EE 4101

DC Machinery
https://canvas.instructure.com/enroll/PN7WLK

Engr. Caesar Rico S. Acanto

 Electric Field
• The field force that acts between two
charges, in the same way that the
gravitational field force acts between two
masses.
• The concept of electric field was introduced
by Michael Faraday.
• Electric force depends on charges on both
objects.
Formula
• where:

• Q = electric force of
one object (C),
• q = electric force of
the other object
(C), and
• d = distance
between the two
objects (m).
 Electric Field Line
• Electric field lines can be drawn using field
lines. They are also called force lines.

Positive Charge Negative Charge

• The field lines are originated from the positive

charge.
• The field lines end up at the negative charge.
 Electric Field Line
• A positive charge exerts out and a negative
charge exerts in equally to all directions; it is
symmetric. Field lines are drawn to show the
direction and strength of field. The closer the
lines are, the stronger the force acts on an
object. If the lines are further each other, the
strength of force acting on a object is
weaker.
 Magnetic Field
• The magnetic field B is defined from the Lorentz
Force Law, and specifically from the magnetic
force on a moving charge:

Where:
F – magnetic force
Q – charge
V – velocity of the moving
charge
B – magnetic flux density
 Magnetic Field
The implications of this expression include:
1. The force is perpendicular to both the velocity
v of the charge q and the magnetic field B.
2. The magnitude of the force is F = qvB sinθ
where θ is the angle < 180 degrees between
the velocity and the magnetic field. This
implies that the magnetic force on a
stationary charge or a charge moving parallel
to the magnetic field is zero.
3. The direction of the force is given by the right
hand rule. The force relationship is in the form
of a vector product.
 Magnetic Field

•Equation 1.1 states that the line integral of the

tangential component of the magnetic field
intensity H around a closed contour C is equal
to the total current passing through any
surface S linking that contour. From Eq. 1.1 we
see that the source of H is the current density J.
•Equation 1.1 is also known as First Maxwell
Equation or Ampere’s Law.
 Magnetic Field
• Equation 1.2 states that the magnetic flux
density B is conserved, i.e., that no net
flux enters or leaves a closed surface.
• Equation 1.2 is also known as Gauss Law.
• From these equations we see that the
magnetic field quantities can be
determined solely from the instantaneous
values of the source currents and that
time variations of the magnetic fields
follow directly from time variations of the
sources.
 Magnetic Field
• A magnetic circuit consists of a
structure composed for the most part
of high permeability magnetic
material. The presence of high-
permeability material tends to cause
magnetic flux to be confined to the
paths defined by the structure, much
as currents are confined to the
conductors of an electric circuit.
 Magnetic Field

A simple example of a magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.1.

The core is assumed to be composed of magnetic
material whose permeability is much greater than that of
the surrounding air (μ >> μ0). The core is of uniform cross
section and is excited by a winding of N turns carrying a
current of i amperes. This winding produces a magnetic
field in the core, as shown in the figure1.1.
 Magnetic Field
• As applied to the magnetic circuit of Fig.
1.1, the source of the magnetic field in
the core is the ampere-turn product Ni. In
magnetic circuit terminology Ni is the
magnetomotive force (mmf) Ƒ acting on
the magnetic circuit. Although Fig. 1.1
shows only a single coil, transformers and
most rotating machines have at least two
windings, and Ni must be replaced by
the algebraic sum of the ampere-turns of
all the windings.
 Magnetic Field

•The magnetic flux Ф crossing a surface S is the surface

integral of the normal component of B.
•In SI units, the unit of Ф is the Weber (Wb).

•The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and

the magnetic flux density B is a property of the material in
which the field exists. It is common to assume a linear
relationship
 Magnetic Field
μ is the magnetic permeability. In SI units, H
is measured in units of amperes per meter, B
is in Weber per square meter, also known as
Tesla (T), and μ is in Weber per ampere-turn-
meter, or equivalently henrys per meter. In SI
units the permeability of free space is μ0 = 4π
× 10 -7 henrys per meter. The permeability of
linear magnetic material can be expressed
in terms of μT, its value relative to that of free
space, or μ = μT μ0.
Right Hand Rule
 Right Hand Rule
• A wire carrying electric current
produces a magnetic field around it.
• The thumb points in the direction of the
current while the curled fingers point in
the direction of the field.
Left Hand Rule
 Left Hand Rule
• It shows what happens when charged particles (such as
electrons in a current) enter a magnetic field.
• The index finger points in the direction of a magnetic field,
and the middle finger, at a 90 degree angle to the index,
points in the direction of the charged particle (as in an
electrical current), then the extended thumb (forming an L
with the index) points in the direction of the force exerted
upon that particle.
• This rule is also called Fleming's Left Hand Rule, after English
electronics pioneer John Ambrose Fleming, who came up with
it.
• From the force relationship, it can be deduced that the units
of magnetic field are Newton seconds /(coulomb meter) or
Newton per ampere meter. This unit is named the Tesla. It is a
large unit, and the smaller unit Gauss is used for small fields like
the Earth's magnetic field. A Tesla is 10,000 Gauss. The Earth's
magnetic field at the surface is on the order of half a Gauss.
 Faraday's Law
• Any change in the magnetic environment of
a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be
"induced" in the coil. No matter how the
change is produced, the voltage will be
generated. The change could be produced
by changing the magnetic field strength,
moving a magnet toward or away from the
coil, moving the coil into or out of the
magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the
magnet, etc.
• Also known as Maxwell’s Second Equation.
Faraday's Law
 Faraday's Law
• Faraday's law is a fundamental
relationship which comes from Maxwell's
equations. It serves as a summary of the
ways a voltage (or emf) may be
generated by a changing magnetic
environment. The induced emf in a coil is
equal to the negative of the rate of
change of magnetic flux times the
number of turns in the coil. It involves the
interaction of charge with magnetic field.
Faraday's Law
 Lenz's Law
• When an emf is generated by a
change in magnetic flux according to
Faraday's Law, the polarity of the
induced emf is such that it produces a
current whose magnetic field opposes
the change which produces it. The
induced magnetic field inside any
loop of wire always acts to keep the
magnetic flux in the loop constant.
Lenz's Law
Four principles of magnetic field use
1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic
field in the area around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a
voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through
that coil. (This is the basis of transformer
action.)
3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a
magnetic field has a force induced on it. (This
is the basis of motor action.)
4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic
field has a voltage induced in it.(This is the
basis of generator action.)
 Basic Sources of Energy
• Chemical
• Solar
• Nuclear
 Energy Sources, Converters
Interrelationships
Che Nucle Solar
mical ar

Rainf Wind
Charg all
Heat ed
Part
Boile Wind
r Hydr
Turbi
Hot o
ne
Cond
Stea Gas
ICE
m

