycerol levels is required to guarantee quality B100
creation. Amplifying the level of finish of the esterification response limits free unsaturated
fats that can add to insecurity. Expulsion of antacid metal salts from the procedure and drying
is likewise critical to fulfill the quality guideline of completed B100 item. Procedure controls
and quality testing are required to accomplish the quality benchmarks.
Oxidation and polymerization responses have been perceived all through the refining
and car ventures as reasons for channel stopping, fuel injector stores, injector coking and
consumption. Oxidation side-effects, for example, acids and carbonyls, cause erosion and
quicken the degradation procedure.
The debasement side-effects might be insoluble in the diesel mixes and cause channel
connecting fuel frameworks. Fuel channel stopping and motor store development might be
identified with the arrangement of "all out insoluble," however B100 doesn't create
noteworthy insoluble when tried by capacity security tests. This might be because of the
dissolvability of the polar corruption side-effects in the to some degree polar B100, yet these
side-effects would then be able to end up insoluble when the biodiesel is mixed into the
nonpolar diesel powers. Insoluble are required to turn into a progressively noteworthy issue
as ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD), which is considerably increasingly nonpolar, is presented
in the commercial center. A few truckers are grumbling that fuel channel stopping up is
expanding as creature fat and soybean-based powers are being presented across the nation.
Fuel framework issues, including channel stopping; have been reported in the United States,
alongside fuel channel connecting vehicles that utilization B100 or biodiesel mixes. As per an
overview directed by the Minnesota Trucking Association, 62% of 90 armadas said they had
encountered fuel channel stopping.

The operability issues increment upkeep expenses and decline gear unwavering quality.
Along these lines, issues identified with biodiesel use could counteract the development and
selection of biodiesel in the fuel commercial center. In this way, counteracting operability
issues improves the reasonability of biodiesel as a fuel. The dependability of biodiesel can be
estimated utilizing a few diverse scientific techniques. A generally refered to issue in writing
is that biodiesel soundness might be constrained by a few components and no single logical
test is fit for foreseeing genuine execution in motor frameworks.
Another way to deal with encourage the utilization of biodiesel in virus conditions is by
utilizing a subsequent fuel tank for biodiesel notwithstanding the standard diesel fuel tank.
The subsequent fuel tank can be protected and a warming curl utilizing motor coolant is gone
through the tank. The fuel tanks can be exchanged over when the fuel is adequately warm. A
comparative strategy can be utilized to work diesel vehicles utilizing straight vegetable oil.
Biodiesel is an earth sheltered, low dirtying fuel for most diesel inside ignition and turbine
motors. Can be blended with oil diesel fuel and put away anyplace oil is. It is produced using
crisp or waste vegetable oils (triglycerides) that are a sustainable power source. bio-diesel is
an eco-accommodating, elective diesel fuel arranged from household sustainable assets that is
vegetables oils (consumable and non-eatable oil) and creature fats. These common oils and
fats are made up for the most part of triglycerides. These triglycerides when responded
artificially with lower alcohols in nearness of impetus bring about unsaturated fat esters.
These esters show striking comparability to oil determined diesel and are designated "Bio-
diesel".
Biodiesel fuel wrecks to 75% cleaner than diesel fuel produced using petroleum derivatives.
Bio diesel generously diminishes unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate
issue in fumes exhaust. Sulfur dioxide outflows are 100% dispensed with (bio diesel contains
no Sulfur). This elective fuel is plant-based and adds positively no CO2 to the climate.
Biofuel fumes isn't hostile and doesn't cause eye aggravation. Vehicles don't heave
abominable dark vapor/particulates. Actually, on the off chance that you make your fuel from
utilized cooking oil it might even smell of chips. Biodiesel is naturally agreeable, it is
inexhaustible, "more biodegradable than sugar and less harmful than table salt". Biodiesel
was the primary inexhaustible fuel to effectively finish the EPA-required Health Effects
testing under the Clean Air Act.

Mutagenicity studies demonstrate that biofuel significantly lessens potential

dangers of disease and birth. Biodiesel helps safeguard common assets. For each unit of
vitality expected to deliver biodiesel, 3.24 units of vitality are picked up - almost multiple
times more than diesel. Because of the presence of low instability nature of biodiesel, it is
simpler and safe to deal with than oil. The risk of coincidental start increments when the fuel
is being put away, shipped, or moved as a result of high vitality content in every fluid fuel.
The likelihood of having a coincidental start is identified with the temperature at which the
fuel will make enough vapors to touch off, known as the blaze point temperature. The lower
the glimmer purpose of a fuel is, the lower the temperature at which the fuel can shape an
ignitable blend. Biodiesel has a glimmer purpose of more than 2660 F, which means it can't
shape a flammable blend until it is warmed well over the breaking point of water.
Biodiesel Processing Plant Operators who have a Multi Feedstock Plant work
with a focused edge over others on account of the way that their plant can keep running on
assortment of feedstock effectively accessible in the nearby market. Multi Feedstock Plant
administrators are less touchy to Price Fluctuations since they can look over a scope of
effectively accessible feedstock that are utilized to deliver Biodiesel. A success win
circumstance is one in which every one of the members can benefit from it in one manner or
the other. For example, here the Biodiesel Producer and the Farmers can both win benefit
and keep on working in a fruitful market with the adaptability of feedstock. Consequently it
prompts win circumstance for every one of the members in the business.
The ozone (brown haze) shaping capability of biodiesel hydrocarbons is not as

much as Diesel fuel the ozone framing capability of the normal hydrocarbon Emissions are
50 % not as much as that deliberate for diesel fuel. Sulfur discharges are basically wiped out
with unadulterated biodiesel, The Exhaust outflows of Sulfur oxides and sulfates (significant
parts of corrosive downpour) from biodiesel are basically wiped out contrasted with diesel.
Criteria poisons are diminished with biodiesel use, Tests demonstrate the utilization of
Biodiesel in diesel motors brings about significant decreases of unburned Hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, and particulate issue. Outflows of Nitrogen oxides remain the equivalent
or are somewhat expanded. Carbon Monoxide; The fumes outflows of carbon monoxide (a
Poisonous gas) from biodiesel are all things considered 48% lower than Carbon monoxide
discharges from diesel. Particulate Matter Breathing particulate has been demonstrated to be
a Human wellbeing danger.

biodiesel are about 47% lower than overall particulate Matter emissions from
diesel. Hydrocarbons, the exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons (a Contributing factor in
the localized formation of smog and ozone) are on average 67% lower for biodiesel than
diesel fuel. Nitrogen Oxides, NOx emissions from biodiesel increase or decrease Depending
on the engine family and testing procedures. NOx Emissions (a contributing factor in the
localized formation of smog and Ozone) from pure (100%) biodiesel increase on average by
10%. However, biodiesel’s lack of sulphur allows the use of NOx control Technologies that
cannot be used with conventional diesel. Additionally, some companies have successfully
developed additives to reduce NOx emissions in biodiesel blends. Biodiesel reduces the
health risks associated with petroleum diesel. Biodiesel emissions show decreased levels of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and nitrated polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons(nPAH), which have been identified as potential cancer-causing compounds. In
Health Effects testing, PAH compounds were reduced by 75 to 85%, with the exception of
benzo(a) anthracene, which was reduced by roughly 50%. Targeted nPAH compounds were
also reduced dramatically with biodiesel, with 2-nitrofluorene and 1-nitropyrene reduced by
90%, and the rest of the nPAH compounds reduced to only trace levels.
Natural biodiesel can also be used as a lubricity agent/enhancer in many

applications. It is especially useful in marine applications where water contamination with
petroleum lubricity agents can create problems. With the low-sulfur fuel regulation of future,
biodiesel can be used as a lubricity additive. A 1-2% biodiesel added to diesel fuel can
increase diesel lubricity by 65%. Biodiesel can also be used as a diesel fuel additive for the
purpose of keeping the injectors, pumps and other combustion components clean. A 1-2%
blend should be sufficient for this purpose.
Fuel Additives Development and Marketing is responsible for the technical and
commercial development of performance chemicals applied to petroleum and petrochemical
products as well as bio fuels. Our first target is the development of additives which meet
market requirements in terms of performance, quality and cost efficiency. To this end, we
work in strict collaboration with our clients formulating, when necessary, tailored
products and guaranteeing on-going technical and analytical support, including specific
monitoring and predicting tools. With more than 40 years of experience in this sector, we
have introduced innovative chemicals to the market which are unique in their application

