Niharika Gottipati

Class IX

Science​:
Physics​-
Chapter-8-Motion-
Motion:
- Reference Point: A fixed point, with respect to which a body is in rest or motion.
- Rest: If a body’s position does not change with respect to a reference point, it is at rest.
- Motion: If a body’s position changes with respect to a reference point, it is in motion.
● Rest and motion are relative terms.

Scalar & Vector:

- Scalar (Scalar Physical Quantity): A physical quantity which has only magnitude, but no
direction.
- Vector (Vector Quantity): A physical quantity which has both magnitude, and direction.

Distance and Displacement:

- Distance (s): The total length of the path traveled by an object, between its initial and final points.
SI Unit: metre (m), It is a scalar.
- Displacement (s): The shortest length of the path traveled by an object, between its initial and
final points. SI Unit: metre (m), It is a vector.
● If the path traveled by an object is a straight line, and the object does not retrace its path, distance
is equal to displacement.
● An odometer is used to measure the distance traveled by a vehicle.

Speed, Velocity & Acceleration:

- Velocity (v): The displacement of an object, per unit time. v=s/t; SI Unit: m/s, It is a vector.
- Uniform Velocity: If the body travels in equal intervals of displacement, in equal intervals of
time, it has uniform velocity.
- Non-Uniform Velocity: If the body does not travel in equal intervals of displacement, in equal
intervals of time, it has non-uniform velocity.
- Average Velocity: The ratio of total displacement, to the total time taken.
- Instantaneous Velocity: Velocity at an instant of time.
- Speed (v): The distance traveled by an object, per unit time. v=s/t; SI Unit: m/s, It is a scalar.
- Uniform Speed: If the body travels in equal intervals of distance, in equal intervals of time, it
has uniform speed.
- Non-Uniform Speed: If the body does not travel in equal intervals of distance, in equal
intervals of time, it has non-uniform speed.
- Average Speed: The ratio of total distance, to the total time taken.
- Instantaneous Speed: Speed at an instant of time.
 ● If the path traveled by an object is a straight line, speed is equal to velocity.
● There is a change in velocity, if the magnitude, direction, or both magnitude and direction change.
- Acceleration (a): Rate of change of velocity (or) Change of velocity per unit time ∆v/t; SI Unit:
ms^-2; It is a vector
- Uniform Acceleration: If the body has equal changes in velocity, in equal intervals of time, it
has uniform acceleration.
- Non-Uniform Acceleration: If the body does not have equal changes in velocity, in equal
intervals of time, it has non-uniform acceleration.
- Average Acceleration: The ratio of distance accelerated, to the total time taken.
- Instantaneous Acceleration: Acceleration at an instant of time.

Graphs & Derivations:

- s-t Graph (or) Distance-Time Graph

● (Left) s-t Graph with Uniform Speed

● (Right) s-t Graph with Non-Uniform Speed
- v-t Graph (or) Velocity-Time Graph

● (Left) v-t Graph with Uniform Acceleration

● (Right) v-t Graph with Uniform Velocity
- v-t Graph Derivation:
 - u = Initial Velocity
v = Final Velocity
t = Time
a = Acceleration
s = Distance
- a = (v-u) ÷ t
v-u = at
t = (v-u) ÷ a
v = u + at (1)
- Displacement (s) = Area of Trapezoid OABD=
= s = (OA+BD) ÷ 2 • AC
= (v+u) ÷ 2 • t
= [(v+u) ÷ 2] [(v-u) ÷ a]
v^2-u^2 = 2as (2)
- Displacement (s) = Area of Triangle ABC + Area of Rectangle OACD =
= s = (½•AC•BC) + (AC+OA) =
= [½•t•(v-u)] + ut
= (½•t•at) + ut
s = ut + ½at^2 (3)
- The Three Equations of Motion:
● v = u + at
● s = ut + ½ at^2
● 2as = v^2-u^2

Chapter-9-Force and Laws of Motion-

Types of Forces:
- Effects of Force:
● Force can change direction of a body
● Force can change the state of motion of a body
● Force can change the state of rest of a body
● Force can change the shape of a body
● Force can change the size of a body
 - Balanced Force: A balanced force does not change the state of motion, or the state of rest of a
body.
- Unbalanced Force: An unbalanced force is when the forces acting on an object are not balanced,
the unbalanced force acts in the direction the object moves.
● An unbalanced force acting on a body in rest, brings it into motion.

Newton’s Laws of Motion:

- Newton’s First Law of Motion: Every body continues to be in a state of rest or uniform motion,
until(unless) an external unbalanced force acts on it to change that state.
- Inertia: Inertia is the tendency of bodies to resist change in their state of motion, or state of rest.
The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia, larger bodies offer more inertia.
There are three types of inertia:
● Inertia of Rest: The inability of a body to change its state of rest on its own.
● Inertia of Motion: The inability of a body to change its state of motion on it’s own.
● Inertia of Direction: The inability of a body to change its direction of motion on its own.
- Newton’s Second Law of Motion: The rate of change of momentum of a body, is directly
proportional to the external unbalanced force acting on it.
Example-
● A body of mass ‘m’ is initially moving with velocity ‘u’
● Initial Momentum- p​i​ = mu
● Final Momentum- p​f​ = mv
● Rate of change of momentum = ∆p/t = p​f​ - p​i​/t = mv-mu/t = m(v-u)/t = m • t • a/t = ma
● ∆p/t ∝ F (External Force) & F (External Force) ∝ ma
● F = kma (‘k’ is a constant of proportionality; in SI k =1)
● F = ma
- Force (F): Force is anything that tries to change (and if powerful enough, changes) the state of a
body. It is measured in F=ma. SI Unit is kg-m-s^-2 (or) Newton (N), It is a vector
● The minimum number of objects required for a force/object relationship is 2, one object that the
force is acting upon, and one object that is the force acting upon it.
● Force arises due to the interaction of two objects.
● Net Force or Resultant Force of an object is the sum of the total forces acting on it (including
negative numbers).
- Momentum (p): The product of mass (m), and velocity (v). p = m • v; SI Unit: kg-m-s^-1, Is is a
vector.
- Impulse (I): The product of force (F), and time (t), I = Ft; Si Unit: NS, It is a vector
● Impulsive Force: A large amount of force, acting for a very small interval of time
- Newton’s Third Law of Motion: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
● Action and reaction always act on different bodies.
- Law of Conservation of Momentum: In the absence of an external force, the total momentum of a
system of bodies is constant (conserved).
Example-
● Let two bodies, of mass ‘m​a​’ and ‘m​b​’, be initially moving with velocities ‘u​a​’ and ‘u​b​’
● ‘u​a​’ > ‘u​b​’, and ‘m​a​’ is moving towards ‘m​b​’
 ● Therefore they collide
● Let the two bodies move with velocities ‘v​a​’ and ‘v​b​’ after the collision.
● According to Newton’s III law, F​ab​ = -(F​ba​)
● (v​a​-u​a​)/t • m​a = ​(v​b​-u​b​)/t • m
● ​m​a​v​a ​- m​a​u​a ​= - m​b​v​b​ + m​b​u​b
● m​a​v​a + ​m​b​v​b = ​m​a​u​a + ​m​b​u​b
● p​i​ = p​f
● Hence, the law is proven.

