Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.

Unit-II - Real Analysis

Cardinal numbers - Countable and uncountable cardinals - Cantor’s diagonal process
– Properties of real numbers - Order - Completeness of R - Lub property in R - Cauchy
sequence - Maximum and minimum limits of sequences - Topology of R. Heine Borel -
Bolzano Weierstrass - Compact if and only if closed and bounded - Connected subset of R -
Lindelof’s covering theorem - Continuous functions in relation to compact subsets and
connected subsets- Uniformly continuous function – Derivatives – Left and right derivatives
- Mean value theorem - Rolle’s theorem- Taylor’s theorem- L’ Hospital’s Rule - Riemann
integral - Fundamental theorem of Calculus –Lebesgue measure and Lebesque integral on
R’Lchesque integral of Bounded Measurable function - other sets of finite measure -
Comparison of Riemann and Lebesque integrals - Monotone convergence theorem -
Repeated integrals.

Field Axioms
Along with the set of real numbers we assume the existence of two operations,
called addition and multiplication such that for every pair of real numbers and the sum
and the product are real numbers uniquely determined by and y satisfying the
following axioms
(in the axioms that appear below, represent arbitrary real numbers unless
something is said to the contrary.)
Axiom 1: ; (commutative laws)
Axiom 2: ; (associative laws)
Axiom 3: ; (distributive laws)
Axiom 4: Given any two real numbers and there exists a real number such that
.
This is denoted by ; the number is denoted by . (It can be
proved that is independent of .) We write – for and call – the
negative of
Axiom 5: There exists at least one real number . If and are two real numbers
with then there exists a real number such that .
This is denoted by ; the number is denoted by . (It can be
proved that is independent of .) We write for 1/ if and call
the reciprocal of .
The Order Axioms
Axiom 1: Exactly one of the relations ; ; holds.
Note: means the same as
Axiom 2: If then for every we have
Axiom 3: If and then
Axiom 4: If and then
Note:
1. A real number is called positive if and negative if
2. denotes the set of all positive real numbers
3. denotes the set of all negative real numbers
Theo: Given real numbers such that for every then

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Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.B

Intervals
The set of all points between is called an interval.
Defi: Assume
a) the open interval is defined to be the set
b) the closed interval is defined to be the set
c) The half-open intervals is defined to be the set
d) The half-open intervals is defined to be the set
e) Infinite intervals are defined as followed
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Note:
1. The real line is sometimes referred to as the open interval
2. The single point is considered as a “degenerate” closed interval.
Integers
Defi:
A set of real numbers is called an inductive set if it has the following two properties
a) The number 1 is in the set
b) For every in the set, the number is also in the set.
Ex: R, R+, Z+ are inductive sets.
Defi: A real number is called a positive integer if it belongs to every inductive set. The set
of positive integers is denoted by Z+.
The fundamental theorem state that
1) Every integer can be represented as a product of prime factors and
2) This factorization can be done in only one way, apart from the order of the
factors.
Theo: Every integer is either a prime or a product of primes
Rational Numbers
Quotients of integers (where ) are called rational numbers

Ex: 1/2, -7/3 and 6 are rational numbers

Irrational Numbers
Real number that are not rational are called irrational
Ex: are irrational
Theo: If is a positive integer which is not a perfect square, then is irrational.

Theo: If +….+ then the number is irrational.

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Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.B

Completeness Axiom
Theo: The set Z+ of positive integers 1,2,3…. Is unbounded above.
Theo: For every real there is a positive integer such that .
Theo: If and if is an arbitrary real number, there is a positive integer such that
.
Results
1. We denote R by and R* by .
2. The points in R are called “ finite”
3. Every open interval is called neighborhood of or a ball with center .
4. Every open interval is called neighborhood of or a ball with center .
Algebraic number

A real number is said to be an algebraic number if is a root of some polynomial

function with rational coefficients. (that is, .