field. Meeting the new and emerging needs of the market has always been our main target.
Recently we focused on the improvement of the safety.
1.2 ADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL
The advantages are as follows
 Produced from Renewable Resources: Biodiesel is a source unlike other petroleum

products that will vanish in years to come. Since it is made from animal and vegetable fat, it
can be produced on demand and also causes less pollution than petroleum diesel.
 Can be Used in existing Diesel Engines: One of the main advantage of using biodiesel is
that can be used in existing diesel engines with little or no modifications at all and can
replace fossil fuel to become the most preferred primary transport energy source. Biodiesel
can be used in100% (B100) or in blends with petroleum diesel. For e.g.: B20 is called
as 20% blend of biodiesel with 80% diesel fuel. It improves engine lubrication and increases
engine life since it is virtually sulphur free.
 Less Greenhouse Gas Emissions (e.g., B20 reduces CO2 by 15%): Fossil fuels when burnt
release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that raises the temperature
and causes global warming. To protect the environment from further heating up, many
people have adopted the use of biofuels. Experts believe that using biodiesel instead of
petroleum diesel can reduce greenhouse gases up to 78%.
 Grown, Produced and Distributed Locally: Fossil fuels are limited and may not be able
to fulfil our demand for coal, oil and natural gas after a certain period. Biodiesel can work as
an alternative form of fuel and can reduce our dependence on foreign suppliers of oil as it is
produced from domestic energy crops. It is produced in local refineries which reduce the
need to import expensive finished product from other countries.
 Biodegradable and Non-Toxic: When Bio fuels are burnt, they produce significantly less
carbon output and few pollutants. As compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel produces less
soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulphur dioxide.
Flashpoint for biodiesel is higher than 150°C whereas the same is about 52°Cfor petroleum
diesel, which makes it less combustible. It is therefore safe to handle, store and transport.
 Better Fuel Economy: Vehicles that run on biodiesel achieve 30% fuel economy than
petroleum-based diesel engines which means it makes fewer trips to gas stations and run more
miles per gallon.
 Positive Economic Impact: Bio fuels are produced locally and thousands of People
are employed in biofuel production plant. Since biodiesel is produced from crops, an
increase in demand for biodiesel leads to increase in demand for suitable biofuel
crops Moreover. it creates less emission by reducing the number of suspended particles in
the air. This reduces the cost of healthcare products.

 Reduced Foreign Oil Dependence: With locally produced biofuels, many countries have
reduced their dependence on fossil fuels. It may not solve all problems in one blow but a
nation can save billions by reducing their usage on foreign oil.
 More Health Benefits: Air pollution cause more deaths and diseases than any other form of
pollution. Pollutants from gasoline engines when released in the air, form smog and make
thousands of people sick every year. Biodiesel produce fewer toxic pollutants than other
petroleum products.
1.3 DISADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL
 Variation in Quality of Biodiesel: Biodiesel is made from variety of biofuel crops.

When the oil is extracted and converted to fuel using chemical process, the result can vary i n
ability to produce power. In short, not all biofuel crops are same as amount of
vegetable oil may vary.
 Not Suitable for use in Low Temperatures: Biodiesel gels in cold weather but the
temperature that it will gel depends on the oil or fat that was used to make it. The best
way to use biodiesel during the colder months is to blend it with winterized diesel
fuel.
 Food Shortage: Since biofuels are made from animal and vegetable fat, more demand for
these products may raise prices for these products and create food crisis in some
countries. For e.g.: the production of biodiesel from corn may raise its demand and it
might become more expensive which may deprive poor people from having it.
 Increased use of Fertilizers: As more crops are grown to produce biofuels, more fertilizer is
used which can have devastating effect on environment. The excess use of fertilizers can
result in soil erosion and can lead to land pollution.
 Clogging in Engine: Biodiesel cleans dirt from the engine. This proves to be an advantage of
biofuels but the problem is that this dirt gets collected in fuel filter and clogs it.
 Regional Suitability: Some regions are not suitable for oil producing crops. The most
productive crops can’t be produced anywhere and they need to be transported to the
plants which increases the cost and amount of emission associated with the production
and transportation.
 Water Shortage: The use of water to produce more crops can put pressure on local
water resources. The areas where there is water scarcity, production of crops to be
used
in making of biofuels is not a wise idea.
 Monoculture: Monoculture refers to the practice of producing same crop over and
over again rather than producing different crops. While this results in fetching best
price for the farmer but it has some serious environmental drawbacks. When the same
crop is grown over large acres; the pest population may grow and it may go beyond
control. Without crop rotation, the nutrients of soil are not put back which may result
in soil erosion.
 Fuel Distribution: Biodiesel is not distributed as widely as petroleum diesel. The
infrastructure still requires more boost so that it is adopted as most preferred way to
run engines.
 Use of Petroleum Diesel to Produce Biodiesel: It requires much amount of energy to
produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops as energy is needed for sowing, fertilizing and
harvesting crops. Apart from that, raw material needs to be transported through trucks
which may consume some additional fuel. Some scientists believe that producing one
gallon of biofuel needs energy equivalent to several gallons of petroleum fuel.
 Slight Increase in Nitrogen Oxide Emissions: Biodiesel has about 10% higher Nitrogen
Oxide (NOx) than other petroleum products. Nitrogen Oxide is one the gas that is
used in the formation of smog and Ozone. Once it gets dissolved in atmospheric
moisture, can cause acid rain.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Ales vajra et al the paper describes the reactions and separations conditions for the
transesterification of rapeseed oil by butanol under potassium hydroxide as a catalyst. The product is a
mixture of butyl esters of higher fatty acids, which can be used as fuel (biodiesel) for combustion
engines. The effect of the chosen reaction conditions (independent variables the reaction temperature
and time, the amount of catalyst, the molar ratio of butanol to oil and the method of oil addition to
butanol) on the bioanalysis process was studied. The measured data was analyzed by multi-linear
regression and the statistical models describe the dependency of glycerides (dependent variables) on
the independent variables. The transesterification was stopped by neutralization of the catalyst with
both a strong and weak acid been added to whole reaction mixture. The advantage of strong acid is a
very fast separation and a zero content of potassium and free glycerol, nevertheless a high acid
number (1.7–4.5 mg kg−1). In the case of weak acid (gas carbon dioxide), the acid number is less than
0.5 mg kg−1, but the separation takes longer. Moreover, the separation was sped up by the addition of
a small amount of water to the reaction mixture after the reaction and removal of butanol. This way
also decreased the content of potassium (10 times) and free glycerol (4 times) in the ester phase
compare to the separation without water. Moreover, the relationship between the flashpoint and the
content of butanol in butyl ester was described, which enables the determination only the butanol
content and the calculation of the flashpoint or vice-versa.
Marisa navas et al This paper focuses on the preparation and characterization of CaO, MgO and
ZnO, both bulk and supported on γ-Al2O3 and their catalytic activity in the transesterification of
soybean oil and castor oil with methanol and butanol in order to produce biodiesel. XRD, SEM, CO2-
adsorption followed by TGA and N2 adsorption have been employed to characterize the prepared
catalysts. In supported catalysts, the presence of γ-Al2O3 improves alcohol dissociation on the
superficial basic sites. The first step of the reaction mechanism is then favored (hydrogen abstraction).
In the transesterification of castor oil with butanol, MgO/γ -Al2O3 and ZnO/γ-Al2O3 catalysts
showed high yields to FABE (Fatty Acid Butyl Ester) (97% and 85%, respectively). These last
catalysts constitute an efficient alternative for obtaining second-generation biodiesel, taking into
account that castor oil is a nonedible source and butanol is an alcohol that can be obtained from
biomass.
Emmanuel Revel lame et al worked on the microbial biomass present in activated sludge
contains lipidic compounds that can be used as biodiesel feedstock. In this study, the production of
biodiesel from activated sludge from Tuscaloosa, AL was optimized based on the yield of fatty acid
methyl esters (FAMEs). In transesterification was used with sulfuric acid as catalyst. A general
factorial design of 4 × 6 × 5 for temperature, methanol to sludge ratio and catalyst concentration,
respectively, was considered for optimization.