Numericals:
- Recoil Velocity of a Gun

Chapter-10-Gravitation-
Universal Law of Gravitation: The Universal Law of Gravitation was given by Sir Isaac Newton, it states
that “Every object in the universe attracts every other object in the universe, with a force directly
proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance in
between them” The force is along the line, which is formed by joining the centers of the two objects.
- Example:
Let two objects of masses ‘M’ and ‘m’, be of distance ‘d’ from each other:

According to the universal law of gravitation:

F ∝ Mm (1)
F ∝ 1/d^2 (2)
Combining the Two Equations:
F ∝ Mm/d^2
(or) F = Mm/d^2 • G (3)
(or) F • d^2 = Mm • G
(or) G = (F • d^2)/Mm
- Universal Gravitational Constant (G): ‘G’ is a constant of proportionality; It is a constant, equal
to the force of attraction between two objects of 1 kg., separated by 1m. It is the same anywhere
in the universe.; It is a Scalar Quantity; SI Unit : N m^2 • kg^-2
- The universal law of gravitation has explained several phenomena, including:
● The force that binds us to the Earth (Due to the fact that the Earth attracts us with a much larger
force, than with which we attract the Earth, because of the difference in mass)
● The motion of the moon around the Earth (The moon orbits the Earth due to centripetal force,
which is due to the fact that the Earth attracts the moon, because of the difference in mass)
● The motion of the planets around the sun (The planets orbit the sun due to centripetal force,
which is due to the fact that the sun attracts the planets, because of the difference in mass)
 ● The tides (in water) on Earth, due to the moon (or) the sun (Due to the fact that the mass of the
moon/sun is greater than the mass of the water on the surface of the earth, and this force of
attraction creates tides)

Free Fall: ‘Free Fall’ is a term used to describe the motion of an object, under the influence of gravity
alone.
- Acceleration due to Gravity (g): ‘g’ is the acceleration of an object due to the gravitational force
of the Earth (or any other body). ‘g’ varies based on location, and is greater on the poles of the
Earth, than the equator, however, ‘g’ is taken as 9.8 ms^-2 on Earth. The SI unit is ms^-2 (same
as acceleration). Hence, F = mg. (4) Combining equations (3) & (4):
mg = Mm/d^2 • G (Where: ‘M’ is the mass of the Earth; ‘d’ is the distance between the object,
and the Earth)
(or) g = M/d^2 • G
When an object is on the surface of the Earth, the value of ‘d’ becomes ‘R’ (The radius of the
Earth):
mg = Mm/R^2 • G
(or) g = M/R^2 • G
● Due to the fact that the acceleration experienced by an object during free fall is independent of
mass, all objects accelerate during free fall at the same rate. This was theorized and proven, by
Galileo Galilei, who dropped different objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, in Italy, to prove
such.
● The acceleration in the equations of motion can be replaced by ‘g’(‘g’ is positive, when it is in the
direction of the velocity):
○ v = u + gt
○ s = ut + ½gt^2
○ 2gs = v^2-u^2
● When an object is thrown vertically upwards:
○ v=0
○ a = -g
○ s = H (Height)

Mass (m): Mass is the quantity of matter contained inside an object. The mass of an object is constant,
and does not change from place to place. The SI Unit is kg.

Density: Density is the mass of an object, per unit volume. Density is constant, and is one of a substance’s
characteristic qualities. The SI Unit is kg m^-3

Weight (W): Weight is the force of an object, attracting it towards the Earth (or any other body). W = mg;
At a given place, weight of an object is directly proportional to mass (as ‘g’ is constant at a given place),
W ∝ m (hence, the weight of an object changes with location, but the mass stays the same); The SI Unit
is (N)Newton (Same as Force).

Thrust & Pressure:

 - Thrust: The thrust of an object, is the net force, acting perpendicular to a body. The effects of
thrust, depends on the amount of area on which it acts (Pressure). The SI Unit is (N)Newton
(Same as Force).
- Pressure: Pressure, is the thrust of an object, per unit area. Pressure = Thrust/Area; Thrust acting
on a smaller area, has a greater effect than thrust acting on a larger area, due to the fact that it
exerts more pressure (This is why: Nails have pointed tips; Knives have sharp edges, etc.); The SI
Unit is Nm^-2, known as the Pascal(Pa).

Buoyancy: Buoyant Force (or) Upthrust Force, is the upwards force exerted on an object, when it is either
partially, or completely immersed in a fluid. The magnitude of buoyancy depends on the density of the
fluid. Objects of densities less than that of the fluid float, and objects of densities greater than that of the
fluid sink.
- Archimedes Principle: When a body is immersed, fully or partially in a liquid, it experiences an
upwards force, equivalent to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.
The Archimedes Principle has Many Applications:
● Used in designing ships and submarines
● Used in Lactometers (Measures purity of milk)
● Used in Hydrometers (Measures density of liquids)

Relative Density: The relative density of a substance, is the ratio of it’s density, to the density of water. (It
has no unit, as it is a ratio of quantities.)
Density of a Substance / Density of Water = Relative Density

Numericals:
- Universal Law of Gravitation & Universal Gravitational Constant
- Free Fall & Acceleration due to Gravity

Practicals:
- Determination of the density of a solid (denser than water), by using a spring balance, and a
measuring scale.
- Observing the loss in the weight of a solid, when fully immersed in,:
- Tap Water
- Strongly Salty Water
Using weight of the water displaced to indicate weight of the solid.

Chapter-11- Work, Energy, and Power:

Work (W): Work is the force acting on an object, multiplied by displacement.
Work = Force • Displacement
W=F•s
SI Unit : Joule (J)
1J = 1N • 1m
1KJ = 1 000 J
 - Work done is positive, if the force acts in the direction of displacement.
- Work done is negative, if the force acts opposite to the direction of displacement.

Energy: Energy is the capacity of an object to do work. An object that possesses energy can exert a force
on another object, transferring energy from the former to the latter. Any object possessing energy can do
work.
SI Unit : Joule (J)
- Kinetic Energy: Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body, by virtue of its motion.
E​k​ = ½mv^2
● Derivation:
s = (v^2 - u^2)/2a
W = ma • [(v^2 - u^2)/2a] {as F = ma}
W = ½m • (v^2 - u^2)
W = ½m • v^2 {If the object is starting from a stationary position, u = 0}
E​k​ = ½mv^2 {Work done is equal to the change in Kinetic Energy}
- Potential Energy: Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body, by virtue of its position.
The energy transferred to a body, which is not used to cause a change in it’s velocity or speed, is
stored as Potential Energy.
● Gravitational Potential Energy: Gravitational Potential Energy is the work done in raising an
object from the ground to a point, against gravity.
E​p​ = mgh
○ Derivation:
W=F•s
W = mg • h
E​p​ = mgh {Work done is equal to the change in Potential Energy}
- Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can only be converted from one form to another, it can
neither be created or destroyed. Hence, the sum of Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy is
constant.
Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy = Constant
mgh + ½mv^2 = Constant
The sum of the total Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy of an object is its Mechanical Energy.