Electr Ther Phot

Fuel omec MHD mioni ovolt
Cell h c aic
 Law Of Conservation of Energy
• Energy in a system may take on various
forms (e.g. kinetic, potential, heat, light).
The law of conservation of energy states
that energy may neither be created nor
destroyed. Therefore the sum of all the
energies in the system is a constant.
• The conservation of energy is a
fundamental concept of physics along
with the conservation of mass and the
conservation of momentum.
 Energy conversion principle
• The energy conversion principle is one
and same “energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed but could
be transformed from one form to
another”. In the case of motors
generators etc the input energy is not
converted fully into the output some
amount of energy is wasted for ohmic
losses due to heating effects as well as
friction, so in the case of motor.
 Energy Conversion Process
• Direct
– Fuel cells
– Thermionic, thermoelectric
– Photovoltaic
– Magnetohydrodynamic
– piezoelectric
• Electromechanical
– Electric machines
– transducers
 Electro-mechanical Energy
Conversion
Three categories of electromechanical energy
conversion devices:
– Transducers (for measurement and control)- small
motion
Transform the signals of different forms. Examples:
microphones, sensors and speakers.
– Force producing devices (translational force)- limited
mechanical motion.
Produce forces mostly for linear motion drives, Example
Actuators - relays, solenoids and electromagnets.
– Continuous energy conversion equipment.
Operate in rotating mode. Examples: motors and
generators.
 Electro-mechanical Energy
Conversion
• Use a magnetic field as the medium of
energy conversion.
– Converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
– Converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
 Energy Conversion Process
• An electromechanical
converter system has three
essential parts:
– An electrical system (electric circuits such as
windings)
– A magnetic system (magnetic field in the
magnetic cores and air gaps)
– A mechanical system (mechanically
movable parts such as a rotor in an electrical
machine).
EM Energy Conversion: Analogy
Thermal
Electrical Energy
Energy (losses)
(input)

Field Energy

Mechanical
Energy
(output)
 Energy Conversion Process

Electromechanical
System

Electrical System Magnetic System Mechanical System

Voltages and Position, Speed

Magnetic Flux
Currents and Acceleration

Circuit Equations Force/Torque Force/Torque Eqns

(KVL and KCL) (Newtons Law)
emf

Concept of electromechanical system modeling

 Energy Conversion Process
Electrical system Magnetic system Mechanical
system P mech

Electrical Field loss Mechanical

loss loss

The energy transfer equation is as follows:

 Electrical   Mechanical   Increase in 

       Energy 
 energy input    energy    stored energy in    
 from sources   output   magnetic field   losses 
     
 Prime Movers
• The source of energy that drives the
electromechanical converters.
Energy Flow Diagram of A Generator
Energy Flow Diagram of A Motor
 Energy Flow Equation
• ∫d Winput = ∫d W output + ∫d W magnetic field +∫d W heat
• Motor = Woutput = mechanical power
• Generator = Woutput = electrical power
 Efficiency and Losses
• Efficiency = “how well the job is done”
• Motor = mechanical efficiency
• Generator = electrical efficiency
• General formula
 = output power/input power
output power = input power - losses
 Energy Conversion Process
The energy balance can therefore be written as:
Electricalenergy  Mechanical energy  Increase in 
     
input from sources output  friction  stored field 
     
resistance loss  and windage loss  energy  core loss

For the lossless magnetic energy storage system in differential form,

dWe  dWm  dWf

dWe = i d  = differential change in electric energy input
dWm = fm dx = differential change in mechanical energy output
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

4/20/2018 42
 Energy in Magnetic System
Consider the electromechanical system below:

Axial length (perpendicular to

page) = l
 Energy in Magnetic System
• The mechanical force fm is defined as acting from
the relay upon the external mechanical system and
the differential mechanical energy output of the
relay is dW = f dx
m m

Then, substitution dWe = id , gives

dWf = id  – fm dx
Value of Wf is uniquely specified by the values
of  and x, since the magnetic energy storage
system is lossless.
Energy in Magnetic System

 dWf = id

d

Wf   id
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored
energy
 Energy and Coenergy
The  -i characteristics of an electromagnetic
system depends on the air-gap length and B-H
characteristics of the magnetic material.

For a larger air-gap

length the
characteristic is
essentially linear. The
characteristic becomes
non linear as the air-
gap length decreases.
 Energy

and Coenergy

-i

Wf

Wf’

i
For a particular value of air-gap length, the field energy is represented by
the red area between  axis and  -i characteristic. The blue area
between i axis and λ - i characteristic is known as the coenergy.
 Energy and Coenergy
The coenergy is defined as
W    di
f
' i
0
From the figure of  - i characteristic,

Wf’ + Wf = i
Note that Wf’ > Wf if the λ - i characteristic is non
linear and Wf’ = Wf if it is linear.
The quantity of coenergy has no physical
significance. However, it can be used to derive
expressions for force (torque) developed in an
electromagnetic system.
Force and Torque Formula

Where: Where:
i – current i – current
L- inductance L- inductance
θ- angular displacement x - linear displacement
 Principles of Rotating Machines
• Electromagnetic energy conversion occurs
when changes in the flux linkage result from
mechanical motion. In rotating machines,
voltages are generated in windings or groups
of coils by rotating these windings
mechanically through a magnetic field, by
mechanically rotating a magnetic field past
the winding, or by designing the magnetic
circuit so that the reluctance varies with
rotation of the rotor. By any of these methods,
the flux linking a specific coil is changed
cyclically, and a time-varying voltage is
generated.
Principles of Rotating Machines
• Two parts of a rotating machine:
– Armature or rotor
– Field or stator
*For bigger machines it is the field that
rotates.
• In most rotating machines, the stator
and rotor are made of electrical steel,
and the windings are installed in slots
on these structures.
INTRODUCTION TO AC AND DC
MACHINES
• AC Machines
– Synchronous machines - rotor-winding
currents are supplied directly from the
stationary frame through a rotating contact.
The field is supplied by a DC current.
– Induction machines - rotor currents are
induced in the rotor windings by a
combination of the time-variation of the
stator currents and the motion of the rotor
relative to the stator. The field is supplied by
an AC current.
INTRODUCTION TO AC AND DC
MACHINES