Biodiesel yield can be adequately described by the quadratic response surface model with R2 of 0.843
and statistically insignificant lack of fit (p = 0.152). Numerical optimization showed that an optimum
biodiesel yield of 4.88% can be obtained at 55 °C, 25 methanol to sludge ratio and 4% volume
sulfuric acid. The optimum experimental biodiesel yield was indeed obtained at that condition but
with a value of 4.79 ± 0.02%. The highest error was 2.30% which indicates good agreement between
the model and the experimental data.
Acid‐catalysed polymerization of unsaturated fatty acids or their esters at temperature above 60 °C

significantly decreased biodiesel yield. The fatty acid profile of the biodiesel produced indicates that
activated sludge may be used as biodiesel feedstock.
Chuang – weichiu et al work on the use of biodiesel as a diesel fuel extender and lubricity
improver is rapidly increasing. An import aspect of using these extenders is their transport in cold
climates and subsequent mixing with cold diesel fuel. In this paper, the cold flow properties of
biodiesel (B100) and 80% (B80) to 90% biodiesel in kerosene were evaluated with pour point
depressants, toward the objective of identifying approaches to transport and mix biodiesel with diesel
in cold climates. Four cold flow improver additives were tested at 0.1–2% in B80, B90, and B100
blends. Two additives significantly decreased the pour points of soybean biodiesel blends, but all the
four additives had little effect on cloud points. A mixture of 0.2% additive, 79.8% biodiesel, and 20%
kerosene reduced the pour point of B100 by 27 °C.
Nadir yilmaz et al work on the in this work, standard diesel, neat biodiesel, biodiesel (85%)-
methanol (15%) (B85M15) and biodiesel (85%)-ethanol (15%) (B85E15) fuels are tested.
Experiments are carried out using a two-cylinder, 4-cycle, direct injected, water-cooled diesel engine
at five loads between no load and a full load of 3000 rpm. Performance and emission characteristics
of the engine fueled with biodiesel-ethanol and biodiesel-methanol blends were compared to neat
biodiesel and standard diesel fuel as the baseline fuels. Overall, biodiesel-alcohol blends, as compared
to diesel, reduce NO emissions while increasing CO and HC emissions, at below 70% loads. It is also
shown that biodiesel-ethanol blend is more effective than biodiesel-methanol for emission reduction
and overall engine performance.
Biodiesel-methanol and biodiesel-ethanol blends are tested and compared to biodiesel and standard
diesel fuel. Exhaust gas emissions are reported. Biodiesel-ethanol blends are proved to be more
effective than biodiesel-methanol for emission reduction and overall engine performance.

Hong He et al work on the emission control, Oxygenated diesel fuel blends have a potential
to reduce the emission of particulate matter (PM) and to be an alternative to diesel fuel. This paper
describes the emission characteristics of three compounds oxygenated diesel fuel blend (BE-diesel),
on a Cummins-4B diesel engine. BE-diesel is a new form of oxygenated diesel fuel blends consisted
of ethanol, methyl soyate and petroleum diesel fuel. The blend ratio used in this study was 5:20:75
(ethanol: methyl soyate: diesel fuel) by volume. The results from the operation of diesel engine with
BE-diesel showed a significant reduction in PM emissions and 2%–14% increase of NO x emissions.
The change of CO emission was not conclusive and depended on operating conditions. Total
hydrocarbon (THC) from BE-diesel was lower than that from diesel fuel under most tested conditions.
Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde and acetone in the exhaust were measured, and the
results indicated that use of BE-diesel led to a slight increase of acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde and
acetone emissions. A small amount of ethanol was also detected in the exhaust from burning BE-
diesel.
Huali Wang et al worked on the repeatability and accuracy of the total acid number (TAN)
measurement for soy oil‐based biodiesel–diesel blends using the ASTM D664 method was studied.
ASTM D664 is the standard reference method for measuring the acid number of both biodiesel and
petroleum‐derived diesel, which specifies procedures for the determination of acidic components in
biodiesel and diesel, and claims good repeatability and mediocre reproducibility during application,
but cites no information on accuracy. However, the accuracy of this method is very important for
setting the specifications for biodiesel blends, especially for B20 (a mixture composed of 20%
biodiesel with 80% diesel) because of its wide commercial production. The accuracy of ASTM D664
was measured to be within 4.13% for B20 in the acid number range of 0.123–0.332 mg KOH/g. The
maximum repeatability was approximately 5.21% at an acid number of 0.123 mg KOH/g. Within the
ASTM D6751‐07b specification for TAN (0.5 mg KOH/g), good accuracy and repeatability were also
obtained. Accuracy specification and electrode operation suggestions for ASTM D664 are also given.
Georgios karavalakis et al work on the biodiesel, this study investigates the impact of
various synthetic phenolic antioxidants on the oxidation stability of biodiesel blends with the
employment of the modified Rancimat method. The experimental results revealed that an
improvement in oxidation stability could be achieved with all antioxidants tested. Butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT) and Butylated Hydroxy Anisol (BHA) displayed the lowest effectiveness in
neat biodiesel, whereas their use in biodiesel blends showed a greater stabilizing potential. Propyl
gallate (PG) and pyrogallol (PA) additives showed the strongest effectiveness in both the neat
biodiesel and the biodiesel blends. During a naturally ageing process of the biodiesel blends which
was conducted for a period of 10 weeks, samples were taken every 2 weeks to measure the oxidation

stability, kinematic viscosity and acid value. This process was designed in such manner to simulate
the ageing of an automotive biofuel stored in the fuel tank of a vehicle. The results showed a sharp
decrease in fuel stability over time. Although limited effects were observed in viscosity, the acid value
was significantly increased over time. The addition of antioxidants resulted in some increases in
viscosity and acid value of the biodiesel blends.
Oxidation stability of biodiesel can be influenced by fuel composition and the type of its parent oil.
an increase in biodiesel content results in poor oxidation stability of biodiesel blends. the less
effective BHT and BHA in pure biodiesel were highly effective in biodiesel blends. TBHQ resulted in
pro-oxidant behaviour for the biodiesel blends. acid value and viscosity increased over storage time.
M P Sharma et al worked on the storage stability of biodiesel, Biodiesel consists of long

chain fatty acid esters derived from feed stocks such as vegetable oils, animal fats and used frying oil,
etc. which may contain more or less unsaturated fatty acids which are prone to oxidation accelerated
by exposure to air during storage and at high temperature may yield polymerized compounds. Auto
oxidation of biodiesel can cause degradation of fuel quality by affecting the stability parameters.
Biodiesel stability includes oxidation, storage and thermal stability. Oxidation instability can lead to
the formation of oxidation products like aldehydes, alcohols, shorter chain carboxylic acids, insoluble,
gum and sediment in the biodiesel. Thermal instability is concerned with the increased rate of
oxidation at higher temperature which in turn, increases the weight of oil and fat due to the formation
of insoluble. Storage stability is the ability of liquid fuel to resist change in its physical and chemical
characteristics brought about by its interaction with its environment and may be affected by
interaction with contaminants, light, factors causing sediment formation, changes in colour and other
changes that reduce the clarity of the fuel. These fuel instabilities give rise to formation of undesirable
substances in biodiesel and its blends beyond acceptable quantities as per specifications and when
such fuel is used in engine, it impairs the engine performance due to fuel filter plugging, injector
fouling, deposit formation in engine combustion chamber and various components of the fuel system.
The present review attempts to cover the different types of fuel stabilities, mechanism of occurrence
and correlations/equations developed to investigate the impact of various stability parameters on the
stability of the fuel. A review of the use of different types of natural and synthetic antioxidants has
also been presented which indicates that natural antioxidants, being very sensitive to biodiesel
production techniques and the distillation processes have varying impacts on fuel stability and
available literature is very much scarce. The work on the use of synthetic antioxidants on the stability
of biodiesel (both distilled and un-distilled) from various resources has indicated that out of various 8
synthetic antioxidants studied so far only 3 antioxidants have been found to increase the fuel stability
significantly. However, effectiveness of these antioxidants is in the order of TBHQ > PY > PG.
David R Just et al worked on the biofuel. A biofuel blend mandate may increase or decrease
consumer fuel prices with endogenous oil prices, depending on relative supply elasticities. Biofuel tax
credits always reduce fuel prices. Tax credits result in lower fuel prices than under a mandate for the
same level of biofuel production. If tax credits are implemented alongside mandates, then tax credits
subsidize fuel consumption instead of biofuels. This contradicts energy policy goals by increasing oil
dependency, CO2emissions, and traffic congestion, while providing little benefit to either corn or
ethanol producers. These social costs will be substantial with tax credits costing taxpayers $28.7
billion annually by 2022.
Thomas D. Durbin et al workover the past several years, there has been increased interest in
reformulated and alternative diesel fuels to control emissions and provide energy independence. In the
following study, a California diesel fuel was compared with neat biodiesel, an 80% California
diesel/20% biodiesel blend, and a synthetic diesel fuel to examine the effects on emissions. Chassis
dynamometer tests were performed on four light heavy-duty diesel trucks using each of the four fuels.
The results of this study showed that biodiesel, the biodiesel blends, and the synthetic diesel produced
generally lower THC and CO emissions than California diesel. NO x emissions were comparable over
most of the fuel/vehicle combinations, with slightly higher NO x emissions found for the two no
catalyst vehicles on 100% biodiesel. Particulate emissions were slightly higher for two test vehicles
and significantly higher for a third test vehicle on the biodiesel fuels. Chemical analyses showed
elemental and organic carbon to be the primary constituents of the diesel particulate, accounting for
73−80% of the total mass for the four vehicles. Neat biodiesel had the highest organic carbon
fractions for each of the test vehicles. PAH emissions for all fuel combinations were relatively low,
probably due to the low fuel PAH levels.
Dr. N Kapilan et al worked on the biodiesel, there is an increasing interest in India, to search
for suitable alternative fuels that are environment friendly. This led to the choice of Mahua Oil (MO)
as one of the main alternative fuels to diesel. In this investigation, Mahua Oil Biodiesel (MOB) and its
blend with diesel were used as fuel in a single cylinder, direct injection and compression ignition
engine. The MOB was prepared from MO by transesterification using methanol and potassium
hydroxide. The fuel properties of MOB are close to the diesel and confirm to the ASTM standards.
From the engine test analysis, it was observed that the MOB, B5 and B20 blend results in lower CO,
HC and smoke emissions as compared to diesel. But the B5 and B20 blends results in higher