Power (P): Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate of transfer of energy.
Power = Work/Time
P = W/t
SI Unit : Watt (W)
1W = 1N • 1m
1KW = 1 000 W
- Commercial Unit of Energy:
● Kilowatt Hour (KWH)
1 KWH = 1 KW • 3 600 s
1 KWH = 1 000 W • 3 600 s
1 KWH = 3 600 000 J
Numericals:
- Equations of Work, Power, & Energy

Biology​-
Chapter-5-Cells-
Timeline:
- 1665 - Robert Hooke discovered, and introduced the term “Cell”
- 1674 - Leeuwenhoek observed cells in a cork slice with a primitive microscope
- 1831 - Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell
- 1839 - Purkingie introduced the term “Protoplasm”
- 1838 & 1839 - Schleiden & Schwann presented the Cell Theory

Cell Scientific Names:

Cell: Scientific Name:

R.B.C. (Red Blood Corpuscle) Erythrocyte

W.B.C. (White Blood Corpuscle) Leukocyte

Platelet Thrombocyte

Muscle Cell Myocyte

Nerve Cell Neuron

Ovum Oocyte (Haploid Cell)

Sperm Spermatocyte (Haploid Cell)

Zygote Single Fertilized Cell

Bone Cell Osteocyte

Fat Cell Adipocyte

Cell Characteristics:
- All organisms are made of one (unicellular), or more (multicellular) cells.
- Every multicellular organism has come from a single cell.
● Cells divide to produce cells of their own kind.
● Multicellular organisms can have cells of different types.
- The shape and size of cells are related to the specific function they perform. (Ex: Amoeba have
changing shapes, Nerve Cells have a typical shape)
- Every cell can perform certain basic functions, which are characteristics of all living forms
 ● There is a division of labour among both unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Cell Features:
- Plasma Membrane (or) Cell Membrane: This is the outermost covering of the cell, separating its
contents from its environment. It is present in all cells. It selectively permits and prevents the
entry and exit of materials in and out of the cell, hence it is also called a Selectively Permeable
Membrane (or) Semi-Permeable Membrane. Some substances like carbon dioxide (CO​2​) and
oxygen (O​2​) can move across the plasma membrane, in a process called diffusion.
● Diffusion: Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of high concentration, to a
region of low concentration,in solids, liquids, and gasses.
Water obeys the laws of diffusion, and it is called osmosis, when it is across a plasma membrane.
● Osmosis: Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a plasma membrane from a region
of high water concentration, to a region of low water concentration.
Osmosis of a Cell in Different Solutions:
a.) Hypotonic Solution:
● There is a higher concentration of water in the external medium.
● The cell gains water through endosmosis.
● The cell increases in size.
● The cell bulges, or swells up.
b.) Hypotonic Solution:
● There is a lower concentration of water in the external medium.
● The cell loses water through exosmosis.
● The cell decreases in size.
● The cell shrivels.
c.) Isotonic Solution
● There is an equal concentration of water in the external medium.
● No exchange of water molecules takes place.
● Shape and size of the cell remains the same.

The plasma membrane is flexible, and made up of lipids and proteins.

● Endocytosis: The flexibility of the cell membrane allows the cell to engulf food from its external
environment. This is known as Endocytosis. (Amoeba acquires food through Endocytosis)
- Cell Wall: Plant cells contain a rigid outer covering, known as the cell wall, which lies outside the
plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is composed of cellulose, which provides structural support
to plants.
 ● Plasmolysis: Plasmolysis is when a plant cell loses water through osmosis, and there is a
contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall.
- Nucleus: The nucleus contains chromatin, visible as chromosomes when the cell is about to
divide. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next
generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). Functional segments of DNA are called
genes. The nucleus has a double layered outer covering called nuclear membrane. The membrane
contains pores, allowing the transfer of materials from the nucleus, to the cytoplasm.
● Nucleoid: A nuclear region which is poorly defined, due to the lack of a nuclear membrane. This
area only contains nucleic acid (one chromosome). Such cells with a nucleoid are called
prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells contain a properly defined nucleus.
- Cytoplasm: The fluid content inside the cell membrane, it contains all of the cell organelles.
Cell Organelles: Cell organelles are membrane-bound structures, each of which are specialized to perform
a specific function for the cell. This is a feature of eukaryotic cells, which distinguishes them from
prokaryotic cells.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a large network system of
membrane bound vesicles. The functions of the ER include to serve as a site of transport of
materials (especially proteins) inside the cell, it provides a surface for biochemical activities, and
synthesizes many materials of the cell, including lysosomes (RER). It is divided into two parts:
● Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) appears rough
under the microscope, because it has ribosomes on the surface (Hence, the name).The ribosomes
are sites of protein manufacture. These proteins are later sent to other parts of the cell, depending
on need.
● Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) appears
smooth on the surface (Hence, the name).The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules (or)
lipids.
Membrane Biogenesis: Some of the proteins manufactured by the RER, and lipids manufactured
by the SER, are used to help build the cell membrane, in a process called Membrane Biogenesis.
- Golgi Apparatus: The Golgi Apparatus consists of membrane bound vesicles, arranged in stacks
called cisterns. The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and transported inside and
outside the cell, through the Golgi Apparatus. It’s functions include the storage, packaging, and
modification of products in vesicles. It also creates Lysosomes.
- Lysosomes: Lysosomes are the waste disposal system of the cell, these keep the clean by
digesting any foreign material, as well as worn out cell organelles. Lysosomes can do this,
because they contain powerful digestive enzymes, capable of breaking down all organic material.
During any disturbance in the cellular metabolism (Ex: If the cell gets damaged), lysosomes
burst, and their enzymes digest their own cell, hence lysosomes known as ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.
- Mitochondria: The Mitochondria is known as ‘The Powerhouse’ of the cell. The energy required
for various chemical activities needed for life, is released in the form of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) molecules. ATP is known as energy currency of the cell. Mitochondria have two
membrane coverings, the outer of which is porous, while the inner is deeply folded (Allowing for
a greater surface area for ATP generation). Mitochondria are unique organelles, in the fact that
they have their own DNA and ribosomes, allowing them to create some of their own proteins.
 - Plastids: Plastids are only present in plant cells. Like Mitochondria they contain their own DNA
and ribosomes. There are three types of Plastids:
● Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis as they contain chlorophyll.
● Chromoplasts: Chromoplasts (Colored Plastids), contain yellow or orange pigments, which
attracts pollinators.
● Leucoplasts: Leucoplasts (White or Colorless Plastids), are organelles in which materials, such as
starches, oils, and protein granules are stored.
- Vacuoles: Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. Vacuoles are small in animal
cells, and large in plant cells. In plant cells, vacuoles provide rigidity to the cell, these vacuoles
contain cell sap, and include sugars, amino acids, organic acids, and proteins. In single celled
organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains all of the food items that the organism has
consumed.
Cells, thus acquire their structure and ability to function because of the organisation of its membrane and
organelles in specific ways. Cells have basic structural organisation. Thus, cells are the fundamental
structural units of living organisms. It is also the basic functional unit of life.
Diagrams:
- Animal Cell:

- Plant Cell:

- Prokaryotic Cell:
Practicals:
- Observation of Onion Cells Under Microscope
- Observation of Cheek Cells Under MIcroscope
Chapter-6-Tissues-
Plant Tissues-
Types of Plant Tissues:
Meristematic Tissue:
- Apical Meristem
- Intercalary Meristem
- Lateral Meristem (Cambium)
Permanent Tissue:
- Simple Permanent Tissue-
● Parenchyma
● Collenchyma
● Chlorenchyma
● Aerenchyma
● Sclerenchyma
- Complex Permanent Tissue-
● Xylem
● Phloem

Meristematic Tissue: Meristematic tissue is dividing tissue, growth of plants occur in regions with
Meristematic tissue. Depending on the region in which they are present, it is divided into three types:
- Apical Meristem: Apical meristem is present at the growing tips of
stems and roots, and increases the length.
- Lateral Meristem (Cambium): Lateral meristem (cambium) is
present in the stem and roots, and increases width.
- Intercalary Meristem: Intercalary meristem is present at the base of
the leaves or at the internodes of twigs, and is responsible for
growth in these regions.