Synchronous Machine
INTRODUCTION TO AC AND DC
MACHINES
• Types of
synchronous rotor
– Salient or
concentrated
– Non-salient or
distributed
INTRODUCTION TO AC AND DC
MACHINES
• Types of Induction Machine rotor
– Squirrel cage
– Wound rotor
INTRODUCTION TO AC AND DC
MACHINES
• DC Machines
 INTRODUCTION TO AC AND DC
MACHINES
• Commutator – provides full wave
rectification to produce DC output. It is
a cylinder formed of copper segments
insulated from each other by mica or
some other highly insulating material
and mounted on, but insulated from,
the rotor shaft. Stationary carbon
brushes held against the commutator
surface connect the winding to the
external armature terminals.
 Magnetomotive force (mmf) of
DC Machines
• Because of the restrictions imposed on the winding
arrangement by the commutator, the mmf wave of a
dc machine armature approximates a sawtooth
waveform.
 MAGNETIC FIELDS IN ROTATING
MACHINERY
• DC machines consist of magnetic structures with
extremely non-uniform air gaps. In such cases the air-
gap magnetic-field distribution is more complex than
that of uniform-air-gap machines.
 DC Machine Generated
Voltage
• In a dc machine, although the
ultimate objective is the generation of
dc voltage, ac voltages are produced
in the armature winding coils as these
coils rotate through the dc flux
distribution of the stationary field
winding. The armature-winding
alternating voltage must therefore be
rectified. Mechanical rectification is
provided by the commutator.
 DC Generator
• Three requirements for generator
action:
– The presence of magnetic lines of force
– The motion of conductors
– The voltage is generated
 DC Generator
• The general voltage equation:
PNZ 8
Eg  x10 volts
60a
Where:
Eg – generated voltage
Ф- flux per pole, Maxwell or lines
P – number of poles
N – speed of the armature, RPM
Z – total number of armature conductors
a – number of armature current paths
connected in parallel
 DC Generator
• Example:
– An 85 kW six-pole generator has an
armature containing 66 slots, in each slot
has 12 conductors. The armature winding
is connected so that there are six parallel
paths. If each pole produces 2.18 x 106
Maxwell and the armature speed is 870
RPM, determine the generated voltage.
DC Generator Construction
• Major parts are rotor (armature)
and stator (field).
 DC Armature
• More loops of wire = higher rectified voltage
• In practical, loops are generally placed in slots of an iron core
• The iron acts as a magnetic conductor by providing a low-
reluctance path for magnetic lines of flux to increase the
inductance of the loops and provide a higher induced voltage.
The commutator is connected to the slotted iron core. The entire
assembly of iron core, commutator, and windings is called the
armature. The windings of armatures are connected in different
ways depending on the requirements of the machine.
 ARMATURE WINDINGS
• Lap Wound Armatures
– are used in machines designed for low
voltage and high current
– armatures are constructed with large
wire because of high current
– Eg: - are used is in the starter motor of
almost all automobiles
– The windings of a lap wound armature
are connected in parallel. This permits
the current capacity of each winding
to be added and provides a higher Lap wound armatures
operating current
– No of current path, a=p for simplex ;
p=no of poles
ARMATURE WINDINGS (Cont)
• Wave Wound Armatures
– are used in machines designed for
high voltage and low current
– their windings connected in series
– When the windings are connected in
series, the voltage of each winding
adds, but the current capacity
remains the same
– are used is in the small generator in Wave wound armatures

hand-cranked megohmmeters
– No of current path, a=2 for simplex
ARMATURE WINDINGS (Cont)

• Frog leg Wound Armatures

– the most used in practical nowadays
– designed for use with moderate
current and moderate armatures
voltage
– the windings are connected in series
parallel.
– Most large DC machines use frog leg
Frogleg wound armatures

wound armatures.
 Coil Pitch
• To generate a maximum voltage the distance
between the two sides of the coil must be equal
to the distance between two poles or 1800.
• The coil pitch is the number of slots that separates
the two sides of the coil.
S
YS   k
P
Where:
Ys – coil pitch
S – total number of armature slots
P – number of poles
k – any value that will be subtracted to
S/P to make Ys an integer
 Coil Pitch
• Example:
– Calculate the coil pitch and indicate the
slots in which the first coils should be
placed for the following armature
windings:
• 28 slots, 4 poles
• 39 slots, 4 poles
• 78 slots, 6 poles
• 121 slots, 8 poles
• 258 slots, 14 poles
 Plex of a winding
• It is a set of connected windings in an
armature.
– Simplex
– Duplex
– Triplex
– Quadruplex
 Commutator pitch in a Lap
winding
• Designates the coil end connections
to the commutator. For lap winding, it
is equal to the plex of the winding.
 Degree of Reentrancy
• Reentrancy – the process of closing out a winding
• Degree of reentrancy is the number of conductor included in a set of
windings.
– Single reentrancy means all conductors are included in the single winding.
– Double reentrancy means half of the total conductors are included in one set
of winding traced from start to close.
• Degree of reentrancy for lap winding is equal to the highest common
factor between the number of commutator segments and the plex
of the winding.
• Example:
– Determine the commutator pitches and the degree of reentrancy for the
following lap windings:
• Simplex, 29 segments
• Duplex, 29 segments
• Duplex, 42 segment
• Triplex, 43 segments
• Triplex, 48 segments
• Quadruplex, 394 segments
Number of parallel paths in Lap
winding
• The number of parallel paths in a lap
winding is equal to:
a " plex" xP

Where:
a – number of parallel paths
plex – number of coil sets
P- number of poles
 Example
• Determine the value of Ys, Yc, a, and degree of
reentrancy to the following lap-wound armatures:
No. Slots Segments Poles Windings Ys Yc a Degree of
Reentrancy
1 27 27 4 SL

2 66 66 6 DL

3 63 63 6 DL

4 160 160 6 TL

5 147 147 8 TL

6 222 222 8 QL
 Commutator pitch in Wave
winding
• The commutator pitch in a wave winding
can be found using the formula:
C 1
YC 
P
2

Where:
Yc – commutator pitch
C – total number of the commutator segments
P – number of poles

*Yc must be an integer

 Commutator pitch in Wave
winding
• Example:
– Determine the commutator pitch for a 4-
pole simplex wave wound armature
having 21 segments. Also list the
commutator segments in the proper order
as the coils are traced through the entire
winding from segment 1 until it closes.
 Number of parallel path in a
wave winding
• The number of parallel paths in a
wave-wound armature is equal to:
a " plex' x2
 Dead or Dummy Elements
• When the ratio of the commutator
segments to armature slots is not a whole
number for lap and one less than 2,3,4,
etc times for wave, there are winding
elements that are left open. This
unconnected windings are known as
dead or dummy elements.
• Dummy elements are put to keep the
revolving structure mechanically
balanced.
 Equalizers
• In large lap-wound machines, the large air gap between
stationary poles and rotating armatures are not all alike
and causes the voltage to various parallel paths to be
unequal. This will cause circulating current to occur and
tends to heat up the armature and cause sparking in the
brushes.
• To overcome this a low resistance copper wire is used to
connect together points in the armature in which ideally
should have equal voltage.
• Equalizers must connect points that are exactly 3600
apart. The total number of coils in the armature winding
must be divisible by P/2. The connection of equalizers
are normally done in the commutator segments rather
than in the armature slots.
 Example
• Determine the number of equalizer
connections at the commutator of 160
segment, 8 pole armature for a 100
percent equalization and make a
table showing those that are joined
together at each one.
 Theory of Commutation
• For the successful operation of a dc machine, the
induced emf in each conductor under a pole must have
the same polarity. If the armature winding is carrying
current, the current in each conductor under a pole
must be directed in the same direction. It implies that as
the conductor moves from one pole to the next, there
must be a reversal of the current in that conductor. The
conductor and thereby the coil in which the current
reversal is taking place are said to be commutating.
• The process of reversal of current in a commutating coil
is known as commutation.
• A linear commutation process is considered to be ideal
in the sense that no flashover occurs from the
commutator segments to the trailing tips of the brushes.
 Armature Reaction
• When there is no current in the armature winding (a no-
load condition), the flux produced by the field winding is
uniformly distributed over the pole faces. The induced
emf in a coil that lies in the neutral plane, a plane
perpendicular to the field-winding flux, is zero. This,
therefore, is the neutral position under no load where the
brushes must be positioned for proper commutation.
• When the dc machine is driven by a prime mover, the
armature flux has weakened the flux in one-half of the
pole and has strengthened it in the other half. The
armature current has, therefore, displaced the
magnetic-field axis of the resultant flux in the direction of
rotation of the generator. As the neutral plane is
perpendicular to the resultant field, it has also
advanced. The effect of the armature mmf upon the
field distribution is called the armature reaction.
 Armature Reaction

a) Flux distribution due to the field-winding only. (b) Flux distribution due
to armature mmf only. (c) Flux distribution due to the field-winding and the
armature mmf.
 Armature Reaction
• The armature reaction has a demagnetizing
effect on the machine. The reduction in the flux
due to armature reaction suggests a substantial
loss in the applied mmf per pole of the machine.
In large machines, the armature reaction may
have a devastating effect on the machine's
performance under full load. Therefore,
techniques must be developed to counteract its
demagnetization effect. Some of the measures
that are being used to combat armature reaction
are:
– Advancing the brushes to neutral position at no load
– Use of interpoles or commutating poles
– Use of compensating windings
Interpoles and Compensating
Windings

