SALSABILA LUQYANA

1710422023 (KBI)
PLANT ECOLOGY

COMPETITION AND INTERACTIONS

Competition is an reduction in fitness (how an organism apportions resources among
competing demographic functions such as survival, growth, reproduction) due to
shared use of a resource that is in limitid supply.
Competition can be divided into :
a. Intraspecific Competition : is an interaction in population ecology, whereby
members of the same species compete for limited resources. This leads to a
reduction in fitness for both individuals
b. Interspecific Competition : is a form of competition in which individuals
of different species compete for the same resources in an ecosystem (e.g. food
or living space). This can be contrasted with interspecific cooperation, a type
of symbiosis.
asymmetric competition - largest individuals have disproportionate negative effects
on their smaller neighbors

If two species are competing for the same resource, the species that can grow at the
lowest resource levels will be able to drive the other species out of the system.
Species B above will outcompete species A, since it can exist at lower resource levels

Effects of Competition on Species Coexistence and Community Composition

o Ecologists agree that competition is intense in productive, nutrient-rich habitats when

herbivory and disturbance is low
o Importance in unproductive habitats remains debatable because environments can be
unproductive for a variety of reasons (low water supply, cold temps, short growing
season, saline soil, toxic metals)
o Future Research: reducing vast diversity of terrestrial plants to conceptual categories
so that plants can be grouped in ways that enable one to pose testable hypotheses and
make predictions

ALLELOPATHY
Chemical warfare among neighboring plants
Release toxins into soil to reduce growth or kill adjacent plants
Way to gain competitive advantage

MYCORRHIZAE
Symbioses between mycelium of a fungus with roots of terrestrial plants. Arbuscular
mycorrhizae - most abundant where phosphorus is limited, in warm, dry climates.
Important in tropical ecosystems, and for crop pants - woody and herbaceous. Fungal
body grows inside root cells, with hyphae extending outward. Ectomycorrhizae -
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PLANT ECOLOGY

woody plants, especially temperate conifers. Hartig net between root cells, mantle
network of hyphae outside root.

 Fungal hyphae increase nutrient uptake from soil

 Transfer nutrients to root cells of host plants
 Improve metal uptake
 Improve water uptake
 Break down soil proteins
 Protect roots from toxins
 Protect plant from fungal, bacterial diseases
 SALSABILA LUQYANA
1710422023 (KBI)
PLANT ECOLOGY

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Environmental Factors that can affect the organisms are :

Abiotic These are non-living factors
Biotic These are living factors
Climatic These are the average weather conditions that affect the
community in an ecosystem
Edaphic These refer to the soil

1. Abiotic Factors
These are the non-living features of an ecosystem (i.e. the physical and chemical
conditions) that affect the community.

Abiotic Factor in woodland

2. Biotic Factors
These are the living features of an ecosystem that affect the other members of the
community. Biotic Factors include : Plants for food and shelter, Predators, Prey,
Parasites and pathogens, Decomposers, Competitors, and Pollinators.
3. Climatic Factors
These are elements of the climate (weather) that influence the life and distribution
of the organisms that live in a particular environment. Such as :
 Temperature
 Rainfall
 Humidity
 Wind
 Light intensity (including seasonal variations)
 Day length
4. Edaphic Factors
These are the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the soil that
influence the community. Such as :
 Soil type,
 Soil pH,
 Available (soil) water,
 Air and Mineral content,
 Humus,
 Soil texture and Structure.
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PLANT ECOLOGY

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Definition of Succession
• Natural, gradual changes in the types of species that live in an area; can be primary or
secondary
• The gradual replacement of one plant community by another through natural
processes over time
Types of Ecological Succession
1. Primary Succession: The process of creating life in an area where no life previously
existed.
 Begins in a place without any soil
 Sides of volcanoes
 After Landslides
 After Flooding
 Starts with the arrival of living things such as lichens that do not need soil to
survive
 Called PIONEER SPECIES
 Soil starts to form as lichens and the forces of weather (wind and
precipitation) and erosion help break down rocks into smaller pieces
 When lichens die, they decompose, adding small amounts of organic matter to
the rock to make soil
Simple plants like mosses and ferns can grow in the new soil. These plants die, and
they add more nutrients to the soil. Shrubs and tress can survive now. Insects, small
birds, and mammals have begun to move in. What was once bare rock now supports a
variety of life.