Permanent Tissue: Permanent tissues are cells formed by the meristem, which take a specific role, and
lose their ability to divide, in a process called differentiation. There are two types:
- Simple Permanent Tissue: Simple Permanent tissues consist of only one type of cell. It is divided
into five types:
● Parenchyma: Parenchyma is a live tissue, which forms the basic
packaging material in plants. Parenchyma provides support to plants, and
stores food. Cells in this tissue are un-specialised with thin cell walls, and
are loosely packed, with large intercellular spaces.
● Chlorenchyma: Chlorenchyma is a type of parenchyma tissue, and in
similar to Parenchyma in structure. It contains chlorophyll, and performs
photosynthesis.
● Collenchyma: Collenchyma is a type of live tissue, present in leaf
stalks, which provides flexibility, and mechanical support to plants.
Cells in this tissue are living, elongated, and irregularly thickened at
the corners.
● Aerenchyma: Aerenchyma is a type of parenchyma tissue, present in
aquatic plants. Large air cavities are present in this tissue, to give
buoyancy to the plants, to help them float.
● Sclerenchyma: Sclerenchyma is a dead tissue, present in stems,
leaves, hard seed coverings, and nuts, which provides strength to plant
parts. Cells of this tissue are narrow, with thickened cell walls (due to
lignin, a chemical substance which acts as cement, to harden the cell
wall), thus there are sometimes no intercellular spaces.
Epidermis: Epidermis is a type of Simple Permanent tissue, which is the
outer covering on the surface of a plant. The epidermis is a continuous
layer, without any intercellular spaces, due to the fact that it has a
protective role to play.
- Stomata: Stomata are small holes on the epidermis of leaves,
enclosed by two ‘kidney-shaped’ guard cells. Stomata are
necessary for exchanging gasses with the atmosphere, and
transpiration.
● Cutin: Cutin is a waxy chemical substance, which has a waterproof quality. It is present
in desert plants.
● Cork: Cork is found in the bark of older plants. The cork is formed
when a strip of secondary meristem replaces the epidermis of a
stem, cells on the outside are cut off from this layer, forming the
cork. Cells of the cork are dead, with no intercellular spaces.
Suberin: A chemical in the cork, with makes it impervious to
gasses and water.
- Complex Permanent Tissue (Vascular Bundles (or) Conducting Tissue):
Complex permanent tissue consists of more than one type of cell. It is divided into two types:
● Xylem: Most of the cells in Xylem have thick cell walls, and are dead, Xylem conducts water and
minerals vertically. Xylem consists of four parts, Xylem Parenchyma, Tracheids and Vessels, and
Xylem Fibres.
● Phloem: All of the cells in Phloem are living, except for Phloem fibres, Phloem transports food
from leaves and storage organs, to all other parts of the plant. It consists of four parts, Phloem
Parenchyma, Sieve tubes (and Sieve Plates), Phloem Fibres, and Companion cells.
Diagrams:
Xylem Cells:

Phloem Cells:

Practicals:
- Observation of Parenchyma, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma
Tissue, under the Microscope
Animal Tissues-
Types of Animal Tissues:
- Epithelial Tissue:
● Squamous Epithelium
● Stratified Squamous Epithelium
● Cuboidal Epithelium
● Columnar Epithelium
- Connective Tissue:
● Blood
● Bone
● Cartilage
● Ligament
● Tendon
● Areolar Tissue
- Muscular Tissue:
● Striated Muscle
● Smooth Muscle
● Cardiac Muscle
- Nervous Tissue [Nerve Cell (Neuron)]:
● Brain
● Spinal Cord
● Nerves

Epithelial Tissue: Epithelial tissues are the covering/protective tissues in the animal body. Epithelial
tissue cells are tightly packed, forming a continuous sheet, with no intercellular spaces, therefore any
material entering or leaving the body mast pass a layer of epithelium, as a result, the epithelium plays an
important role in the regulation of exchange of materials in between body and environment, and between
different organs in the body. There are four types of epithelial tissues:
- Squamous Epithelium: Squamous epithelium cells are delicate, flat, and form a thin lining. These
tissues are found in the esophagus, mouth, and lung alveoli.
- Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Stratified Squamous epithelium is when squamous cells form a
pattern of layers to prevent wear. Only the bottom layer comes into contact with the base
membrane. These tissues are found in the skin.
 - Cuboidal Epithelium: Cuboidal epithelium cells are cube shaped. This tissue provides mechanical
support.
● Glandular Epithelium: Glandular Epithelium forms when a portion of cuboidal tissue folds
inwards, and forms a multicellular gland.
- Columnar Epithelium: Columnar Epithelium cells are tall, which allows movement across the
epithelial barrier. This is the area in which absorption and secretion occur. It can be found in the
inner lining of the intestine, and the respiratory tract (ciliated).

Connective Tissues: The cells of connective tissues are loosely spaced, and are embedded in an
intercellular matrix. There are six types:
- Blood: This tissue contains a fluid matrix, in which Erythrocytes and Leukocytes are suspended.
This tissue transports gasses, food, hormones, and waste materials to different parts of the body.
- Bone: This tissue contains a hard matrix, composed of calcium and phosphorus, it is hard and
inflexible. This tissue forms the framework which supports the body, anchors muscles, and
supports the main organs.
- Cartilage: This tissue contains a matrix composed of proteins and sugars. The cells are loosely
spaced. This tissue smoothens bone surfaces at joints.
- Ligament: This tissue contains very little matrix. This tissue is very elastic, with considerable
strength, and it connects two bones to each other.
- Tendon: This is a fibrous tissue, with little flexibility, and connects muscle to bone.
- Areolar: Areolar tissue is found in between the skin, and muscles. It fills space inside organs,
supports internal organs, and helps in the repair of tissues.
- Adipose: Adipose tissue is found below the skin, and in between human organs. Adipose cells
store fat.

Muscular Tissue: Muscle tissues consist of elongated muscle fibre cells, which are responsible for the
movement of animal bodies, they contain contractile proteins, which contract and relax to cause
movement.
- Striated Muscle: These muscles can be moved at will, thus it is also called voluntary muscles,
they are also called skeletal muscles, due to the fact that they are mostly attached to bones, and
help in body movement. Under the microscope this tissue shows alternate light and dark bands,
called striations. The cells of this tissue are long, cylindrical, unbranched, and multinucleate
(having many nuclei).
- Smooth Muscle: These muscles control involuntary movements, and thus are called involuntary
muscles. They can be found in the iris of eyes, ureters, and bronchi of lungs. The cells are long
with pointed ends (spindle-shaped), and uninucleate (having a single nucleus). They are also
called non-striated muscles.
- Cardiac Muscle: These are the muscles of the heart, they are involuntary, and have rhythmic
contraction and relaxation throughout life. These muscles are cylindrical, branched, and
uninucleate.

Nervous Tissue: Cells of the nervous tissue are highly specialized for being stimulated, and transmitting
the stimulus very rapidly. The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells, or neurons.
 - Structure: A neuron consists of a cell body, with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from which long, thin,
hair-like parts called dendrites arise. Each neuron has a single long part called the axon. Many
nerve fibres are bound around a connective tissue to make a nerve. An individual nerve cell can
be up to a metre long.
- Areas of Nervous Tissue:
● Brain
● Spinal Cords
● Nerves
- Nerve impulses allow us to move our muscles when we want to.
- The function of combination of nerve, and muscle tissues is fundamental to most animals.
- Nerve cells enable animals to move rapidly in response to stimuli.