Interpole Winding Compensating Winding

 Example
• A 4-pole wave wound armature has
122 conductors and runs at 1200 RPM.
If the flux per pole is 25mWb, find the
EMF generated if the armature is
wound in a) simplex wave b) duplex
wave.
 Magnetic Frame or Yoke
• Yokes are made of cast iron or cast
steel or rolled steel.
• The outer frame or yoke serves double
purpose:
1. It provides mechanical support for the
poles and acts as a protecting cover for the
whole machine, and
2. It carries the magnetic flux produced by
the poles.
 Pole Coils or Field Coils
• To produce the flux line by means of an
electromagnetic, a voltage have to be
supplied through a coil.
• A coil consisting of many turns of fine wire is
generally wound around the core. This coil is
called shunt field.
• Also around the core may be found a few
turns of heavy wire. This is called the series
field.
• These coils produce the magnetomotive force
required to yield the necessary flux cut by the
rotating conductors.
 Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes
• The field magnets consist of pole cores and
pole shoes.
• The core of the pole is built up of laminated
steel and the shoe of pole is curved to
produce a more uniform magnetic field.
• The pole shoes serve the following purposes:
– They spread out the flux in the air gap and also,
being of larger cross-section, reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path, and
– They support the exciting coils (or field coils)
Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes
 Interpole
• The interpole and its winding are
mounted on the yoke of the dynamo.
• These are located in the interpolar region
between the main poles and are
generally smaller in size.
• The interpole winding is composed of a
few turns of heavy wire.
• Since it is connected in series with the
armature circuit so that its
magnetomotive force (mmf) is
proportional to the armature current.
 Compensating Winding
• Compensating windings are optional.
• They are connected in the same
manner at the interpole windings but
are located in axial slots of the field
shoes.
 Brushes and Brush Rigging
• The brushes, whose function is to collect current from
commutator, are usually made of carbon or graphite
and are in the shape of a rectangular block and
supported from the stator structure by a rigging.
• These brushes are housed in brush-holders usually of the
box-type variety.
• The brushes are made to bear down on the commutator
by a spring whose tension can be adjusted by changing
the position of lever in the notches.
• A flexible copper pigtail (the current is taken from the
brush by means of a flexible copper wire embedded in
the brush, called the pigtail) mounted at the top of the
brush conveys current from the brushes to the holder.
Brushes and Brush Rigging
 Types of DC Generators
• Based on Excitation
– Separately excited
– Self-excited
• Based on Field winding Connection
– Series
– Shunt
– Compound
• Short shunt
• Long shunt
 Separately Excited

VT  Eg  IaRa

Where:
VT – terminal voltage
Eg – generated voltage at the armature
Ia – armature current
Ra – armature winding resistance
 Example
• A 25-kW 125-V separately-excited dc
generator is operated at a constant
speed of 3000 RPM with a constant
field current such that the open-circuit
armature voltage is 125 V. The
armature resistance is 0.02Ω. Compute
the armature current, terminal power,
and electromagnetic power and input
torque when the terminal voltage is
124 V.
Series Generator
VT  Eg  Ia( Ra  Rse)

I F  Ia I L  Ia
Where:
VT – terminal voltage
Eg – generated voltage at the armature
Ia – armature current
IF – field current
IL – load current
Ra – armature winding resistance
Rse – series field winding resistance
 Applications
• These types of generators are restricted
for the use of power supply because of
their increasing terminal voltage
characteristic with the increase in load
current from no load to full load. It can
provide constant current in the dropping
portion of the characteristic curve. For
this property they can be used as
constant current source and employed
for various applications.
 Example
• A DC series generator is supplying a
current of 5A to a series lighting system
through a feeder with a line resistance of
1Ω. The terminal voltage of the generator
is 2500V. The armature and series field
resistance are 18Ω and 15Ω respectively.
A 30Ω diverter is shunted across the series
field. Determine a) the power developed
on the armature of the generator b) the
power delivered to the load.
 Shunt Generator

VT  Eg  IaRa VT
IF  I L  Ia  I F
Where:
Rsh
VT – terminal voltage
Eg – generated voltage at the armature
Ia – armature current
IF – field current
IL – load current
Ra – armature winding resistance
Rsh – shunt field winding resistance
 Conditions For Build-up Of Shunt
Generator
The following conditions must be met to build-up of
a shunt generator:
• Generator poles must have residual magnetism.
• The shunt field coils must be properly connected to
the armature for a given direction of rotation of
armature.
• The resistance of shunt field coil must be less than the
critical resistance if excited on open circuit.
• The shunt field resistance must be greater than some
minimum value if excited on load.
• The critical field resistance is defined as the
maximum field circuit resistance (for a given
speed) with which the shunt generator would
excite.
 Loss And Renewal Of Residual
Magnetism
Method 1
a. Disconnect the field circuit leads from the brushes.
b. Momentarily connect a storage battery or low-voltage dc source to the field circuit
leads. To maintain the desired brush polarity, connect the positive terminal of the battery
to the field lead normally attached to the positive generator brush.

Method 2
a. If it's inconvenient to detach the field leads and the brush assembly can be reached, lift
either the positive or the negative brush and insert a piece of heavy, dry paper between
the brush and the commutator segments.
b. Momentarily connect a battery to the output leads. With the brush lifted, current passes
through the field circuit only. (To maintain the original brush polarity, connect the positive
terminal of the battery to the positive generator output terminal.)
c. Remove the paper under the brush before restarting the generator.