efficiency as compared to MOB. Hence MOB or blends of MOB and diesel (B5 or B20) can be used
as a substitute for diesel in diesel engines used in transportation as well as in the agriculture sector.
S Sivalakshmi et al worked on the biodiesel regarding an experimental investigation has

been carried out to evaluate the effect of using diethyl ether as additive to biodiesel on the
combustion, performance and emission characteristics in an unmodified diesel engine at different
loads and constant engine speed. The results indicate that peak cylinder pressure and heat release rate
is higher for BD5 (5% (by vol.) diethyl ether blended biodiesel) than those of neat biodiesel. The
carbon monoxide emissions especially at full load and smoke emissions at almost all engine loads
decrease while oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbon emissions increase for BD5 than those of neat
biodiesel at almost all engine loads. The brake thermal efficiency of BD5 is higher as compared to
biodiesel.
To analyze the performance and emissions of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel and its diethyl
ether blends. BTE is higher with the addition of 5% diethyl ether to biodiesel (BD5). CO and smoke
emissions are lower for BD5. a slight increase in NO x emissions for BD5.
A Anbarasu et al worked on the emission characteristics of biodiesel. diesel engines are

widely used for their low fuel consumption and better efficiency. An investigation was carried out
with a single cylinder diesel engine to establish the effects of alumina nanoparticle incorporation into
the Canola biodiesel (BD) emulsion fuel. The Canola BD was formed from the Canola oil by
transesterification process, and later the Canola BD emulsion fuel was prepared in the fraction of 83%
of Canola BD, 15% of water, and 2% of surfactants (by volume). The alumina nanoparticles were
blended with the Canola BD emulsion fuel at different ratios systematically. The entire study was
conducted in the diesel engine using the three fuels, namely, neat BD, Canola BD emulsion fuel, and
alumina nanoparticle blended Canola emulsion fuels consecutively. The experimental results revealed
a considerable improvement in the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) for the alumina blended Canola
emulsion fuels compared with that of neat Canola BD and Canola BD emulsion fuel. At the full load,
the BTE observed for the Canola BD fuel was 30.7%, whereas it was 27.81% and 31.6% for the
Canola BD emulsion fuel and alumina nanoparticle blended emulsion fuel, respectively. The use of a
nanoparticle blended BD fuel reduced the hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
but increased oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions due to the increased oxygen content in the BD fuel
but it was reduced in nanoparticle blended fuel. The smoke emission was reduced by 50% with the
use of the nanoparticle blended emulsion fuel.

Natesan Kapilan et al reported that the major technical issue facing biodiesel is its
susceptibility to oxidation upon exposure to oxygen in ambient air. This susceptibility is due to its
content of unsaturated fatty acid chains. He reported that the oxidation of fatty acid chains is a
complex process that proceeds by a variety of mechanisms. Abderrahim et al results show that the
acid value, peroxide value and viscosity, increased while the iodine value decreased with increasing
storage time of the brassica carinata biodiesel. They also found that the fatty acid ethyl esters from
brassica carinata oil were very stable. Francielle et al evaluated the (a) Honge (b) Honge Seed
susceptibility to bio-deterioration of biodiesel, diesel, and diesel containing 5, 10, and 20% biodiesel
using fungi isolated from contaminated oil systems. They reported that the yeasts had the highest rates
of degradation, especially candida silvicola, with 100% degradation of all esters. Dantas et al
investigated the oxidative stability of corn biodiesel, obtained by base catalyzed transesterification
reaction. They characterized the biodiesel stability by measuring peroxide value, iodine value and
dynamic viscosity. Abdul et al evaluated the impact of oxidized biodiesel on engine performance and
emissions. They reported that, compared with unoxidized biodiesel, oxidized biodiesel produced 15
and 16% lower exhaust CO and HC emissions respectively and observed no significant difference in
smoke and NOx emissions of the oxidized and unoxidized biodiesel. María et al studied the influence
of the raw material composition on biodiesel quality. Fuel properties can be strongly affected if the
biodiesel has been improperly stored or transported. The biodiesel quality is harmed by the oxidation
products, which are corrosive to engine chambers and may lead to clogging of the injection pumps
and filters, besides increasing the biodiesel viscosity. From the literature review, it is observed that the
biodiesel is prone to oxidation and hence storage of biodiesel over a long period of time is an
important concern to be addressed. Hence in this work, storage stability of the honge biodiesel was
studied. Biodiesel can be produced from honge oil by two-step transesterification using a biodiesel
plant. The properties of the honge biodiesel satisfy the biodiesel fuel standards. The honge oil
contains more than 50% unsaturated fatty acids which makes them prone to oxidation. During the
storage period of six month, the acid value and viscosity of the honge biodiesel were increased but the
iodine value decreased. From the study it is observed that the safe storage period of the honge
biodiesel is 4 weeks.
CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVES
3.1 OBJECTIVES

The objective is to study the effect of additives on the performance of biodiesel fueled diesel engine.
storage capacity of biodiesel enhancement, blends of biodiesel used as fuel in IC engine.
The objective is achieved by executing the following steps.
1. To study about the biodiesel, their properties and best selection of commercially available
Pongamia (Honge) biodiesel.
2. Production of Honge biodiesel by Transesterification process for maximum yield.
3. Determination of Pongamia biodiesel properties.
4. Preparation of biodiesel blends by adding naturally available additives.
5. Determination of properties biodiesel mixed with additives.
6. Study the effect of additives on the performance and emissions of the diesel engine.
7. Comparison of the engine emissions of biodiesel, biodiesel added with the additives and
conventional diesel.

CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 MATERIALS
 Alternative fuels: Honge biodiesel

 Natural additives: Black Seed oil, Turmeric oil, Clove oil + Propyl Gallate
 Mixing ratio: 500, 1000 and 1500 ppm with the biodiesel
 Determination of fuel properties: As per ASTM Procedures
 Engine test setup: Diesel engine experimental setup
 Engine Exhaust Emission Analyzer: AVL Exhaust Gas Analyzer
 Engine Exhaust smoke Analyzer: Smoke meter test setup.
4.2METHODOLOGY
4.2.1 PREPERATION OF PONGAMIA OIL
Biodiesel production is the process of producing the biofuel, biodiesel, through the chemical
reactions transesterification and esterification.tinvolves vegetable or animal fats and oils being reacted
with short-chain alcohols (typically methanol or ethanol). The alcohols used should be of low
molecular weight, ethanol being one of the most used for its low cost. However, greater conversions
into biodiesel can be reached using methanol. Although the transesterification reaction can be
catalyzed by either acids or bases the most common means of production is base-catalyzed
transesterification. This path has lower reaction times and catalyst cost than those posed by acid
catalysis. However, alkaline catalysis has the disadvantage of its high sensitivity to both water and
free fatty acids present in the oils. The primary constituent of tri glyceroids using anhydrous alcohol
in the presence of a string base like sodium hydroxide as catalyst yields fatty acid mono-alkyl ester
(FAME) which is known as biodiesel and glycerin as a by-product as shows in figure 4.2.
4.2.2 OIL EXTRACTION
The honge seeds were crushed in a screw expeller to extract the oil. The crude oil was then
filtered and used for biodiesel production. The production of biodiesel from waste vegetable oil offers
a triple-facet solution, economic, environmental and waste management. The term “waste vegetable
oil” (WVO) refers to vegetable oil which has been used in food production and which is no longer
viable for its intended use. India’s biodiesel processing capacity is estimated at 600,000 tons per year.
Waste used Cooking Oil (WCO) is a residue from a variety of sources, e.g., restaurants, food
industrial or domestics, which not only harms human’s health but also causes environmental
problems. However, WCO can be used as a raw material for biodiesel production. By this manner, the
production of biodiesel from WCO to partially substitute petroleum diesel is an alternative way for
environment protection and energy security. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
defines biodiesel fuel as mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from a renewable lipid
feedstock, such as vegetable oil or animal fat. Figure: 4.2.2 shows the steps involved in preparation
from Honge oil. Bio-diesel types can be classified according to their source and manufacturing
process as well:
1. Esterificated oils
2. Non-esterificated oils
3. Waste vegetable oils
Honge Tree Honge Seeds