Diagrams:
- Epithelial Tissue Types:
● Squamous Epithelium

● Stratified Squamous Epithelium

● Cuboidal Epithelium
● Columnar Epithelium

- Muscle Tissue Types:

● Striated Muscle:

● Smooth Muscle:
● Cardiac Muscle:
 - Nerve Cell

Practicals:
● Observation of Striated, Smooth, and Cardiac Muscle Tissue, under the Microscope

Chapter-13- Why do we Fall Ill:

Health: A state of being well enough to function well physically, mentally, and socially.
- Factors of Health:
● Good Environment
● Good Social Environment
● Public Cleanliness
● Good Economic Conditions and Jobs
● Social Equality & Harmony

Disease: Lack of feeling of ease, due to impairment in health, or structural disorder.

- Symptoms & Signs of a Disease:
● Symptoms: Symptoms indicate the presence of a disease, but they don’t indicate what the disease
is.
● Signs: Signs indicate the presence of a disease, and they give a more definite indication of what
the disease is.
- Acute & Chronic Diseases:
● Acute Disease: Acute Diseases last for a short period of time.
● Chronic Disease: Chronic Diseases last for long periods of time. Chronic diseases have drastic,
long term effects on health.
- Cause of Disease:
● Non-Infectious/Non-Communicable Disease: Non-Infectious/Non-Communicable diseases are
not caused by microbes. They are mostly due to internal factors.
● Infectious/Communicable Disease: Non-Infectious/Communicable diseases are caused by
microbes. The microbes can spread in the community, and the disease will spread with them.
○ Infectious Agents:
■ Bacteria - Staphicoli (Acne), Typhoid, Fever, Cholera, Tuberculosis, Arthrex,
etc.
■ Fungi - Skin Infection, Rash, etc.
■ Protozoan - Trypanosoma (Sleeping Sickness), Leishmania (Kala-Azar), Malaria,
etc.
 ■ Virus - Common Cold, Influenza, Jaundice, Dengue Fever, HIV-AIDS, SARS,
Japanese Encephalitis (or) Brain Fever, etc.
■ Multicellular Organisms - Roundworm, Liver Fluke, Elephantasias, etc.
Members of each of these categories have many characteristics in common, for example,
all viruses live inside host cells, whereas bacteria rarely do. Hence, the category of the
disease is helpful in deciding what treatment to use. For example, Penicillin is an
antibiotic that blocks the processes building cell walls, which can kill bacteria, however
such antibiotics would not work against viral infections.
○ Means of Spread:
■ Air: This occurs through the little droplets thrown out when a person sneezes or
coughs. Diseases include common cold, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. The more
crowded living conditions are, the more likely it is that such airborne diseases
will spread.
■ Water: This occurs when the excreta of someone suffering from an infectious gut
disease gets mixed with the drinking water of people living nearby. Such diseases
are likely to spread in the absence of safe drinking water. Diseases include
Cholera.
■ Sexual Contact: Diseases spread through sexual contact can not be spread
through casual physical contact. Diseases are Syphilis, HIV-AIDS, etc.
Furthermore, HIV-AIDS can be spread through blood-to-blood transfusion from
an infected person to a healthy person, or from an infected mother to her baby
during pregnancy or through breast feeding.
■ Vectors: Vectors are animals carrying infecting agents from a sick person, to a
potential host. Diseases include Malaria, and Japanese Encephalitis (or) Brain
Fever.
○ Effects of Disease: Often, diseases affect areas depending on the point of entry, for
example, microbes entering through the mouth can settle in there gut lining, like Typhoid,
or in the liver, like Jaundice. However, this is not always the case, for example HIV
enters through the sexual organs and infects lymph nodes all over the body, Malaria
enters through a mosquito bite and infects the liver and red blood cells, and Japanese
Encephalitis (or) Brain Fever enters through a mosquito bite and infects the brain. The
signs and symptoms of a disease depends on the area the microbes target.
■ Immune System: Effects of an Infection depends on a body’s immune system.
The Immune System is normally fighting microbes. If it is successful, the body
doesn’t have a disease, as the immune system has managed to kill off infecting
microbes before they could take major proportions. Hence, an infectious disease
represents a lack of success in the immune system. In HIV-AIDS, the virus goes
to the immune system, and damages it’s function, hence, the body is not able to
fight even minor infections. It is these other infections that end up killing people
with HIV-AIDS.
○ Principles of Treatment:
 ■ Symptom-Directed: Symptom directed treatment reduces the symptoms of a
disease, however this will not make the infecting microbes go away, nor will it
cure the disease.
■ Microbe Killing: A method of killing microbes is usage of medicines that will
kill microbes. Each category of microbe (Virus, Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoa,
Multicellular Organisms) will have a specific biochemical life process unique to
it, that will not be shared by other groups. This explains why it is harder to create
antiviral medicines than it is to create antibiotics, as viruses have few
biochemical processes of their own, and hence enter our cells, using our
machinery for life processes.
○ Principles of Prevention: There are certain limitations to treating diseases, which make it
so that the prevention is better than the treatment:
i. ) When someone has a disease, their body functions are damaged, and may never
recover.
ii. ) Treatment of disease takes time, hence the person suffering from the disease is likely
to be bedridden for some time.
iii. ) The person suffering from the disease may serve as a source to
■ General Methods: General methods of disease prevention prevents exposure.
● Public Hygiene: For airborne microbes, we can provide living areas that
are not overcrowded, for waterborne microbes, we can treat water to kill
infectious microbes, and for vector borne microbes, we can provide clean
environments which would not allow mosquito breeding.
● Availability of Sufficient Food: As the immune system is crucial in
preventing infections, it is necessary to provide it proper food and
nourishment.
■ Specific Methods: Having a disease once can prevent subsequent attacks of the
same disease, as when the immune system first sees an infectious microbe it
responds against it, and then remembers it specifically, so the next time this
microbe, or similar microbes enter the body, the immune system eliminates it
more quickly than the first time.
In Immunization/Vaccination, we inject a microbe that mimics the microbe we
want to vaccinate against into the body. This does not cause the disease, but
would prevent any subsequent exposure to the infecting microbe from turning
into an actual disease. There are vaccines against Polio, Tetanus, Diphtheria
(DPT), Tuberculosis (BGT), Whooping Cough, Measles, etc.
Chapter-15-Improvement in Food Resources:
Agriculture provides us with our plant food (crops), and Animal Husbandry provides us with our animal
food (livestock & livestock byproducts). Due to the fact that India is a populous country, it is necessary to
increase production efficiency, for crops, and livestock.
Efforts have been made to meet the food demand:
- Green Revolution: The green revolution contributed to increased food-grain production.
 - White Revolution: The white revolution contributed to more efficient use, and better availability
of milk.
However, due to these revolutions, we are using natural resources more intensively. Hence, it is necessary
to use sustainable practices in food production.