2. Secondary Succession: The process of re-stabilization that follows a disturbance in an

area where life has formed an ecosystem. Begins in a place that already has soil and
was once the home of living organisms. Occurs faster and has different pioneer
species than primary succession. Example: after forest fires or extensive logging

Ecological Succession
•N
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PLANT ECOLOGY

CLIMAX COMMUNITY
• A stable group of plants and animals that is the end result of the succession
process
• It is dynamic, meaning that although stable, it is constantly changing with the
climate
• Climax does not always mean big trees
– Grasses in prairies
– Cacti in deserts
Succession occurs because :
 Each community changes the conditions so that they are more favorable to other
organisms that replace them.
 For example, some types of trees need a lot of sun and their saplings cannot grow
under the shade of their own species.
 They will be replaced by the types of trees whose saplings can grow in shade of other
trees.
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PLANT ECOLOGY

ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving
components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic
components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters
the system through photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on
plants and on one-another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and
energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant
and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic
matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient
cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily
used by plants and other microbes.

Ecosystem Concept :
a. Population : A population is the number of organisms of the same species that live in
a particular geographic area at the same time, with the capability of interbreeding.
b. Community : an interacting group of various species in a common location. For
example, a forest of trees and undergrowth plants, inhabited by animals and rooted in
soil containing bacteria and fungi, constitutes a biological community.
c. Habitat : place where an organism or a community of organisms lives, including all
living and nonliving factors or conditions of the surrounding environment. A host
organism inhabited by parasites is as much a habitat as a terrestrial place such as a
grove of trees or an aquatic locality such as a small pond. Microhabitat is a term for
the conditions and organisms in the immediate vicinity of a plant or animal.
d. Niche : is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition. It describes
how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and
competitors (for example, by growing when resources are abundant, and
when predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those
same factors (for example, limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a
food source for predators and a consumer of prey).
Component of an Ecosystem
a. Producer : Producers are the living organisms in the ecosystem that take in energy
from sunlight and use it to transform carbon dioxide and oxygen into sugars. Plants,
algae and photosynthetic bacteria are all examples of producers. Producers form the
base of the food web and are generally the largest group in the ecosystem by weight,
or biomass. They also act as an interface with the abiotic components of the
ecosystem during nutrient cycles as they incorporate inorganic carbon and nitrogen
from the atmosphere.
Heterotroph, in ecology, an organism that consumes other organisms in a food chain.
heterotrophs are unable to produce organic substances from inorganic ones. They must rely
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PLANT ECOLOGY

on an organic source of carbon that has originated as part of another living organism.
Heterotrophs depend either directly or indirectly on autotrophs for nutrients and food energy.
Autotroph, in ecology, an organism that serves as a primary producer in a food chain.
Obtain energy and nutrients by harnessing sunlight through photosynthesis (photoautotrophs)
or, more rarely, obtain chemical energy through oxidation (chemoautotrophs) to make
organic substances from inorganic ones. Autotrophs do not consume other organisms; they
are, however, consumed by heterotrophs.

b. Consumers : Consumers are living organisms in the ecosystem that get their energy
from consuming other organisms. Conceptually, consumers are further subdivided by
what they eat: Herbivores eat producers, Carnivores eat other animals and
Omnivores eat both. Along with producers and decomposers, consumers are part of
what is known as food chains and webs, where energy and nutrient transfer can be
mapped out. Consumers can only harvest about 10 percent of the energy contained in
what they eat, so there tends to be less biomass at each stage as you move up the food
chain.
c. Decomposers : are the living component of the ecosystem that breaks down waste
material and dead organisms. Examples of decomposers include earthworms, dung
beetles and many species of fungi and bacteria. They perform a vital recycling
function, returning nutrients incorporated into dead organisms to the soil where plants
can take them up again. In this process they also harvest the last of the sunlight energy
initially absorbed by producers. Decomposers represent the final step in many of the
cyclical ecosystem processes.

Organism Interactions
An ecological community is defined as a group of actually or potentially interacting species
living in the same place. A community is bound together by the network of influences that
species have on one another. Inherent in this view is the notion that whatever affects one
species also affects many others -- the "balance of nature".
type of interaction sign effects

mutualism +/+ both species benefit from interaction

commensalism +/0 one species benefits, one unaffected

competition -/- each species affected negatively

predation, parasitism, herbivory +/- one species benefits, one is disadvantaged

Food Webs : are graphical depictions of the interconnections among species based
on energy flow . Energy moves from lower to higher trophic (feeding) levels by
consumption: herbivores consumes plants, predators consume herbivores, and may in
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PLANT ECOLOGY

turn be eaten by top predators. Some species feed at more than one tropic level, hence are
termed omnivores.