Transcendental Number

A Transcendental number is a real number that is not an algebraic number.

Cantor Set

The Cantor set is the set of all numbers in which have a ternary expansion
without the digit 1.

Binary Representation Ternary Representation

Binary expansion of a real uses only Ternary expansion of a real uses only
the digits 0 and 1. Thus (2) the digits 0, 1 and 2. Thus (3)
means where (2) means where (3)
denotes binary expansion.
denotes ternary expansion.
Example,
Example,

PG – TRB Questions

1. Which of the following is true? [2006-07]

a) Every integer is either a prime or a product of primes
b) For every real there is a positive integer such that
c) The set of intervals with rational end-points is an uncountable set
d) The closed interval is a is a countable set
2. The binary expansion for a real number x used only the digits [2012-13]
a) 0 and -1 b) 0 and 1 c) 0 and 2 d) 0, 1 and 2

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Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.B

SETS

Set: A collection of well-defined distinct objects is called a set.

Finite Set: A set is said to be a finite set if it contains only a finite number of elements in it.

Infinite Set: A set which is not finite is called infinite set.

Cardinal Numbers
If a set is finite, then we define the cardinality of to be the number of elements in
. Cardinality of a set is denoted by .

Exam: Let then cardinal no of the set is 4. Ie.

Result
1. Cardinal Number of empty set is Zero. Ie.
2. If a set is infinite, then we denote the cardinality of by a symbol .

One to One function

If then is called one-to-one (denoted 1-1) if
, Thus if is 1-1 and then for any distinct from .

Example
1. The function is defined by is 1-1
2. The function is defined by is not 1-1

Equivalent
If and is one-to-one (denoted 1-1) then is called a 1-1 correspondence
between set set . If there exists a 1-1 correspondence between the set set , then set
set are called equivalent we write

Example

1. Any two sets containing exactly seven elements are equivalent.

2. The set all integers and the set of all rational numbers are equivalent
3. The set all integers and the set of all real numbers are not equivalent
4. The cantor set is equivalent to [0,1]

Result
1. Every set is equivalent to itself.
2. If set and set are equivalent, then and are equivalent.
3. If set and set are equivalent and and are equivalent then and are
equivalent

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Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.B

Countable
Defi: The set is said to be countable (or denumerable) if is equivalent to the set of
positive integers. Thus is countable if there exists a 1-1 function from onto .

Note
1. There are many sizes of infinite sets, the smallest size is called countable.
2. is countable means that its elements can be counted.

Examples

1. If then is countable.
Since by

2. Empty set is countable

3. Finite sets are countable.
4. Prime numbers is countable
5. The set of all natural numbers is countable
6. The set of all ordered pairs of natural numbers is countable
7. The set of all integers is countable
Since by if is odd and by if is even

8. The set of all ordered pairs of integers is countable

9. The set of all rational numbers is countable
10. The set of all rational numbers in is countable
11. The set of intervals with rational end points is countable
12. The set of all polynomials with integer co-efficient is countable
13. The set of all polynomials with rational co-efficient is countable
14. The set of all circles in the plane having rational radii and centers with rational
coordinates is countable.

15. The set of algebraic number is countable.

Results
1. A Sub set of a countable set is countable
2. If is an infinite subset of the countable set , then is countable.
3. Any infinite set contains a countable subset.
4. Any collection of disjoint intervals of positive length is countable.

Properties
1. If and are countable then is countable
2. If are countable then is countable
In words, the countable union of countable sets is countable.
3. If and are countable sets then the Cartesian product is countable
Ex: The set of all ordered pairs of integers is countable.
ie. The set is countable.
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Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.B

PG – TRB – Questions

1. The set of all rational numbers is [2002-03]

a) Infinite b) Countably infinity c) countable d) uncountable
2. The set of all rational numbers is [2003-04]
a) Countable b) Uncountable c) finite d) at most countable
3. Which one of the following statements is not true? [2005-06]
a) Every subset of a countable set is countable
b) The set of all real numbers is countable
c) The set of all rational numbers is countable
d) The collection of sequences whose terms are 0 and 1 is Uncountable

4. The set of all rational numbers is [2015]

a) countable b) uncountable c) finite d) connected set

Uncountable

Defi: An uncountable set is an infinite set which is not countable.