Improvement in Crop Yields-

Types of Crops:
- Food & Fodder Crops:
● Food Crops: Food crops, are crops which provide us with nutrients. Examples are cereals, such as
wheat, maize, millets; pulses, such as gram, black gram, green gram, pigeon pea, lentil; and oil
seeds, such as soybean, mustard, and sunflower.
● Fodder Crops: Fodder crops, are crops which provide food for livestock. Examples are berseem,
and oats.
- Kharif & Rabi Crops: Different crops require different climatic conditions, temperatures, and
photo periods (Duration of sunlight).
● Kharif Crops: Kharif crops are grown in the Kharif season (rainy season), from June to October.
Examples are paddy, soybean, pigeon pea, maize, cotton, black gram, and green gram.
● Rabi Crops: Rabi crops are grown in the Rabi season (winter), from November to April .
Examples are wheat, gram, peas, and mustard.

Crop Variety Improvement: Crop Variety Improvement, is finding a crop variety that can give a good
yield. This can either be done through hybridization (crossing between two genetically dissimilar plants),
or genetically modified crops (introducing a new gene, which provides desired characteristic to the crop).
Some factors of variety improvement, are:
- Higher Yield: To increase crop yield, per acre.
- Improved Quality: Quality considerations vary from crop to crop, baking quality is important in
wheat, protein quality in pulses, oil quality in oilseeds, and preserving quality in fruits and
vegetables.
- Biotic & Abiotic Resistance: Crops resistant to biotic (living organisms; diseases, insects, pests),
and abiotic factors (nonliving elements; drought, heat, cold, frost, waterlogging), can increase
crop yield.
- Change in Maturity Duration: Crops with shorter maturity durations are more economical, as this
allows farmers to grow multiple crop rounds per year.
- Wider Adaptability: Developing crop varieties with wider adaptation, will help in stabilising crop
production under different environmental conditions.
- Desirable Agronomic Characteristics: Tallness and profuse branching, are desirable
characteristics in fodder plants, and dwarfness is desirable is cereals (as dwarfness results in less
nutrient consumption). Thus, crop varieties with desirable agronomic characteristics help with
higher productivity.

Crop Production Improvement:

- Nutrient Management: There are sixteen nutrients which are essential for plants. Air supplies
carbon, and oxygen; Water supplies hydrogen, and oxygen, and the rest of the 13 nutrients are
supplied by soil. Of these, six are macronutrients (required in large quantities), and seven are
micronutrients (required in small quantities).
Source: Nutrients

Air Carbon; Oxygen

Water Hydrogen; Oxygen

Soil i.) Macronutrients: Nitrogen;

Phosphorus; Potassium; Calcium;
Magnesium; Sulphur
ii.) Micronutrients: Iron; Boron; Zinc;
Copper; Chlorine; Manganese;
Molybdenum
A deficiency of these nutrients can damage plants, hence, the yield of plants can be increased by
enriching the soil with these nutrients.
● Manure: Manure contains large quantities of organic matter, and supplies small quantities of
nutrients to the soil. Manure enriches the soil with nutrients, and increases soil fertility. A
majority of the organic matter in manure mproves soil structure.
Manure is classified into two types, based on soil structure:
● Compost (and) Vermi-Compost: The process by which compost is created, by
decomposing farm waste materials (livestock excreta, domestic waste, sewage waste,
straw, etc.) in pits, is known as composting. Compost is rich in organic matter, and
nutrients. Vermi-Compost, is when composting is hastened, by the usage of earthworms.
● Green Manure: Green manure is created, when prior to the sowing of crop seeds, some
plants like sun hemp, and guar are grown, and then mulched, by plowing them into the
soil. This creates a green manure, which helps in enriching the soil with nitrogen, and
phosphorus.
● Fertilizers: Fertilizers are commercially produced plant nutrients, which supply nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. Fertilizers help to create a high yield, however continuous use can
destroy soil fertility, as the organic matter in the soil is not replenished. Short-term benefits of
fertilizers, and long-term benefits of manure, must be considered when aiming for ideal yields in
crop production.
- Irrigation: Irrigation is essential in ensuring that crops get water, even during a bad monsoon.
Hence, irrigation improves crop production.
Several different types of irrigation systems are adopted, based on the types of water resources
available:
● Wells: There are two types of wells, dug wells, and tube wells. In dug wells, water is collected
from water bearing sources. In tube wells, water is drawn from underwater pumps.
● Canals: Canals are extensive and elaborate irrigation systems, in which a main canal is divided
into branch canals, which have further distributaries, to irrigate fields.
 ● River Lift Systems: In areas where water flow is insufficient, or irregular, the lift system is more
rational. Water is directly drawn from rivers, supporting irrigation in areas close to rivers.
● Tanks: Tanks are small storage reservoirs, which intercept and store water.
- Cropping Patterns:
● Mixed Cropping: Mixed cropping is growing two or more crops, simultaneously on the same
piece of land. This gives some insurance against the failure of one of the crops.
● Inter-Cropping: Inter-cropping is growing two or more crops, simultaneously on the same piece
of land, in a definite pattern. A few rows of one crop, alternate with a few rows of another crop.
The crops are selected, such that their nutrient requirements are different, ensuring maximum
utilization of nutrients supplied, and preventing pests, and diseases from spreading to all of the
crops in one field. This way, both crops can give better returns.
● Crop Rotation: Crop Rotation is the growing of different crops on a piece of land, in a
pre-planned succession. The choice of crop to be cultivated after one harvest, depends on
moisture, and irrigation facilities at the time. If crop rotation is done properly, two or three crops
can be grown in a year.

Crop Protection Management: Crops are infected by weeds, pests, and disease, if these are not controlled
at the right time, they can severely damage a crop.
- Weeds, Pests, and Disease:
● Weeds: Weeds are unwanted plants in a cultivated field (Examples: Xanthium; Parthenium; etc.).
They compete for food, space, and light, thus taking the nutrients, and reducing the growth of the
crop. Hence, the removal of weeds, during the early stages of crop growth is essential to a good
harvest.
● Pests: Insect pests attack plants in three ways:
○ The insects cut the root, stem, and leaf
○ The insects suck the cell sap from various parts of the plant
○ The insects bore into the stem and fruits
Insect pests thus, damage the health of the crop, and reduce the yield.
● Disease: Diseases in plants are caused by pathogens (disease causing microorganisms), such as
bacteria, fungi, and viruses. These pathogens can be present in, and transmitted through air,
water, and soil.
- Crop Protection Methods: Weeds, pests, and disease can be controlled by various methods. Weed
control methods include mechanical removal, and preventive methods include proper seedbed
preparation, timely sowing of crops, intercropping, and crop control. Pest preventative methods
include use of resistant varieties of crops, and summer plowing (In which fields are plowed deep
in the summers, to destroy weeds and pests).
● Pesticides: Pesticides are one of the most common methods of crop protection, including
herbicides (weed protection), insecticides (pest protection), and fungicides (disease protection).
However, excessive use of these chemicals, creates problems, as they are poisonous to many plant
and animal species, and cause environmental pollution.

Organic Farming: Organic farming is a farming system, with little to no use of chemicals (such as
fertilizers, pesticides, etc.), and with maximum input from organic manures, and healthy cropping systems
(Mixed Cropping; Inter-Cropping; Crop Rotation), which are beneficial in pest control, and providing
nutrients.

Storage of Grains:
- Factors Responsible for Loss of Grains:
● Biotic: Insects, Rodents, Fungi, Mites, Bacteria, etc.
● Abiotic: Inappropriate Moisture and Temperatures (at the place of storage)
These factors lead to degradation in quality, loss in weight, and discolor of grains, which leads to
poor marketability.
- Methods of Protection of Grains: Methods of protection of grains include, thorough cleaning of
grains before storage, proper drying of the grains (in the sunlight, and then in shade,) before
storage, and fumigation (using chemicals that can kill pests).