Biodiesel
Figure: 4.2.2 Steps involved in biodiesel production
4.2.3 PRE-TREATMENT FOR HIGH FFA OILS
The oils are glycerol esters of fatty acids, molecules made of glycerin and fatty acids. These
triglyceroids are oxidized into free fatty acids (FFA) during storage. These free fatty acids form soap
during transesterification process. If the FFA is more than 3% the recovery of biodiesel is reduced
drastically. Hence, an acid-treatment is given during which FFAs are converted into biodiesel by acid-
esterification. Vegetable oils having low free fatty acid content (below 3%) can be converted into
biodiesel by direct transesterification. The acid esterification was carried out using concentrated
sulphuric acid as catalyst. Conc. H2SO4 at a ratio of 5% of FFA (0.05 g H2SO4 for every 1.0 g of
FFA) was added to methanol in 40:1 methanol to FFA molar ratio. The volume H2SO4 (ml) required
was determined by
(Weight of FFA*0.05)/density of H2SO4)
The weight of FFA in one liter was determined based on the acid value. The methanol-H2SO4
mixture was added slowly and allowed to react for 1h. After the completion of reaction, the mixture
was kept for an hour which formed a thin upper acid rich layer. The upper layer was discarded and the
lower layer was tested for FFA content. The lower layer was then subjected to transesterification
process. Figure 4.2 shows the Biodiesel and glycerin layers. The amount of catalyst required was
determined by titration as shows in figure 4.2.3.
Figure: 4.2.3 Biodiesel and glycerin layer

4.2.4 TITRATION TESTING
The amount of NaOH required to neutralize the FFA present in the oil was determined by
titration testing using known concentration NaOH solution. Generally, the oil without FFA requires
3.5g NaOH for transesterification. Extra amount of NaOH need to be added to neutralize FFA which
consequently formed into soap.
The total amount of catalyst (NaOH) required for the reaction was calculated by using the
formula
Amount of NaOH required Amount of NaOH required
Transesterification of + for neutralization of FFA
Triglyceroids (3.5 g) (titration)
The biodiesel was then dried by heating at 110’C till the moisture content was removed
completely. It was cooled and filtered, then subjected for further analysis. Figure:
4.2.4shows the biodiesel washing with water and drying of Biodiesel using heating
Washing Drying
Figure: 4.2.4 Washing of biodiesel with water and Drying.

Oil +Fats
Pretreatment
Methanol + Transesterification Separation
Catalyst
Washing
Drying
Biodiesel Glycerin
Figure:4.2 stages involved in biodiesel production. The byproduct of biodiesel is glycerin

which has demand in the market for cosmetic applications.
4.3 ADDITIVES
1. Black seed oil:
The Black Seed oil has good antioxidant properties and hence it will be used as additive in
this work. The Black seed oil contains thymoquinone, which is an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
compound and hence it has better antioxidant activity. Figure 4.3.1 shows the Black seed oil.
Figure: 4.3.1Black seed oil

2. Turmeric oil:
The Turmeric oil has good antioxidant properties and hence it will be used as additives in this
work. The data indicated the presence of twenty-five com pounds in turmeric oil. Aromatic
turmerone, a-zingiberene, ß-(Z)- farnesene, aromatic curcumene, turmerone and Curlone are the major
compounds in turmeric oil. Figure 4.3.2 shows the Turmeric oil.
Figure: 4.3.2 Turmeric oil

3. Clove oil + Pyrogallol:
Clove oil is a mixture of different compounds, with the three main active ingredients being
eugenol, eugenyl acetate and caryophyllene. Figure 4.3.3 shows the Clove oil. It has essential oil
content about 87%, which can be used as a natural additive.
Figure: 4.3.3 Clove oil
4.4 Sample Preparation

1. Pure Honge Bio-Diesel
Figure: 4.4.1 Pure Honge Bio-Diesel
2. Honge Bio-Diesel with Black Seed Oil
Black Seed Oil of 0.5, 1 & 1.5 ml was added in Honge Bio-Diesel of 800 ml which was
named as BS500, BS1000 & BS1500 respectively.
Figure: 4.4.2 Honge Bio-Diesel with Black Seed Oil

3. Honge Bio-Diesel with Turmeric Oil
Turmeric Oil of 0.5, 1 & 1.5 ml was added in Honge Bio-Diesel of 800 ml which was
named as TO500, TO1000 & TO1500 respectively.

Figure: 4.4.3 Honge Bio-Diesel with Turmeric Oil
4. Honge Bio-Diesel with Clove Oil and Pg

Clove Oil of 0.25, 0.5 & 0.75 ml & 0.25, 0.5 & 0.75 mg of Pg was added in Honge Bio-
Diesel of 800 ml which was named as CPY500, CPY1000 & CPY1500 respectively.
Figure: 4.4.4 Honge Bio-Diesel with Clove Oil & Pg

4.5 CLEVELAND OPEN CUP FLASH AND FIRE TEST
The Cleveland open-cup method is one of three main methods in chemistry for determining the flash
point of a petroleum product using a Cleveland open-cup apparatus, also known as a Cleveland open-
cup tester. First, the test cup of the apparatus (usually brass) is filled to a certain level with a portion
of the product. Then, the temperature of this chemical is increased rapidly and then at a slow, constant
rate as it approaches the theoretical flash point. The increase in temperature will cause the chemical to
begin to produce flammable vapor in increasing quantities and density. The lowest temperature at
which a small test flame passing over the surface of the liquid causes the vapor to ignite is considered
the chemical's flash point. Figure4.4 shows the Cleveland open cup apparatus. This apparatus may
also be used to determine the chemical's fire point which is considered to have been reached when the
application of the test flame produces at least five continuous seconds of ignition. Temperature range
of this apparatus is 125° to 250°C as shows in figure 4.5.
Figure: 4.5 Cleveland Open Cup Apparatus

4.6 REDWOOD VISCOMETER

These viscometers are designed for viscosity tests of petroleum Products. They confirm to
requirements of IP 70. Two adaption of Red Wood viscometer are available No. 1 for liquids having
Red Wood flow 20 seconds to 2000 seconds and No. II for liquids whose flow time exceeds 2000
seconds. The complete outfit comprises Stainless steel bath with electrical heating arrangement
suitable to operate at 220 Volts AC Mains with tap, silver plated oil cup with precision stainless steel
jet, cup cover, ball valve, and thermometer-clip. Stirrer and M.S. Sheet stand with leveling screws as
shows in figure 4.6.
Salient Features
 Electrically Heated with Energy Regulator control.

 Gas heated with gas burner
 Electrically Heated Model with Voltage warier (Copper Coil)
 With electronic digital indicator and controller & FHP motor stirrer
Figure: 4.6 Redwood Viscometer
4.7 BOMB CALORIMETER

A bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume
calorimeter used in measuring the heat of combustion of a
particular reaction. Bomb calorimeters have to
withstand the large pressure within the calorimeter as the
reaction is being measured. Electrical energy is used to
ignite the fuel; as the fuel is burning, it will heat up the
surrounding air, which expands and escapes through a tube
that leads the air out of the calorimeter. When the air is
escaping through the copper tube it will also heat up the water outside the tube. The change in
temperature of the water allows for calculating calorie content of the fuel as shows in figure 4.7.