Method 3
a. If it can be done readily, disconnect the generator from its prime mover.
b. Then, restore the residual field by momentarily connecting a battery to the generator
output leads. Since the field circuit's connected across the output leads, the current
renews the magnetic field.
 Applications
• The application of shunt generators are very much
restricted for its dropping voltage characteristic. They
are used to supply power to the apparatus situated very
close to its position. These type of DC generators
generally give constant terminal voltage for small
distance operation with the help of field regulators from
no load to full load.
a. They are used for general lighting.
b. They are used to charge batteries because they can
be made to give constant output voltage.
c. They are used for giving the excitation to the
alternators.
d. They are also used for small power supply.
 Example
• A 100-kW, 250-V DC shunt generator
has an armature resistance of 0.05Ω
and field circuit resistance of 60Ω. With
the generator operating at rated
voltage, determine the induced
voltage at (a) full load, and (b) half-full
load.
 Assignment
A 4-pole DC shunt generator with a shunt
field and armature resistance of 100Ω and
1Ω respectively .The flux per pole is 0.02Wb.
If the load resistance of 10Ω is connected
across the output terminals of the
generator running at 1000 RPM, calculate
the power absorbed by the load if:
a. it has 378 wave connected conductors
in its armature.
b. it has 378 lap connected conductors in
its armature.
 Compound Generator
• Series-wound and shunt-wound generators
have a disadvantage in that changes in load
current cause changes in generator output
voltage. Many applications in which
generators are used require a more stable
output voltage than can be supplied by a
series-wound or shunt- wound generator.
• The compound generator has a field winding
in parallel with the generator armature (the
same as a shunt-wound generator) and a
field winding in series with the generator
armature.
 Types of Compounding
• Differentially compounded - If the two fields are wound so that
their flux fields oppose one another.
• Cumulatively compounded - If the two fields of a compound
generator are wound so that their magnetic fields aid one
another.
– Flat compounded - Flat compound generators have the same
voltage output at no load and full load. In industry, this type of
generator is used where the distance between the generator
and the load is short and line resistance is minimal.
– Over compounded - A large number of turns in the series winding
produces over-compounding (a voltage increase at full load as
compared to the output voltage at no load). Over compounding
generators are used when the transmission distance is long, as in
traction service, and the voltage at the end of the line must
remain fairly constant.
– Under compounded - A small number of series turns produces a
reduced voltage at full load.
 Types of Compounding
• A comparison of the voltage regulation of a
shunt generator and a compound generator for
both cumulative and differential connections .
 Short-Shunt
VT  Eg  IaRa  I L Rse
Eg  IaRa
IF 
Rsh
I L  Ia  I F

Where:
VT – terminal voltage
Eg – generated voltage at the armature
Ia – armature current
IF – field current
IL – load current
Ra – armature winding resistance
Rse – series field winding resistance
Rsh – shunt field winding resistance
 Long Shunt

VT  Eg  Ia( Ra  Rse)
VT
IF 
Rsh
I L  Ia  I F
Where:
VT – terminal voltage
Eg – generated voltage at the armature
Ia – armature current
IF – field current
IL – load current
Ra – armature winding resistance
Rse – series field winding resistance
Rsh – shunt field winding resistance
 Applications
• Among various types of DC generators, the compound wound DC
generators are most widely used because of its compensating
property. We can get desired terminal voltage by compensating the
drop due to armature reaction and ohmic drop in the in the line.
Such generators have various applications.

a. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used

lighting, power supply purpose and for heavy power services
because of their constant voltage property. They are mainly made
over compounded.
b. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving
a motor.
c. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels,
offices, homes and lodges, the flat compounded generators are
generally used.
d. The differential compound wound generators, because of their
large demagnetization armature reaction, are used for arc welding
where huge voltage drop and constant current is required.
 Example
• A compound generator has the
following parameters: Ra = 0.1Ω, Rse =
0.05Ω, and Rsh = 120Ω. The machine
supplies an aggregate load of 10 kW.
The generated voltage at the
armature is 264V. Determine the
terminal voltage if the generator is
connected as a) long shunt b) short
shunt
 Losses in DC Machines
• Mechanical
– Friction between bearings
– Friction between brushes and commutator
– Drag of the armature
• Magnetic
– Hysteresis
– Eddy-current
• Rotational
– Sum of magnetic and mechanical loss
• Copper
– Armature
– Series field
– Shunt field
– Interpoles
– Compensating windings
• Stray load
– the distorted flux due to armature reaction and
– short-circuit currents in the coils undergoing commutation
– As a rule of thumb, the stray-load loss is assumed to be 1% of the power output
in large machines
 Efficiency
• The efficiency of a machine is simply the ratio of its
power output to the power input.
• Maximum efficiency occurs when the rotational loss
(constant) is equal to the copper loss (variable). Brush
contact loss is considered as rotational loss.

POUT
 x100 POUT  PIN  PLoss
PIN
Where:
POUT – power at the generator terminal
PIN – power generated at the armature
PLOSS – total power loss of the generator
 Voltage Regulation
• It is the measure of terminal voltage
drop from no load to full load of a
generator.
VNL  VFL
%VR  x100
VFL
Where:
VNL – no load terminal voltage
VFL – full load terminal voltage
 Example
• A 240V, 40A, PM DC generator is rated
at a speed of 2000 rpm. The armature-
winding resistance is 0.4Ω. The
rotational loss is 10% of the power
developed by the generator at full
load. If the generator is operating in
the linear range, determine (a) the no-
load voltage, (b) the voltage
regulation, (c) the applied torque, and
(d) the efficiency of the generator.
 Example
• A long shunt DC generator gives 240V
at full load output of 100A. The
resistance of various windings are: Ra
=0.125Ω, Rse = 0.02Ω, Rsh = 100Ω. The
iron loss at full load is 1000W, windage
and friction loss totals to 500W.
a. Calculate the full load efficiency.
b. Calculate the voltage regulation of the
generator.
 Quiz
• The field current of a 180kW, 250V DC
shunt generator is 6A when running full
load at rated terminal voltage. If the
combined armature and brush
resistance is 0.02Ω, solve for the
electrical efficiency of the generator.
 Example
• A 30 kW series generator has an
efficiency of 88% when operating at
rated load. If the stray power loss is
15% of the full load losses, calculate
the maximum efficiency of the
generator. Assume that the stray
power loss is constant and the other
losses vary as square of the load.
 Operating Characteristics of a
DC Generator
• As the DC generator load increases, its
terminal voltage decreases.

VNL

ΔV VNL  VFL

VNEW
ΔI I FL
ΔV
VFL
ΔI

INEW IFL
 Example
• A DC shunt generator supplies 40A to
a load with a terminal voltage of 240V.
Its shunt field and armature resistance
are 100Ω and 0.5Ω respectively. What
will be its terminal voltage when the
load is halved?
 Quiz
• A 50kW, 220V DC generator has a
voltage regulation of 10%. It is
connected in parallel with a battery of
115 cells, each with an EMF of 2V and
an internal resistance of 0.01Ω. What
current will the battery carry if by
accident the load connected to the
parallel combination is trip off?
 DC Generators in Parallel
• Requirements
– The same external characteristics
– Terminal polarity must be the same
– Terminal voltage must be equal in
magnitude
 Advantages
a. Continuity of service: If a single large generator is used in the power plant, then in
case of its breakdown, the whole plant will be shut down. However, if power is
supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in case of failure
of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units.
b. Efficiency: Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated capacity.
Therefore, when load demand on power plant decreases, one or more
generators can be shut down and the remaining units can be efficiently loaded.
c. Maintenance and repair: Generators generally require routine maintenance and
repair. Therefore, if generators are operated in parallel, the routine or emergency
operations can be performed by isolating the affected generator while load is
being supplied by other units. This leads to both safety and economy.
d. Increasing plant capacity: In the modern world of increasing population, the use
of electricity is continuously increasing. When added capacity is required, the
new unit can be simply paralleled with the old units.
e. Non-availability of single large unit: In many situations, a single unit of desired
large capacity may not be available. In that case a number of smaller units can
be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a single large
unit is more expensive.
DC Generators in Parallel

VNLa

VNLb
VBUS due to decrease in bus load
VBUS
VBUS due to increase in bus load
VFLb
VFLa

Ia IFLa Ib IFLb
 Example
• Two shunt generators are operating in parallel
to deliver a total current of 3000A. The rating
of each generator are as follows:
Gen1 Gen2
VNL 125V 125V
VT 110V 115V
Rated kW 200kW 250kW

Assume both machines have external

characteristics which is straight line over
their operating ranges. Find the operating
voltage.
 Example
• Two shunt generator are connected in
parallel and giving out a total power of
320kW. The data for each generator are:
Gen1 Gen2
Ra 0.02Ω 0.025Ω
Eg 450V 460V

• Find the kW output of generator 1.