Animal Husbandry-
Animal husbandry is the scientific management of animal livestock. It includes various aspects, such as
feeding, breeding, and disease control. As the population and living standards increase, the demand for
milk, eggs, and meat are going up.

Cattle Farming: Cattle husbandry is done two purposes, milk, and draught labour (labour for agricultural
work). There are two species of Indian cow, Bos Indicus (cow), and Bos Bubalis (buffalo).
Milk-producing female cattle are called milch animals, and cattle used for farm labour are called draught
animals.
- Milch Animals: Milk production of milch animals depends on the lactation period (the period of
milk production after the birth of a calf), hence, milk production can be increased by increasing
the lactation period. Exotic or foreign breeds (Examples: Brown Swiss, Jersey) are selected for
long lactation periods, while local breeds (Examples: Red Sindhi, Sahiwal) are selected for
excellent resistance to disease.
- Shelter Requirement: Proper cleaning, and shelter facilities are required for humane farming, the
health of the animals, and production of clean milk. Animals require regular brushing to remove
dirt, and loose hair. They should be sheltered under well ventilated roofs, that protect them from
rain, heat, and cold.
- Food Requirement: Cattle need balanced rations, containing all of the required nutrients.
There are two types of food requirements for dairy animals:
● Maintenance Requirement: Maintenance requirement, is the food required, to support cattle to
live a healthy life.
● Milk Producing Requirement: Milk producing requirement, is the food required during the
lactation period of cattle.
There are two types of feed for cattle:
● Roughage: Roughage is consisted of mainly fibre.
● Concentrates: Concentrates are low in fibre, and contain relatively high amounts of proteins, and
other nutrients.
 - Disease: Cattle suffer from a large number of diseases, which reduce milk production, and cause
death. Healthy cattle feed regularly, and have normal postures. Parasites in cattle can be caused
by both internal (Worms damaging the stomach and intestines; Flukes damaging the liver, etc.),
and external (Skin diseases on the skin, etc.). Infectious diseases in cattle can be caused by both
bacteria, and virus. Vaccinations are given to farm animals, against many viral, and bacterial
diseases.

Poultry Farming: Poultry farming is undertaken, to raise domestic fowl for egg production and chicken
meat.
- Cross Breeding: The cross breeding of Indian (Indigenous; Example: Asseal) and foreign (Exotic;
Example: Leghorn) chickens, are focused on the following factors of variety improvement:
● Number and quality of chicks
● Dwarf broiler chicken, for commercial chick production (for easy management)
● Summer adaptation/Tolerance of high temperatures
● Low maintenance requirements
● Reduction of the size of the egg-laying chicken, and the ability to utilize, more fibrous, cheaper
diets.
- Broiler Chickens: Broiler chickens are chickens which are produced for chicken meat. Broiler
chickens are fed with vitamin-rich food, with high levels of protein and fat. Care is taken to
maintain growth rate, and carcass quality.
- Layer Chickens: (Egg) Layer chickens are chickens which are produced for eggs. Care is taken to
achieve a large number, and high quality of eggs.
- Management: Good management of poultry in required for food production. The poultry shelter
should be hygienic, well-lighted, maintained at proper temperatures, and it should be protected
from diseases and pests. The housing, nutritional, and environmental requirements of broilers, are
somewhat different from those of layers. The rations of poultry are rich in vitamins A and K.
- Disease: Poultry suffer from diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, virus, parasites, and nutritional
deficiencies. Hence, proper cleaning, sanitation, and spraying of disinfects at regular intervals, are
necessary.
Fish Production: There are two sources from which we can gain fish, seawater (Marine Fisheries), and
freshwater (Inland Fisheries). Fish can either be obtained through natural resources (Capture Fishing), or
through fish farming (Culture Fishery).
- Marine Fisheries: India’s marine fishery resources 7,500 km. of coast line, and deep seas beyond
it, and hence, there is good scope for fisheries in India.
● Capture Fishery: Marine fish are caught using nets, attached to boats. Yields are increased by
locating large schools of fish, using satellites, and echo sounders. Popular marine fish varieties
are mackerel, tuna, sardines, and the Bombay duck.
● Culture Fishery (Mariculture): Marine fish of high economic values are farmed in water.
Examples are mullets, mussels, oysters, shellfish, and seaweed.
- Inland Fisheries: Freshwater resources include canals, ponds, reservoirs, and rivers. Brackish
water resources (where seawater, and freshwater mix), include lagoons.
● Capture Fishery: There are some capture fishing, done on inland bodies, however the yield is not
high. Hence, most of the inland fishery is done through aquaculture.
 ● Culture Fishery (Aquaculture): Aquaculture is the most common form of Inland Fisheries, as the
yield is much higher than that of capture fishery. A common form of intensive aquaculture is
composite fish culture.
○ Composite Fish Culture: In a composite fish culture system, five or six fish are selected,
and used in a single fish pond. These fish have different food habitats. As a result, all of
the food available in the pond is used, and there is no competition among the fish. Hence,
this increases the fish yield from the pond. One problem with composite fish systems, is
the lack of continuous availability of good quality fish seed (fertilized fish egg), as many
fish only breed during monsoon. As a result, fish are breed using hormonal stimulation,
ensuring the supply of pure fish seed, in the desired quantities.
Bee-Keeping: Bee-keeping is a low investment activity, carried out by farmers as an extra income
generating activity, to obtain honey and wax. The local varieties of bees used for commercial honey
production are Apis Cerana Indica (Indian Bee), Apis Dorsata (Rock Bee), and Apis Florae (The Little
Bee). Apis Mellifera is an Italian bee commonly used in honey production, as they have a high honey
production rate, stay in a given bee hive for long periods, sting somewhat less, and breed very well. The
quality of honey depends on the availability, and quality of pasturage (flowers available for bees for
nectar).

Chemistry​-
Chapter-1-Matter in our Surroundings-
Characteristics of Particles of Matter:
- Matter is constituted of a large number of particles.
- Particles of matter are very small in size.
- Particles of matter have spaces in between them.
- Particles of matter are constantly in motion.
- Particles of matter attract each other.
Three States of Matter:
Solids: Liquids: Gasses:

Has a definite shape Does not have a definite Does not have a definite
shape; Takes shape of shape; Takes shape of
container container

Cannot flow Can flow Can flow

Negligible compressibility Slightly compressible Highly compressible

Has a definite size/volume Has a definite size/volume Does not have a definite
size/volume
 Particles do not move freely Particles can move freely Particles can move freely;
Pressure of the gas is the
force exerted per unit area

Little space between particles Greater space between Greatest space between
particles; Solids, liquids, and particles
gasses dissolve into liquids
due to this space.