Generalized food web. A food web is an assemblage

of organisms, including producers, consumers and
decomposers, through which energy and materials
may move in a community

Ecological Pyramid : a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or bio

productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem. Types of Ecological Pyramid :
a. Pyramid of Number : It depicts the number of individual organisms at different
trophic levels of food chain. This pyramid was advanced by Charles Elton (1927),
who pointed out the great difference in the number of the organisms involved in each
step of the food chain. Successive links of trophic structure decrease rapidly in
number until there are very few carnivores at the top.

b. Pyramid of Biomass : The biomass of the members of the food chain present at any
one time forms the pyramid of the biomass. Pyramid of biomass indicates decrease of
biomass in each tropical level from base to apex.

c. Pyramid of Energy : When production is considered in terms of energy, the pyramid

indicates not only the amount of energy flow at each level, but more important, the
actual role the various organisms play in the transfer of energy. An energy pyramid
illustrates how much energy is needed as it flows upwards to support the next trophic
level.

Ecosystem Types :
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PLANT ECOLOGY

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem in the World

• Tropical Rainforest : Typically found near the equator and receives more than 200
cm of rain annually. Temperatures typically fall between 20oC and 25oC for the
entire year. As many as 50% of all the world’s animal species may be found here.
• Tropical Savanna : Grasslands with a few scattered trees. Experience a wet and
dry season. Hot temperatures. Annual rainfall is between 50 and 127 cm. More
species of grazing mammals than any other biome
• Desert : Typically found between 25o and 40o latitude. Receives less than 25 cm
of rain each year. Temperatures typically range between 20oC and 25oC but some
extreme deserts can reach temperatures higher than 38oC and lower than –15oC.
• Chaparral : Found between 32o and 40o latitude on the west coast of continents.
Receives between 35 and 70 cm of rain, usually in the winter. Extremely resistant
to drought and weather events
• Grassland : Because of the dry climate, trees are found only near water sources
such as streams. Usually receives between 50 and 90 cm of rainfall each year.
Summer temperatures can reach up to 38oC, and winter temperatures can fall to –
40oC.
• Temperate Deciduous Forest : Moderate climate. Most trees will lose their leaves
in the winter. Temperatures range between –30oC and 30oC, Averages from 75 to
150 cm of precipitation. Well developed understory
• Temperate Boreal Forest : Also known as Taiga. Typically found between 45o and
60o North latitude. Cold climate with summer rains. Very few reptiles. Limited
understory. Snow is primary form of precipitation (40 – 100 cm annually)
• Tundra : Means treeless or marshy plain. Characterized by permafrost –
permanently frozen soil starting as high as a few centimeters below the surface –
which severely limits plant growth. Winter temperatures average –34oC while
summer temperatures usually average below 10oC. Low precipitation (15–25 cm
per year) but ground is usually wet because of low evaporation.

2. Terrestrial Ecosytem in Indonesia

Vegetation Zone in Indonesia

1. West Zone : under the influence of Asian vegetation, including: Sumatra, Kalimantan,
where the dominant species is Dipterocarpaceae.
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PLANT ECOLOGY

2. East Zone : under the influence of Australian vegetation, including: Maluku, Nusa
Tenggara, Irian Jaya, where the dominant species are Araucariaceae and Myrtaceae.
3. Transition Zone : under the influence of Asia and Australia, includes Java and
Sulawesi, where the dominant species are Araucariaceae, Myrtaceae and Verbenaceae