Neglect the shunt field current.
 DC Motors
• Direct current motors are seldom used in
ordinary industrial applications because
all electric utilities supply AC. However,
for special applications such as in steel
mills, mines, and electric trains, it is
sometimes advantageous to transform
the AC into DC in order to use DC motors.
The reason is that the torque-speed
characteristics of DC motors can be
varied over a wide range while retaining
high efficiency.
 DC Motors
• In a dc motor, a uniform magnetic field is created by its poles.
The armature conductors are forced to carry current by
connecting them to a dc power source. The current direction
in the conductors under each pole is kept the same by the
commutator.
• According to the Lorentz force equation, a current-carrying
conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a
force that tends to move it. This is essentially the principle of
operation of a dc motor. All the conductors placed on the
periphery of a dc motor are subjected to these forces, as
shown in the figure. These forces cause the armature to rotate
in the clockwise direction.
• Therefore, the armature of a dc motor rotates in the direction
of the torque developed by the motor. For this reason, the
torque developed by the motor is called the driving torque.
 DC Motors Back EMF
• Direct current motors are built the same way as
generators are; consequently, a DC machine can
operate either as a motor or as a generator.
• When a motor spins, a voltage is induced in the same
manner as a generator. This voltage opposes the motor
supply voltage, and is known as back EMF Eb.
PNZ
Eb  x108
60a
Where:
Eb – back EMF
Ф- flux per pole, Maxwell
P – number of poles
N – speed of the armature, RPM
Z – total number of armature conductors
a – number of armature current paths
connected in parallel
 Acceleration of DC Motors
• The net voltage acting on the armature circuit of a DC motor
is (Es-Eb) volts. The resulting current is limited only by the
armature resistance R, and so
I = (Es-Eb)/R
• When the motor is at rest, the induced voltage Eb = 0, and so
the starting current is
Is = Es/R
• The starting current produces a powerful starting torque that
rapidly accelerates the rotor. As the speed increases, the
back EMF increases, with the result that the armature current
falls.
• The motor continues to accelerate until it reaches the no-load
speed. At this speed a back EMF is produced that is slightly less
than the supply voltage. The slight voltage difference results in
a small no-load current that produces sufficient torque to
overcome friction.
 Mechanical power and torque
Power:
• We know that Eb = KΦN.
• We also know that the electrical power supplied to the
armature is given by:
Pa = EsIL
• Furthermore, the supply voltage is the sum of the back EMF
and the resistive drop in the armature: Es = Eb + IaRa
• It follows that Pa = EbIa + Ia2Ra
• The Ia2Ra term represents heat losses in the armature.
• The EbIa term is the electrical power that is converted to
mechanical power:
Pm = EbIa
• In reality, the actual mechanical output power is slightly less
than Pm due to bearing friction losses, windage losses and
armature iron losses.
 Mechanical power and torque
Torque:
• We also know that the mechanical power is
given by : Pm = 2πNT/60 = Tω.
ω= 2πN/60 – angular velocity
• Therefore we may write 2πNT/60 = CNΦI/60
• T = CΦI/2π = KTI where KT = CΦ/2π
• KT is known as the torque constant (Nm/A) of
the motor.
• This shows that we can increase the torque of
the motor either by raising the armature
current or by raising the pole flux.
 DC Motors: Speed of Rotation
• When a DC motor drives a load between no-
load and full-load, the voltage drop due to
armature resistance is always small compared to
the supply voltage (IR << Es). Therefore, Eb ≈ Es
• So we may write:
Es ≈ kNΦ/60 or N ≈ 60 Es/kΦ
k= PZ/a
• If the motor speed is expressed in radians per
second, we may write:
ω = 2π Es/kΦ = Es/Ke where Ke = kΦ/2π
• Ke is known as the speed constant (Vs/rad) of the
motor
Torque and Speed Constants
• When expressed in SI units, the torque
and speed constants are exactly the
same
Ke = KT = kΦ/2π
 Types of DC Motors
• Separately Excited
• Self -Excited
– Shunt Motors
– Series Motors
– Compound Motors
 Shunt Motor
Ia  I L  Ish
Eb  VT  IaRa  K
PZ
K
2a
Where:
Ra – armature winding 2N
resistance 
Rsh – shunt field winding 60
resistance
Ia – armature current
Pd  EbIa  T
Ish – shunt field current
IL – supply line current
T  KIa
VT – supply terminal voltage
Eb – back EMF
 Example
• A 120V DC shunt motor having an armature
resistance of 0.2Ω and a field resistance of
60Ω draws a line current of 40A at full load.
The brush drop is 3V and the rated full load
speed is 1800 RPM. Calculate the speed at
half load assuming that the brush drop is
constant.
• A 250V DC shunt motor has an armature
resistance of 0.025Ω, on load it takes an
armature current of 50A and runs at 750 RPM.
If the flux of the motor is reduced by 10%
without changing the load torque, find the
new speed of the motor.
 Series Motor
Ia  I L  I SE
Eb  VT  Ia ( Ra  RSE )  K  KIa
PZ
K
2a
2N
Where: 
Ra – armature winding 60
resistance
RSE – series field winding
Pd  EbIa  T
resistance
T  KIa  KIa 2
Ia – armature current
ISE – series field current
IL – supply line current
VT – supply terminal voltage
Eb – back EMF
 Example
• A 400V DC series motor has a field resistance of
0.2Ω and an armature resistance of 0.1Ω. The
motor takes 30A of current at 1000 RPM while
developing a full load torque. What is the motor
speed when this motor develops 60% of full load
torque?
• The armature winding of a 200V 4-pole series
motor is lap connected. There are 280 slots in the
armature and each slot has 4 conductors. The
armature current is 45A and the flux per pole is
18mWb. The field resistance is 0.3Ω and the
armature resistance is 0.5Ω. If the motor pulls a
load through a 40cm diameter pulley, find the
force in Newton exerted at the rim of the pulley.
 Compound Motors
Ia  I L  I SH
Eb  VT  Ia ( Ra )  I L ( RSE )
Eb  KTotal
2N