Very/Highly Rigid Less Rigid No Rigidity

Change of State of Matter:

- Fusion: Fusion is the change of matter from its solid state, to its liquid state. This happens due to
an increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating at a greater speed, and the energy
supplied by the heat overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles. The same thing is
applicable to sublimation and vaporization. The melting point of ice is 273˚ K (K˚ = C˚ + 273).
● Latent Heat: Latent heat is heat, that is used up to change, state of matter by overcoming the
forces of attraction between the particles. The heat energy is hidden. Therefore the energy of the
particles in water at 273°K is greater than ice of the same temperature. Latent heat of fusion is the
heat required to change 1 kg. of solid to liquid at its melting point, and latent heat of evaporation
is the heat required to change 1 kg. of liquid to gas at its boiling point.
- Solidification: Solidification is the change of matter from its liquid state, to its solid state. This
happens due to a decrease in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating at a lower speed, and the
decrease in energy creates a force of attraction between the particles. The same thing is applicable
to sublimation and condensation.
- Condescendansation: Condensation is the change of matter from its gaseous state, to its liquid
state. This happens due to a decrease in kinetic energy.
● Compressibility: Gases are able to be compressed into liquids, Examples are LPG (Liquid
Petroleum Gas) which is used for cooking, and CNG (Compressed Nitrogen Gas) which is used
as fuel in vehicles.
- Sublimation: Sublimation is the change of matter from its gaseous state, to its solid state, and vice
versa. This happens due to a decrease or an increase in kinetic energy, respectively. Ammonium
Chloride and Camphor are examples of matter which sublimate.
 - Vaporization: Vaporisation is the change of matter from its liquid state, to its gaseous state. This
happens due to an increase in kinetic energy.
● Evaporation: Evaporation is the change of matter from its liquid state to its gaseous state at any
temperature below its boiling point. Factors increasing evaporation are:
○ Increase in Surface Area
○ Increase in Temperature
○ Increase in Wind Speed
○ Decrease in Humidity
Evaporation causes cooling, as particles of liquid absorb energy from the surroundings to regain
energy lost during evaporation. An example, is the cooling of the hand, when acetone is poured
on to it.

Pricaticals:
- Determination of melting and boiling point of water.

Chapter-2-Is Matter Around Us Pure?-

Division of Matter:
- Pure Substances:
● Elements
○ Metals
○ Non Metals
○ Metalloids
● Compounds
- Mixtures:
● Homogenous
● Heterogenous
○ Colloid
○ Suspension

Pure Substances: A pure substance consists of a single type of particles, the particles are the same in their
chemical state. A substance is a pure form of matter.
Pure Substances are divided into two types:
- Elements: An element is a basic form of matter, that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions.
Elements are divided into three types:
● Metals: Metals show the following qualities:
○ They have a lustre (shine)
○ They have a silvery-grey, or golden-yellow color
○ They conduct heat and electricity
○ They are ductile (can be drawn into wires)
○ They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets)
○ They are sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit)
 Examples: Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, Potassium, Mercury, etc.
● Nonmetals: Nonmetals show the following qualities:
○ They display a variety of colors
○ They are poor conductors of heat and electricity
○ They are not ductile, malleable, sonorous, or lustrous
Examples: Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Iodine, Bromine, Chlorine, etc.
● Metalloids: Metalloids have intermediate qualities, between Metals and Nonmetals.
Examples: Silicon, Boron, Germanium, etc.
- Compounds: A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements, chemically
combined with one another in a fixed position.
Examples: Water, Sugar, Salt, Methane, etc.
Mixtures: A mixture is two or more elements, which are not chemically combined.
There are two types of Mixtures:
- Homogenous: This is a mixture with a uniform composition throughout, it is also known as a
solution. Gaseous solutions are known as air, and solid solutions are known as alloys. There are
two components in a solution, the solvent and solute. The solvent dissolves the other component,
and the solute is dissolved in the solvent. A solution is stable, with extremely small particles.
● Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions: A saturated solution has dissolved as much solvent as it can,
however an unsaturated solution can still dissolve more solvent (without being heated).
● Concentration of a Solution: There are two formulas to calculate the concentration of a solution:
○ Mass by Mass Percentage:
(Mass of Solute / Mass of Solution) • 100
○ Mass by Volume Percentage:
(Mass of Solute / Volume of Solution) • 100
(Solution = Solvent + Solute)
- Heterogenous: This is a mixture with a non uniform composition. The particles are much larger
than that of a homogeneous solution, hence it shows the Tyndall effect (scattering of a beam of
light).
There are two types:
● Suspension: A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture, in which the particles do not dissolve, but
remain suspended throughout the medium. The particles in a suspension are able to be see with
the naked eye. It is unstable, and breaks when the particles settle.
● Colloid: A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture, in which the particles are uniformly spread
throughout the mixture. The particles are too small to be seen with the naked eye, making the
mixture appear homogeneous. A colloid is stable.

Separating the Components of Mixtures: Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated with simple methods,
such as handpicking, sieving, filtration, etc. However special techniques must be used in separation
sometimes.
There are seven special techniques that can be used in separation:
- Evaporation: This is the process by which a soluble solid can be obtained from a solution, by
allowing the solvent to vaporize. This can be used to separate salt from salt water, and colored
dye from ink.
- Centrifugation: This is the process of separating the suspended particles of a colloid, from a
liquid, by rotating it at a high speed, as the denser particles are forced to the bottom, and the
lighter particles stay at the top. This can be used to separate cream from milk.
- Magnetic Separation: This is a method used to separate magnetic particles, from non magnetic
particles, with the usage of a magnet. This can be used to separate a magnetic metal powder, from
a mixture of magnetic metal powder, and a non magnetic powder.
- Sublimation: This is a method used to separate sublime compounds, from non sublime
compounds, using the process of sublimation. This can be used to separate components such as
camphor powder, and ammonium chloride, from non volatile components.
- Distillation: This is a method used to separate two miscible liquids, that boil without
decomposition, and have at least 25˚K difference in their boiling points, by evaporating the
impure liquid into vapours, and condensing the vapors to obtain a pure liquid. This can be used
for the separation of water and alcohol.

● Fractional Distillation: This is a method of distillation used to separate two miscible liquids,
which have less than 25˚K difference in their boiling points. The process is similar, however a
fractionating column is fitted between the distillation flask, and the condenser.

- Chromatography: This is a method used for separating and identifying various components of a
mixture, which are present in small trace quantities. This can be used for the separation of the
colors of ink.
- Crystallization: This is a process, which separates a pure solid, in the form of it’s crystals from a
solution. This can be used for the separation of salt from salt water, and separation of alum
crystals from impure samples.
- Usage of Separating Funnel- Two immiscible liquids, with different densities can be separated
with a separating funnel, by allowing the heavier liquid to settle. This can be used for the
separation of oil and water (the water settles).
Physical and Chemical Changes:
- Physical Change: A physical change, is a reaction in matter which occurs without a change in the
composition, or a change in the chemical state of the matter. The interconversion of states of
matter is a physical change.
- Chemical Change: A chemical change, is a reaction in matter which brings change in the
chemical properties of matter, and new substances are created. A chemical change is also called a
chemical reaction. Burning is a chemical change.

Practicals:
- Preparation of:
● A solution (homogeneous mixture), of sugar, salt, and alum
● A suspension (heterogeneous mixture), of soil, sand, and chalk powder, in water
● A colloid (heterogeneous mixture), of starch in water, and egg in milk
Differentiation between the three, on the basis of:
● Transparency
● Filtration
● Stability
- Using iron filings, and sulphur powder, preparation of:
● A Mixture
● A Compound
Differentiation between the two, on the basis of:
● Appearance (Homogeneity, Heterogeneity)
● Behavior towards a magnet
● Effect of heat
● Behavior towards carbon disulphide (as a solvent)
- Seperating of the components of a mixture of sand, salt, and ammonium chloride (or) camphor
- Performing the following reactions, and classifying them as a physical or chemical change:
● Iron with copper sulphate solution in water
● Burning of magnesium ribbon in air
● Zinc with dilute sulphuric acid
● Heating of copper sulphate crystals
● Sodium sulphate with barium chloride, in the form of their solutions in water ​the