Forest Ecosystem Type

1. Mangrove Ecosystem
o Not affected by climate
o There are muddy or slightly sandy beaches, influenced by tides, not exposed to
hard waves, alluvial soil, brackish water / salty
o Distribution: the east coast of Sumatra, the north coast of Java, the east coast of
Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya.
o Some of the species bear fruit vivipary, and have root breath, namely the root of
the stake (Avicennia and Sonneratia), tunjang root (Rhizophora), and the root of
the knee (Bruguiera).
o Example : Avicennia alba (api-api), Sonneratia alba (Pedada), Rhizophora
mucronata and R. apiculata (Bakau), Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Tancang),
Ceriops tagal (Tingi), Xylocarpus granatum (Nyirih), Nypa fruticans (Nipah)
2. Swamp Forest
o Not affected by climate
o It is found around the estuary / river delta, flooded with fresh water from the river,
so it is nutrient-rich (eutrophic), the soil is gull humus and alluvial.
o There are: in Sumatra and Kalimantan following large rivers.
o Example : Alstonia pneumatophora (Pulai rawa), Campnosperma macrophylla
(Terentang), Dyera lowii (Jelutung rawa), Pentaspadon motley, Shorea
balangeran (Meranti), Lophopethalum multinervium (Perupuk)
3. Peat Forest
o It grows on a peat pile in the form of a convex lens that is 1-20 m thick
o Inundated peat water that comes from rainwater, is acidic and poor in nutrients
(oligotrophic),
o Soil Type: organosol.
o There are: on the east coast of Sumatra, the west and south coasts of Kalimantan,
and the southern coast of Irian Jaya.
o Example : Gonystylus bancanus (Ramin), Shorea uliginoga (Meranti batu),
Durio carinatus (Durian), Cratoxylon arborescens (Gerunggang), Tetramerista
glabra (Punak), Combretocarpus retundatus (Perepat)
4. Littoral Forest
o It is located on steep beaches, sandy soil, rocky or clay, not affected by climate.
o There are on the south coast of Java, the southwest coast of Sumatra, and the coast
of Sulawesi.
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PLANT ECOLOGY

o Example : Barringtonia asiatica (Keben), Calophyllum inophyllum (Bintangur,

Nyamplung), Casuarina equisetifolia (Cemara laut), Hibiscus tiliaceus (Waru
laut), Terminalia catappa (Ketapang), Cocos nucifera (Kelapa), Pandanus
tectorius (Pandan), Ipomea pres-caprae (Ubi pantai)
5. Lowland Forest
o It is present in wet climates, podsolic, latosol and alluvial soils.
o The forest is always green, consisting of several canopy strata, very rich in flora
and fauna.
o In the western region, it is dominated by Dipterocarpaceae species (Shorea,
Dipterocarpus, Dryobalanops, etc.), Eusideroxylon zwageri, etc.
o In the eastern region (Papua, NTT): Pometia pinnata, Intsia bijuga, Agathis
labillardieri, Pterocarpus indicus, Eucalyptus deglupta
o On the island of Sulawesi: Diospyros celebica, Shorea koordersii, Agathis
philippinensis.
o In Maluku: Paraserianthes falcataria, Shorea selanica, Agathis dammara.
6. Mountain Rainfoerst
o Located at an altitude of 1000-2400 m above sea level, in hilly areas, wet climate,
latosol soil types, always green, consist of several canopy strata.
o Increasing altitude where:
- The number of species of plants decreases
- Plant shapes & sizes: increasingly shrinking and many branches / crooked
Chinese
o Available in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya.
7. Season Forest
o In seasonal climate (monsoon), on dry land with various types of soil.
o Deciduous leaves during the dry season (in certain types)
o Based on height:
- Lowland season forest (<1000 m asl.)
- Mountain season forest (> 1000 m asl.)
o Available in: Central Java, East Java, Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi

Artificial forest ecosystem

1. One-type plantation
a. Teak Forest (Tectona grandis)
b. Mangium Forest (Acacia mangium)
c. Pine Forest (Pinus merkusii)

2. Mixed Plantations:
Community Forestry / Agroforestry
(Sengon, bamboo, coconut, banana fruits, palawija).
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PLANT ECOLOGY

COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS, MANGROVES, AND SWAMPS

Forest Type Classification In Indonesia :
• Hutan Pantai (Littoral forest)
• Hutan Bakau (Mangrove forest)
• Hutan Rawa (Swamp forest)
• Hutan Gambut (Peat forest)
• Hutan Rawa Air Tawar (Freshwater forest)
• Hutan Dataran Rendah (Lowland forest)
• Hutan Dataran Tinggi (Highland forest)
• Hutan Pegunungan (Mountain forest)

1. Littoral Forest
It is located on steep beaches, sandy soil, rocky or clay, not affected by climate. There
are on the south coast of Java, the southwest coast of Sumatra, and the coast of
Sulawesi. Example : Barringtonia asiatica (Keben), Calophyllum inophyllum
(Bintangur, Nyamplung), Casuarina equisetifolia (Cemara laut), Hibiscus
tiliaceus (Waru laut), Terminalia catappa (Ketapang), Cocos nucifera (Kelapa),
Pandanus tectorius (Pandan), Ipomea pres-caprae (Ubi pantai)

2. Mangrove Forest
Mangrove trees are a special type of tree that can live on land or salty swamps. The
types vary, including fire, lolaro, posi-posi, and ting. When the seeds are ripe, they
just fall and stick to the ground and then grow into new mangrove trees.