60
Pd  EbIa  T
Short Shunt

Ia  I L  I SH
Eb  VT  Ia ( Ra  RSE )
Eb  KTotal
2N

60
Pd  EbIa  T
Long Shunt
 Example
• A 240V long shunt DC motor draws a line
current of 50A. The armature, series field, and
shunt field resistances are 0.1 Ω, 0.2 Ω, and
240 Ω respectively. If the rotational loss of the
motor is 300W, determine the efficiency of the
motor.
• A 230V DC short shunt motor draws an
armature current of 50A. The armature, series
field, and shunt field resistances are 0.1 Ω, 0.2
Ω, and 100 Ω respectively. Find the power
developed in the shaft and express your
answer in horsepower.
 Determining Constant Loss of a
DC Motor
• When the motor is run at no load, the
stray power loss can be determined.
At no load:
PSTRAY  PinNL  Pcu NL
 Example
• The input current of a 220V short shunt
compound motor at no load is 6A. The
shunt field, series field and armature
resistances of the motor are 220 Ω,
0.08 Ω, and 0.10 Ω respectively. What is
the stray power loss of the motor?
 Quiz
• A shunt motor running at 600 RPM
takes 80A line current at 250V. The
armature and field winding resistance
are 0.1 Ω and 50 Ω respectively. If the
rotational loss is 2188W, determine the
output torque at the shaft.
 Prony Brake Test
• This test is used to determine the output power
of the motor. The process starts with the
determination of the output torque.
T  ( Scale reading  Dead weight ) x lenght of arm
P  T
1lb = 4.448N
 Example
• A shunt motor was tested by means of a
prony brake test having a length of 3.5 ft
and a tare weight of 5.7 lbs. The current
drawn by the machine from a 240V line
was 50.9A when the scale reading was 24
lbs and the speed of the motor was 1215
RPM. Calculate the rotational losses of
the motor. The armature and the shunt
field resistances of the machine are 0.25
Ω and 120 Ω respectively.
 Example
• A shunt motor was subjected to a
pony brake test and the following
data was gathered: IL = 19.8A, VL =
230V, Scale reading = 12 lbs corrected
for zero reading, arm length = 2 ft, N =
1100 RPM. Calculate the efficiency of
the motor.
 Starting a DC Motor
• At the time of starting, the back emf in the motor is zero
because the armature is not rotating. For a small value
of the armature-circuit resistance R, the starting current
in the armature will be extremely high if the rated value
of V, is impressed across the armature terminals. The
excessive current can cause permanent damage to the
armature windings. Thus, a dc motor should never be
started at its rated voltage. In order to start a dc motor,
an external resistance must be added in series with the
armature circuit. The external resistance is gradually
decreased as the armature comes up to speed. Finally,
when the armature has attained its normal speed, the
external resistance is "cut out" of the armature circuit.

VT  Eb at starting Eb = 0 VT
Ia  thus Iastart 
Ra Ra
 Types of DC Motor Starters
• Three point Starter
 In order to start the motor, one hand is held on the handle of the
open main switch while the starter arm is moved to the first stud
with the other hand; then the main switch is closed. If all the wiring
is correct and the armature is free to turn, the motor will start.
 After the armature has accelerated sufficiently on the first stud, the
starter arm is slowly moved to studs 2, 3, 4 etc. until the arm rests
firmly against the iron poles of the holding coil electromagnet. The
entire starting process should take from 5 to 10 seconds. In the final
position, the electromagnetic pull exerted by the holding coil will
be greater than the force exerted by the spiral spring.
Three point Starter
 Types of DC Motor Starters
Four Point Starter
 In addition to the same tree-points that were used with the
three-point starter, the other side of the line, L1 is the fourth
point brought to the starter. The coil of the holding magnet is
connected across the line when the arm is moved from the off
position. The holding magnet and starting resistors function as
in the three-point starter. The possibility of accidentally
opening the field circuit is quite remote; hence the greater
acceptance of the four-point starter over the three-point
starter.
Four Point Starter
 Example
• A 15hp, 220V DC shunt motor has an
efficiency of 85% at rated load. The
armature and field resistance are 0.25 Ω
and 100 Ω respectively.
a. Determine the starting resistance that
must be connected in series with the
armature so that the armature current
does not exceed 150% of the full load
value.
b. Determine the efficiency of the motor
under condition described in a.
 Speed Regulation
• The armature current of a motor increases with load. For a constant
applied voltage, the increase in the armature current results in a
decrease in the back emf. The reduction in the back emf causes a
drop in the speed of the motor. The speed regulation is a measure of
the change in speed from no load to full load. When the change in
speed at full load is expressed as a percent of its full-load speed, it is
called the percent speed regulation (SR%). In equation form, the
percent speed regulation is
N NL  N FL  NL   FL
SR%  x100  x100
N FL  FL

(a)a series motor is a variable-speed motor because its speed regulation

is very high,
(b) a shunt motor is essentially a constant-speed motor because its
speed regulation is very small, and
(c) a compound motor is a variable-speed motor because its speed
regulation is higher than that of the shunt motor.
 Example
• A 15hp, 230V, 1400 RPM DC shunt
motor has a full load line current of
57.1 A. The armature and shunt field
resistances are 0.13 Ω and 115 Ω
respectively. Armature reaction is
neglected.
a. Determine the no load speed of the
motor.
b. Determine the speed regulation.
 Applications of DC Motors
• D.C. Shunt Motor
– lathes, fans, pumps disc and band saw
drive requiring moderate torques.
• D.C. Series Motor
– Electric traction, high speed tools
• D.C. Compound Motor
– Rolling mills and other loads requiring
large momentary toques.
 Motor Load Types
Constant Torque Load
In this group, the torque demanded by
the load is constant throughout the
speed change
 Motor Load Types
• The load requires the same amount of
torque at low speeds as at high
speeds. Loads of this type are
essentially friction loads.
• Examples: Conveyors, Extruders, and
Surface Winders
 Motor Load Types
Constant Power Load
The power output demanded by the load is
constant within the speed range. The load
requires high torque at low speeds. The speed
varies inversely proportional to the torque.

Examples: Center-driven winders and

Machine tool spindles
 Motor Load Types
• Variable torque load

The torque varies with of the speed:

Example: Positive displacement pumps, some mixers, some extruders.
The torque varies as square of speed:
Example: All centrifugal pumps and some fans.
 Speed Control for Shunt DC
Motors
• Adding resistance in the armature.
Adding resistance in the armature circuit
will decrease the motor speed.
• Reducing the terminal voltage. Reducing
the terminal voltage of the motor will
reduce the speed of the motor.
• Reducing the field flux. Reducing the field
voltage will reduce the field flux that will
increase the speed of the motor.
 Adding Resistance to the
Armature Circuit
• A 150V DC shunt motor drives a constant torque
load at a speed of 1200 RPM. The armature and
field resistances are 1Ω and 150Ω respectively.
The motor draws a line current of 10A at the given
load.
a. Calculate the resistance that will be added to
the armature circuit to reduce the speed by 50%.
b. Assume a rotational loss of 100W. Calculate the
efficiency of the motor with the added resistance.
c. Calculate the resistance that will be added to
the armature circuit to operate the motor at hold
position.
 Reducing the terminal voltage
• A DC shunt motor drives a centrifugal
pump at a speed of 1000 RPM when the
terminal voltage and the line currents are
200V and 50A respectively. The armature
and field resistances are 1Ω and 100Ω
respectively.
a. Design a starting resistance for a
maximum starting current of 120A in the
armature circuit.
b. If the terminal voltage is reduced by
25%, what is the speed of the motor?
 Adjusting the field flux
• A 150V DC shunt motor drives a constant torque
load at a speed of 1200 RPM. The armature and
field resistances are 2Ω and 150Ω respectively.
The motor draws a line current of 10A. Assume
that a resistance is added in the field circuit to
reduce the current by 20%. Calculate:
a. The armature current
b. The motor speed
c. The value of the added resistance.
d. The extra field losses.
Note: Assume that the field flux is linearly
proportional to the field current.
 Quiz
A 600V DC shunt motor has an armature and
field resistances of 1.5Ω and 600 Ω respectively.
When the motor runs unloaded, the line current
is 3A and the speed is 1000 RPM.
a. Calculate the speed when the load
draws an armature current of 30A.
b. If the load is constant-torque type, what
is the motor speed when a 3Ω resistance is
added to the armature circuit?
c. Calculate the motor speed if the field
flux is reduced by 10%.
 Speed Control for DC Series
Motor
• The three methods of controlling the
speed of the series motor are:
– Adding resistance to the armature circuit.
– Adjusting the armature voltage.
– Adjusting the field current.