Figure: 4.7 Bomb Calorimeter

4.8 ENGINE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The setup consists of single cylinder, four stroke, Diesel engine connected to Eddy current for engine
loading. The setup has stand‐alone type independent panel box consisting of air box, fuel tank,
manometer, fuel measuring unit, digital speed indicator and digital temperature indicator. Engine
jacket cooling water inlet, outlet and calorimeter temperature is displayed on temperature indicator.
Rotameters are provided for cooling water and calorimeter flow measurement. The setup enables
study of engine for brake power, BMEP, brake thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency, specific fuel
consumption, air fuel ratio and heat balance. It is supplied with MS Excel program for Engine
Performance Analysis as shows in figure 4.8.
ASTM PROCEDURE:
 Ensure that all the nut bolts of engine, dynamometer, propeller shaft, base frame are
properly tightened.
 Ensure that sufficient lubrication oil is present in the engine sump tank. This can be
checked by marking on the level stick (Use SAE20W40 or equivalent make any company
market available).
 Ensure sufficient fuel in fuel tank. Remove air in fuel line, if any.
 Switch on electric supply and ensure that RPM Indicator, Load indicator, Temperature
Indicator are switched on.
 Start water pump. Adjust the flow rate of "Rotameter (Engine)" to 200-300 LPH and
"Rotameter (Calorimeter)" to 75-100 LPH by manipulating respective globe valves
provided at the rotameter inlet. Ensure that water is flowing through dynamometer at a
pressure of @ 1 to 2.5 Kg/cm2.
 Keep the dynamometer Loading Wheel at minimum position.
 Change the Fuel cock position from "Measuring" to "Tank".
 Start the engine by hand cranking and allow it to run at idling condition for 4-5 minutes.
 Adjust dynamometer Loading Wheel and to set 0 kg load on Load Indicator. Wait for 3
mins. Ensure that load is constant/Temperature is steady state during this period. Change
the Fuel cock position from "Tank" to "Measuring".
 Note the time required for 20 ml fuel in seconds by using stopwatch. Turn fuel cock from
“Measuring” to “Tank”.
 Note all temperatures, load, speed, manometer reading and Rotameter flow rates.
 Repeat observations for various loads e.g. 4, 8 &12 kg.
 After finishing all the observations decrease the load on the engine by dynamometer
Loading Wheel stop the engine by pressing engine stop lever. Allow the water to circulate
for about 5 minutes for engine cooling and then stop the pump.

 Fill up the observations in tabular column and calculate required parameter and
performance plots.
APPARATUS USED:
Components Details
Engine Make Kirloskar, Model TV1, Type Single cylinder, 4 stroke
Diesel, water cooled, power 5.2 kW (7 BHP) at 1500 rpm, stroke
110 mm, bore 87.5 mm. compression ratio 17.5:1, capacity 661
cc.
Dynamometer Make Technomech, Pune, Model TM15, Type Hydraulic with
instruction manual
Propeller shaft Make Hindustan Hardy Spicer, Model 1260, Type A
Manometer Make Apex, Model MX-104, Range 100-0-100 mm, Type U
tube, Conn. 1/4`` BSP hose back side, Mounting panel
Fuel measuring unit Make Apex, Glass, Model: FF0.012
Temperature sensor Make Radix Type K, Ungrounded, Sheath Dia.6mmX110mmL,
SS316, Connection 1/4"BSP (M) adjustable compression fitting
Temperature indicator Make ESD, Model ESD 9043, 6 channel, Input thermocouple, K
type, Range 0-1000 Deg C
Speed indicator Make Selectron, Model RC100A, Range 6000, Input
Photoelectric sensor M18 x 80, NPN (5-30-volt DC)
Load sensor Make Sensotronics Sanmar Ltd., Model 60001, Type S beam,
Universal, Capacity 0-50 kg
Load indicator Make ABUS, model SV8-DC10 series, 85 to 270VAC, Input 0-
50mVDC, retransmission output 4-20 mA, Sensor supply
12/24VDC
Rotameter Make Eureka Model PG 5, Range 25-250 lph, Connection ½”
BSP vertical, screwed, Packing neoprene (for calorimeter)
Rotameter Make Eureka Model PG 6, Range 40-400 lph, Connection ¾”
BSP vertical, screwed, Packing neoprene (for Engine)
Pump Make Kirloskar, Model Mini 18S, HP 0.5, Size 1” x 1”, Single
ph 230 V AC

Figure: 4.8 Engine experimental setup
Experimental Engine

Figure: 4.8.1 Experimental Engine

SYSTEM CONSTANT:
Orifice diameter (m) = 0.02

Dynamometer arm length (m) = 0.2
Coefficient of discharge for orifice, Cd = 0.6
Ambient temperature (0C) = 30
Fuel density (kg/m3) = 830
Cylinder diameter (m), D = 0.0875
Stroke (m), L = 0.11
Number of cylinders = 1
Number of revolution / cycles = 2
Specific heat of exhaust (kJ/kg0K) = 1.1
Fuel calorific value (kJ/kg) = 42000
Air density (kg/m3) = 1.16
FORMULAE:
Brake power (kW):
BP =
Brake mean effective pressure (bar):
BMEP =
n = 2 for 4 strokes
n = 1 for 2 strokes
Fuel flow (kg/h):
Brake specific fuel consumption (kg/kWh):
BSFC =
Brake thermal efficiency (%):

BTE =
Air flow (kg/h):
Air flow =
Volumetric efficiency:
Vol. Eff =
Air fuel ratio:
A/F =
ENGINE SPECIFICATION:
Table: 4.8 Shows Engine Specification
Table: 4.8 Engine Specification
Engine Specification
No. of cylinders 1
No. of stokes 4
Fuel H.S Diesel
Rated power 5.2 KW
Rated speed 1500 RPM
Cylinder diameter 87.5mm
Stroke length 110mm
Compression ratio 17.5:1


4.9 EMISSION TEST

An emission test cycle is a protocol contained in an emission standard to allow repeatable and
comparable measurement of exhaust emissions for different engines or vehicles. Test cycles specify
the specific conditions under which the engine or vehicle is operated during the emission test. There
are many different test cycles issued by various national and international governments and working
groups. Specified parameters in a test cycle include a range of operating temperature, speed, and load.
Ideally these are specified so as to accurately and realistically represent the range of conditions under
which the vehicle or engine will be operated in actual use. Because it is impractical to test an engine
or vehicle under every possible combination of speed, load, and temperature, this may not actually be
the case. Vehicle and engine manufacturers may exploit the limited number of test conditions in the
cycle by programming their engine management systems to control emissions to regulated levels at
the specific test points contained in the cycle, but create a great deal more pollution under conditions
experienced in real operation but not represented in the test cycle. These results in real emissions
higher than the standards are supposed to allow, undermining the standards and public health as shows
in figure 4.9.
ASTM PROCEDURE:
Warm-up time: 7minutes
Operating temperature: 5 to 45Oc
Relative Humidity :< 95%
Interface: RS232C, pickup, oil temperature probe.

Figure: 4.9 AVL Gas Analyzer
4.9.1 SMOKEMETER TEST

Smoke opacity instruments measure optical properties of diesel smoke, providing an indirect way of
measuring of diesel particulate emissions. There are two groups of instruments: opacity meters, which
evaluate smoke in the exhaust gas, and smoke number meters, which optically evaluate soot collected
on paper filters. Correlations have been developed to estimate PM mass emissions based on opacity
measurement. Second generation opacity meters based on laser light scattering are much more
sensitive and appear to hold promise for application to newer engines with much lower particulate
emissions. Diesel Exhaust Smoke meters, also referred to as opacity meters, detect and measure the
amount of light blocked in a sample of smoke emitted by diesel engines from cars, trucks, ships,
buses, motorcycles, locomotives and large stacks from industrial operations. The smoke meter readout
displays the smoke density giving a measure of the efficiency of combustion. This makes the smoke
meter an excellent diagnostic tool to ensure proper maintenance of diesel engines for improved fuel
economy and protection of the environment.
The opacity meter consists of an optical unit mounted inside a measuring head and a separate
electronic control unit. The measurement principle is based on light extinction detection. The
collimated beam from the light-source (SLED) is absorbed and scattered by the particulate exhaust
emissions. A photodiode determines the light intensity of the attenuated beam and the corresponding

opacity value is transmitted to a separate remote display. Partial flow continuous gas sampling
combined with a heated and temperature-controlled smoke chamber compensates for changes in
pressure and test conditions to give you the most accurate readings possible.
All modern Diesel Exhaust Smoke Meters should measure diesel emissions (dark smoke) in Opacity
(N) and/or Smoke Density (K) according to SAEJ1667.
There has been a lot of misunderstanding about the Diesel Exhaust monitoring and measurement
lately all in line with the world's requirement to reduce CO2 emissions.That is why the government
introduced a by-law-model for adoption by the different municipalities in SA as an easy guide as
shows in figure 4.9.1.
Figure: 4.9.1 Smoke Meter

CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
5.1 FUEL PROPERTIES
The fuel properties correspond to the biodiesel blends as for ASTM procedures of finding out Fire &
Flash point, Density, Viscosity & Calorific value are shown in table 5.1.
Table: 5.1 Properties of fuel
Property Diesel B BS BS BS TO TO TO CPY CPY CPY

100 500 1000 1500 500 1000 1500 500 1000 1500
Flash 65 178 185 175 168 175 178 178 175 177 180
point (˚C)
Fire 59 188 195 185 178 185 188 185 183 186 191
point((̊C)
Density 845 790 784 820 829 796 814 795 824 816 841
(kg/m³)
Viscosity 2.5*e-6 3.56* 3.53*e- 3.70*e-6 3.74*e-6 3.72*e- 3.68*e- 3.79*e- 3.59*e- 3.67* 3.58*e-
(m²/s) e-6 6 6 6 6 6 e-6 6
Calorific 42.04 35.36 33.51 33.53 33.67 32.41 32.36 32.56 34.23 34.11 34.89
value
(MJ/kg)

5.2 ENGINE TEST DETAILS

Table:5.2 shows the different values of engine performance encountered in IC engine.
SL.N SAMPLES LOA BP BME BSF BTE VOLUMETRI AIR
O D (KW P C (%) C FUEL
(%) ) (bar) (KW) EFFICIENCY RATIO
(%)
1. DIESEL 0 0 0 0 0 81.58 36.83
25 1.29 0.742 0.687 12.4 80.57 24.03
50 2.54 1.488 0.455 4 78.94 17.74
[DIESE 75 3.72 2.231 0.387 18.7 77.65 13.68
L] 9
22.0
9
2. PURE HONGE 0 0 0 0 0 81.07 31.82
BIODIESEL 25 1.29 0.741 0.638 15.9 81.44 26.21
50 2.51 1.492 0.484 5 81.16 17.05
[B100] 75 3.72 2.233 0.421 20.9 79.29 13.51
5
24.1
4
3. HONGE 0 0 0 0 0 84.86 32.93
BIODIESEL+BLACK 25 1.28 0.740 0.695 15.4 82.45 24.39
SEED OIL (500ppm) 50 2.52 1.481 0.512 5 79.54 15.89
[BS500] 75 3.72 2.232 0.454 20.9 79.83 11.99
5
23.6
5
4. HONGE 0 0 0 0 0 86.53 37.67
BIODIESEL+BLACK 25 1.28 0.743 0.704 15.2 86.57 25.16
SEED OIL (1000ppm) 50 2.53 1.491 0.530 3 84.99 17.06
[BS1000] 75 3.71 2.234 0.522 21.0 80.10 10.45
2
22.5
5
5. HONGE BIODIESEL+ 0 0 0 0 0 85.26 36.24

BLACK SEED OIL 25 1.29 0.744 0.680 15.7 85.96 25.85
(1500ppm) 50 2.51 1.491 0.514 0 81.10 16.10
[BS1500] 75 3.73 2.236 0.452 20.7 79.73 11.99
7
23.6
1
6. HONGE 0 0 0 0 0 84.60 37.09
BIODIESEL+TURMERI 25 1.28 0.740 0.676 16.4 85.83 26.06
C OIL (500ppm) 50 2.54 1.489 0.518 0 85.51 16.86
[ TO500] 75 3.71 2.236 0.467 21.4 80.69 11.76
1
23.7
7
7. HONGE BIODIESEL+ 0 0 0 0 0 84.60 35.02
TURMERIC OIL 25 1.28 0.741 0.804 13.8 86.35 22.06
(1000ppm) 50 2.52 1.488 0.512 3 85.15 17.16
[ TO1000] 75 3.73 2.237 0.441 21.7 80.32 12.38
0
24.1

9
8. HONGE BIODIESEL+ 0 0 0 0 0 86.66 38.19
TURMERIC OIL 25 1.29 0.745 0.709 15.5 86.59 24.96
(1500ppm) 50 2.52 1.490 0.512 9 82.38 16.40
[ TO1500] 75 3.71 2.237 0.467 21.5 81.29 11.84
7
23.6
6
9. HONGE 0 0 0 0 0 81.05 36.22
BIODIESEL+CLOVE 25 1.28 0.742 0.635 16.5 82.66 26.69
OIL + Pg (500ppm) 50 2.51 1.491 0.504 5 83.66 16.93
[CPY500] 75 3.71 2.237 0.467 20.8 83.91 12.22
3
22.5
0
10 HONGE 0 0 0 0 0 83.32 37.24
BIODIESEL+CLOVE 25 1.28 0.744 0.695 15.1 82.87 24.39
OIL + Pg (1000ppm) 50 2.53 1.491 0.520 8 81.50 15.98
[CPY1000 75 3.72 2.237 0.478 20.2 81.06 11.53
] 6
22.0
5
11 HONGE 0 0 0 0 0 84.39 37.44
BIODIESEL+CLOVE 25 1.27 0.746 0.797 12.9 83.28 21.31
OIL + Pg (1500ppm) 50 2.52 1.492 0.512 3 82.89 16.51
[CPY1500 75 3.71 2.237 0.386 20.1 80.74 14.24
] 3
24.9
8
5.2.1 LOAD V/S CO
From the table 5.2.1, it is observed that the addition of additive affects the CO emission of the
engine. As Clove Oil + Pg improvise the oxidization properties the blends prepared out of basil additive
is showing a lower CO emission.
load Diesel B100 TO500 TO1000 TO1500 BS500 BS1000 BS1500 CPY500 CPY1000 CPY1500
0 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03
25 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01
50 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0
75 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01
Table 5.2.1 Load v/s CO

Figure 5.2.1: Load v/s CO
Figure 5.2.1 shows variation of CO emission at different engine loads and with different fuels and
additives. From the figure, it is observed that the variation in CO emission is low at low loads.
However, the variation is significant at higher loads due to consumption of large amount of fuel. The
diesel fuel results in higher CO emission as compared to biodiesel and biodiesel added with the
additives. The biodiesel results in lower CO emission.

5.2.2 LOAD V/S HYDROCARBONS (HC’s)
From the table5.2.2, it is observed that the addition of additive affects the HC’s emission
of the engine. The HC’S emission could find lower in the addition of black seed and clove oil + PG
additive to the biodiesel.
0 0 3 2 5 6 5 0 6 1 2 7
25 1 10 1 6 7 1 1 1 0 2 2
50 1 8 3 6 6 1 1 2 1 4 3
75 2 11 1 1 7 5 7 6 7 6 4
Table 5.2.2: Load v/s HC

Figure: 5.2.2 Load v/s HC’s
Figure 5.2.2 shows variation of HC’s emission at different engine loads and with different
fuels and additives. From the figure, it is observed that the variation in HC’s emission is low at low
loads. However, the variation is significant at higher loads due to consumption of large amount of
fuel. The diesel fuel results in higher HC’s emission as compared to biodiesel and biodiesel added
with the additives. The biodiesel results in lower HC’s emission.
5.2.3 LOAD V/S NOx
0 113 98 87 68 81 88 71 91 87 85 73
25 168 169 159 167 185 189 174 178 126 179 158
50 274 234 213 219 270 289 237 214 271 273 240
75 300 297 273 304 300 391 368 368 289 306 283
From the table5.2.3, it is observed that the addition of additive affects the NOx emission of
the engine. As the clove oil + Pg and Turmeric oil added to the biodiesel increases then the reduction
in NOx constantly takes place.
Table5.2.3: Load v/s NOx

Figure: 5.2.3 Load v/s NOx

Figure 5.2.3 shows variation of NOx emission at different engine loads and with different
fuels and additives. From the figure, it is observed that the variation in NOx emission is low at low
fuel. The diesel fuel results in higher NOx emission as compared to biodiesel and biodiesel added
with the additives. The biodiesel results in lower NOx emission.
5.2.4 LOAD V/S CO2
From the table 5.2.4, it is observed that the addition of additive affects the CO 2 emission of
the engine. As the higher amount of clove oil +and black, turmeric oil added to the biodiesel
increases, and then the reduction of carbon dioxide content in air takes place.