The principal species of mangrove plants

Mangrove Pollination
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PLANT ECOLOGY

Pollination method varies by species

 Wind (Rhizophora).
 bat or hawk moth (Sonneratia).
 birds and butterflies (Bruguiera).
 bees (Avicennia).
 fruit flies (Nypa).
 other small insects (Ceriops, Kandelia).
Mangrove Reproduction
Vivipary normal: Reproduction and growth while still attached to plant
 Flowering
 Fertilization
 Propagule growth

Mangrove Dispersal
– Maturity Drop off maternal plant.
– Float horizontally initially : Dispersal to novel environments ideally.
– Float vertically with appropriate environmental conditions.
– Rooting and growth

The Main Threat to Mangrove, by region

3. Swamp Forest
Swamp forests are found in areas that are always flooded with fresh water.
Generally located behind the brackish forest, it means that swamp forest is located
from the edge of the sea after brackish forest.
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PLANT ECOLOGY

As in brackish forests, swamp forest is characterized by a growing place that has poor
aeration. The type of soil in swamp forest habitat is of alluvial type.
Swamp forest has several canopy stratums and the shape is almost like a rainforest.
This forest is mostly found in eastern Sumatra, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan,
and the southern part of Papua.
4. Peat Forest
Peatland is land where the thickness of the peat is more than 50 cm. Land whose peat
thickness is less than 50 cm is called peatland.
Peat is formed from the decomposition of organic materials such as leaves, twigs and
shrubs that occur at slow speeds and in anaerobic conditions.
Based on its thickness: Shallow Peat, with a thickness of 0.5 - 1.0 m
Medium peat, thickness 1.0 - 2.0 m
Deep Peat, thickness 2.0 - 3.0 m
Very Deep Peat, which has a thickness exceeding 3.0 m

Based on its maturity:

Fibrik, classified as such if the original vegetative material can still be identified or
has slightly decomposed
Hemik, so called if the level of decomposition is moderate
Saprik, is the last classification that if it has experienced a level of further
decomposition.

Peatland is land where the thickness of the peat is more than 50 cm. Land whose peat
thickness is less than 50 cm is called peatland.
Peat is formed from the decomposition of organic materials such as leaves, twigs and
shrubs that occur at slow speeds and in anaerobic conditions.
Based on its thickness: Shallow Peat, with a thickness of 0.5 - 1.0 m
Medium peat, thickness 1.0 - 2.0 m
Deep Peat, thickness 2.0 - 3.0 m
Very Deep Peat, which has a thickness exceeding 3.0 m

Based on its maturity:

Fibrik, classified as such if the original vegetative material can still be identified or
has slightly decomposed
Hemik, so called if the level of decomposition is moderate
Saprik, is the last classification that if it has experienced a level of further
decomposition.
5. Lowland Forest
It is present in wet climates, podsolic, latosol and alluvial soils. The forest is always
green, consisting of several canopy strata, very rich in flora and fauna. In the western
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PLANT ECOLOGY

region, it is dominated by Dipterocarpaceae species (Shorea, Dipterocarpus,

Dryobalanops, etc.), Eusideroxylon zwageri, etc.
In the eastern region (Papua, NTT): Pometia pinnata, Intsia bijuga, Agathis
labillardieri, Pterocarpus indicus, Eucalyptus deglupta
On the island of Sulawesi: Diospyros celebica, Shorea koordersii, Agathis
philippinensis.
In Maluku: Paraserianthes falcataria, Shorea selanica, Agathis dammara.

6. Highland Forest

7. Mountain Forest
Located at an altitude of 1000-2400 m above sea level, in hilly areas, wet climate,
latosol soil types, always green, consist of several canopy strata.
Increasing altitude where:
- The number of species of plants decreases
- Plant shapes & sizes: increasingly
shrinking and many branches / crooked Chinese
Available in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya.
Important types:
Quercus sundaica (tide), Castanopsis argentea (Saninten), Podocarpus imbricatus
(Jamuju), Altingia excelsa (Rasamala)