Td  KIa 2

  KIa
 Adding Resistance to the
Armature Circuit
• A 20-hp, 440-V series motor is 87%
efficient when it delivers the rated load
at 900 rpm. The armature-circuit
resistance is 0.3 Ω, and the series field
resistance is 0.2 Ω. If an external
resistance of 2.5 Ω is inserted in the
armature circuit and the load is
reduced by 20%, determine the motor
speed.
 Reducing the terminal voltage
• A DC series motor is driving a fan-type
load. The armature and field
resistances are 2Ω and 3Ω respectively.
The terminal voltage is 200V, the motor
speed is 250 RPM, and the armature
current is 10A. Assume that the motor
operates at the linear region.
Calculate the terminal voltage
needed to reduce the speed to 100
RPM.
 Adjusting the field flux
• A DC series motor has an armature
and field resistances of 2Ω and 3Ω
respectively. The terminal voltage is
320V and the full load torque is 60 Nm,
the speed is 600 RPM. If a 6Ω resistor is
shunted to the field circuit, calculate
the motor speed.
 Quiz
• A 120-V series motor takes 20 A when it
delivers the rated load at 1600 rpm. The
armature resistance is 0.5 Ω and the series
field resistance is 0.3Ω.
a. Determine the resistance that must
be added to obtain the rated torque
at 1400 RPM.
b. If the terminal voltage is reduced,
what will be its value to obtain the
rated output power at 1200 RPM.
 Ward Leonard Method
• Ward Leonard method of speed control is
used for controlling the speed of a DC motor.
It is a basic armature control method. This
control system is consisting of a dc motor M1
and powered by a DC generator G. In this
method the speed of the dc motor (M1) is
controlled by applying variable voltage
across its armature. This variable voltage is
obtained using a motor-generator set which
consists of a motor M2(either ac or dc motor)
directly coupled with the generator G. It is a
very widely used method of speed control of
DC motor.
Ward Leonard Method
Advantages and Disadvantages
of Ward-Leonard System
• Advantages
– It is a very smooth speed control system over a very
wide range (from zero to normal speed of the motor).
– The speed can be controlled in both the direction of
rotation of the motor easily.
– The motor can run with a uniform acceleration.
– Speed regulation of DC motor in this ward Leonard
system is very good.
• Disadvantages
– The system is very costly because two extra machines
(motor-generator set) are required.
– Overall efficiency of the system is not sufficient
especially it is lightly loaded.
 Braking and Reversing of DC
Motor
• Plugging or Counter-current Braking
Stopping and/or reversing the direction of a dc motor merely by
reversing the supply connections to the armature terminals is known
as plugging or counter-current braking. The field-winding
connections for shunt motors are left undisturbed. This method is
employed to control the dc motors used in elevators, rolling mills,
printing presses, and machine tools, to name just a few.

Just prior to plugging, the back emf in the motor is opposing the
applied source voltage. Because the armature resistance is usually
very small, the back emf is almost equal and opposite to the applied
voltage. At the instant the motor is plugged, the back emf and the
applied voltage are in the same direction. Thus, the total voltage in
the armature circuit is almost twice as much as the applied voltage.
To protect the motor from a sudden increase in the armature current,
an external resistance must be added in series with the armature
circuit.
 Braking and Reversing of DC
Motor
• Plugging
During braking:
VT  Eb
Ia 
R  Ra
Tb  KIa

Where:
Ia – armature current during the plugging
Tb – braking torque produced
 Braking and Reversing of DC
Motor
• Example
A 400-V shunt motor draws 30 A while supplying
the rated load at a speed of 100 rad/s. The
armature resistance is 1.0Ω and the field-winding
resistance is 200Ω.
a. Determine the external resistance that must be
inserted in series with the armature circuit so that
the armature current does not exceed 150% of its
rated value when the motor is plugged.
b. Determine the braking torque
-at the instant of plugging and
-when the motor is approaching zero speed.
 Braking and Reversing of DC
Motor
• Dynamic Braking

If the armature winding of a dc motor is suddenly disconnected from the

source, the motor will coast to a stop. The time taken by the motor to come to
rest depends upon the kinetic energy stored in the rotating system.

Dynamic braking, on the other hand, makes use of the back emf in the motor
in order to stop it quickly. If the armature winding, after being disconnected
from the source, is connected across a variable resistance R, the back emf will
produce a current in the reverse direction. A current in the reverse direction in
the armature winding results in a torque that opposes the rotation and forces
the motor to come to a halt.

The dynamic braking effect is controlled by varying R. At the time of dynamic

braking, R is selected to limit the inrush of armature current to about 150% of its
rated value. As the motor speed falls, so does the induced emf and the
current through R. Thus, the dynamic braking action is maximum at first and
diminishes to zero as the motor comes to a stop.
 Braking and Reversing of DC
Motor
• Dynamic Braking
During the braking process:

Eb
Ia 
R  Ra
Tb  KIa  shunt
Tb  KIa  series
2
 Braking and Reversing of DC
Motor
• Example:
A 400-V shunt motor draws 30 A while
supplying the rated load at a speed of
100 rad/s. The armature resistance is 1.0Ω
and the field-winding resistance is 200Ω.
a. Determine the external resistance that
must be connected across the terminals
of the motor to reduce the speed to 50
rad/sec when using dynamic braking.
 Braking and Reversing of DC
Motor
• Regenerative Braking
Regenerative braking is used in applications in which the motor
speed is likely to increase from its rated value. Such applications
include electric trains, elevators, cranes, and hoists.

Under normal operation of a dc motor, say a permanent-magnet

(PM) motor in an electric train, the back emf is slightly less than the
applied voltage. Note that the back emf in a PM motor is directly
proportional to the motor speed. Now assume that the train is going
downhill. As the motor speed increases, so does the back emf in the
motor. If the back emf becomes higher than the applied voltage,
the current in the armature winding reverses its direction and the
motor becomes a generator. It sends power back to the source
and/or other devices operating from the same source. The reversal of
armature current produces a torque in a direction opposite to the
motor speed. Consequently, the motor speed falls until the back emf
in the motor is less than the applied voltage. The regenerative action
not only controls the speed of the motor but also develops power
that may be used elsewhere.