0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1
25 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.4 1 1.4 1.2
50 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.6 1.6 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.45
75 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.6 2.1 2 1.9 1.8 2 1.6
Table 5.2.4: Load v/s CO2

Figure: 5.2.4 Load v/s CO2
Figure 5.2.4 shows variation of CO 2 emission at different engine loads and with different
fuels and additives. From the figure, it is observed that the variation in CO 2 emission is low at low
fuel. The diesel fuel results in higher CO2 emission as compared to biodiesel and biodiesel added with
the additives. The biodiesel results in lower CO2 emission.
5.2.5 LOAD V/S O2
From the table5.2.5, it is observed that the addition of additive affects the O2 emission of the engine.
As the natural oxidants added as additive to the biodiesel, the maximum amount of black seed and clove oil +
Pg additive blends are giving maximum oxygen content in the emissions over the conventional diesel used for
engine performance.
0 19.32 19.39 19.33 19.64 19.63 19.35 19.65 19.32 19.49 19.47 19.4
25 19.26 19.08 19.35 19.26 19.22 18.36 19.35 19.16 19.2 19.49 19.2
50 19.07 19.11 19.36 19.45 19.16 18.63 19.46 19.38 19.2 19.84 19.06
75 18.65 18.89 18.93 19.98 19.11 18.05 18.5 18.54 18.87 19.11 18.96
Table 5.2.5: LOAD V/S O2

Figure:5.2.5 Load v/s O2
Figure 5.2.5 shows variation of O2 emission at different engine loads and with different fuels
and additives. From the figure, it is observed that the variation in O 2 emission is low at low loads.
However, the variation is significant at higher loads due to consumption of large amount of fuel. The

diesel fuel results in higher O 2 emission as compared to biodiesel and biodiesel added with the
additives. The biodiesel results in lower O2 emission.
CONCLUSIONS

The biodiesel is a renewable alternative to the fossil diesel as the properties of the biodiesel is similar
to the fossil diesel. However, the biodiesel has lower volatility and has lower oxidation stability.
Hence, in this work we have chosen the Black seed oil, clove oil + Pg and turmeric oil as a natural
additive for the honge biodiesel. Anti-oxidative properties and stability of ethanolic extracts of Black
seed oil, clove oil + Pg and turmeric oil is studied. Along with that constituent’s black seed, turmeric
oil and clove oil + accounting a 90% of essential oil content which preferred as additive to the
biodiesel. Also, we studied the effect of these additives on the fuel properties of the biodiesel and its
impact on compression ignition thermal efficiency and exhaust emissions. The additive concentration
ratio of binary anti-oxidants is the key factor to achieve best synergy for maximum stabilization. In an
engine, temperature has reaction completeness is the most critical fuel quality parameter as well as
engines’ durability and reliability. By adding natural additives to the biodiesel, as the amount of
concentration increases it led to reduction in hazardous emissions through engine exhaust like NOx,
CO2, HC’s, CO decreases. But the O2 content increases in the engine exhaust. All these emissions are
compared with conventional diesel which gives the best results for lowering the environmental
pollution. As the proper qualities of biodiesel blends met by adding these naturally available additives,
these biodiesel blends can be used in most modern engines.
REFERENCE
1. Harish Venu, Venkataramanan Madhavan, Effect of diethyl ether and Al2O3 nano additives in
diesel-biodiesel-ethanol blends: Performance, combustion and emission characteristics,
Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, January 2017, Volume 31, Issue 1, pp 409–
420.
2. A.Prabu, Nanoparticles as additive in biodiesel on the working characteristics of a DI diesel
engine, Ain Shams Engineering Journal, Volume 9, Issue 4, December 2018, Pages 2343-
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3. M. Vijay Kumar, A. Veeresh Babu, P. Ravi Kumar, The impacts on combustion, performance
and emissions of biodiesel by using additives in direct injection diesel engine, Alexandria
Engineering Journal, Volume 57, Issue 1, March 2018, Pages 509-516.
4. Mina Mehregan, Mohammad Moghiman, Effects of nano-additives on pollutants emission
and engine performance in a urea-SCR equipped diesel engine fueled with blended-biodiesel,
Fuel, Volume 222, 15 June 2018, Pages 402-406.
5. IbrahimLawan, WeimingZhou, ZaharaddeenNasiruGarba, MingxinZhang, ZhanhuiYuan,
LihuiChen, Critical insights into the effects of bio-based additives on biodiesels properties,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 102, March 2019, Pages 83-95.
6. IbrahimLawan, WeimingZhou, ZaharaddeenNasiruGarba, MingxinZhang, ZhanhuiYuan,
LihuiChen, Critical insights into the effects of bio-based additives on biodiesels properties,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 102, March 2019, Pages 83-95
7. M. Mohamed Musthafa, Development of performance and emission characteristics on coated
diesel engine fuelled by biodiesel with cetane number enhancing additive, Energy, Volume
134, 1 September 2017, Pages 234-239.
8. ManzooreElahi M. Soudagar, Nik-NazriNik-Ghazali, Md. Abul Kalam, I. A. Badruddin,
NaveedAkram, The effect of nano-additives in diesel-biodiesel fuel blends comprehensive
review on stability, engine performance and emission characteristics, Energy Conversion and
Management, Volume 178, 15 December 2018, Pages 146-177.
9. K. Vinukumar, A. Azhagurajan, S. C. Vettivel, N. Vedaraman, A. Haiter Lenin, Biodiesel with
nano additives from coconut shell for decreasing emissions in diesel engines, Fuel, Volume
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emulsion fuels in a diesel engine – An experimental investigation, Journal of the Energy
Institute, Volume 91, Issue 2, April 2018, Pages 289-303.
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ABSTRACT
Biodiesel is considered as the renewable alternative fuel to the fossil diesel. It can be used as
a substitute in the diesel engine with minor engine modification. In India, Pongamia oil is
having considerable potential for the production of the Bio-Diesel and hence it was used in

this work for the Bio-Diesel production. When Bio-Diesel is used as fuel in the diesel engine,
it reduces engine emissions such as CO, HC and smoke. NOx emission is higher than the
normal diesel operation due to higher combustion temperature, hence in this work, an attempt
was made to reduce the NOx emission by using the natural and synthetic additives. From the
engine experiments, we observe that the NOx emission can be reduced significantly using the
commercially available additives.

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Effect of Additives on the Performance of Biodiesel fueled Diesel Engine 2019

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 1

The B100 is here and there created in a group procedure by trans-esterification of

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 2

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 3

Mutagenicity studies demonstrate that biofuel significantly lessens potential

The ozone (brown haze) shaping capability of biodiesel hydrocarbons is not as

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 4

Natural biodiesel can also be used as a lubricity agent/enhancer in many

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 5

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL

The advantages are as follows

 Produced from Renewable Resources: Biodiesel is a source unlike other petroleum

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 6

1.3 DISADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL

 Variation in Quality of Biodiesel: Biodiesel is made from variety of biofuel crops.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 8

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 9

Acid‐catalysed polymerization of unsaturated fatty acids or their esters at temperature above 60 °C

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 10

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 11

M P Sharma et al worked on the storage stability of biodiesel, Biodiesel consists of long

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 13

S Sivalakshmi et al worked on the biodiesel regarding an experimental investigation has

A Anbarasu et al worked on the emission characteristics of biodiesel. diesel engines are

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 14

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 15

The objective is achieved by executing the following steps.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 16

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

 Alternative fuels: Honge biodiesel

4.2.1 PREPERATION OF PONGAMIA OIL

4.2.2 OIL EXTRACTION

3. Waste vegetable oils

Honge Tree Honge Seeds

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 18

4.2.3 PRE-TREATMENT FOR HIGH FFA OILS

(Weight of FFA*0.05)/density of H2SO4)

Figure: 4.2.3 Biodiesel and glycerin layer

4.2.4 TITRATION TESTING

Amount of NaOH required Amount of NaOH required

Transesterification of + for neutralization of FFA

Triglyceroids (3.5 g) (titration)

Figure: 4.2.4 Washing of biodiesel with water and Drying.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 20

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 21

Figure:4.2 stages involved in biodiesel production. The byproduct of biodiesel is glycerin

1. Black seed oil:

Figure: 4.3.1Black seed oil

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 22

Figure: 4.3.2 Turmeric oil

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 23

3. Clove oil + Pyrogallol:

Figure: 4.3.3 Clove oil

4.4 Sample Preparation

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 24

1. Pure Honge Bio-Diesel

Figure: 4.4.1 Pure Honge Bio-Diesel

2. Honge Bio-Diesel with Black Seed Oil

Figure: 4.4.2 Honge Bio-Diesel with Black Seed Oil

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagarjuna College of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru 25

Figure: 4.4.3 Honge Bio-Diesel with Turmeric Oil