Examples

1. The set is Uncountable.

2. Any interval containing more than one point is uncountable.
3. The set R of real numbers is uncountable
4. The set of all irrational numbers is Uncountable
5. The set of all characteristic functions on is Uncountable
6. The set of all transcendental number is uncountable.
7. If be the set of all sequences whose elements are the digits 0 and 1 then is
uncountable.
8. The Cantor set is Uncountable.

Properties

1. If the range of is uncountable, then the domain of is uncountable.

2. If is a countable subset of the uncountable set , then is Uncountable.

PG – TRB – Questions

3. The set of all real numbers is [2001]

a) Uncountable b) Countable c) Finite d) none of these

4. The interval is [2003-04]

a) Countable b) Uncountable c) finite d) at most countable
5. The set of all irrational number is [2005-06]
a) Countable b) un countable c) nowhere dense in d) finite
6. Which of the following set is uncountable [2012-13]
a) b) c) Q d) All Irrational Numbers

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Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.B

Least Upper Bound

Bounded Above Bounded Below

The subset is said to be The subset is said to be

bounded above if there is a number bounded below if there is a number
such that for every . such that for every .

Examples Examples

1. 1.
2. Empty set 2. Empty set
3. The set of negative integers. 3. The set of positive integers

Bounded

The subset is both bounded above and abounded below, we say that is
bounded. Thus is bounded if and only if for some interval of finite
length.

Examples

Bounded Not Bounded

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. Empty set 3. Infinite sets
4. Singleton set 4. The set of integers
5. Finite sets 5. The set of rational numbers

6. 6. The set of irrational numbers

7. The set of real numbers
7.
8.
8.

Upper Bound (u.b)

The subset is bounded above then is called an upper bound for if

for all .

Note: Every number greater than will be an upper bound for

Lower Bound (l.b)

The subset is bounded below then is called an lower bound for if

for every .

Note: Every number less than will be a lower bound for

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Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.B

Least Upper Bound (l.u.b)

Let the subset be bounded above. The number is called the least upper
bound for if

(i) is an upper bound for and

(ii) No number smaller than is an upper bound for

Greatest Lower Bound (g.l.b)

Let the subset be bounded below. The number is called the greatest lower
bound for if

(i) is an lower bound for and

(ii) No number greater than is an lower bound for

Note

(i) We denote “least upper bound” as (or ) and greatest lower bound as

(ii) No set can have more than one and more than one
(iii) The and of a set may or may not belong to the set.

Examples

Mini. Maxi.
Set / interval
Ele. Ele.

1. Nil Nil Nil Nil

2. 0 0 0 0
3. 5 5 5 5
4. 0 1 Nil Nil
5. 0 1 0 1
6.
7 8 Nil Nil
7.
0 Nil Nil Nil
8.
Nil 0 Nil Nil
9. 0 1 Nil 1
10.
1 Nil
11. Nil
12. Nil Nil
13. 0 Nil
14. Set of positive integers 1 1
Nil Nil
15. Set of negative integers Nil Nil
-1 -1

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Real Analysis Countable, Uncountable & L.U.B, G.L.B

Least Upper Bound Axiom

If is any nonempty subset of that is bounded above, then has a least upper
bound in .

Note:

This axiom says roughly that has no holes in it. But the set of all rational numbers
does have holes in it. Ie. The axiom does not hold if is replaced by the set of all rational
numbers.

For Example:

If then in the for is which is not in the set of

rational numbers. Thus if we had never heard of irrational numbers, we would say that A had
no

Greatest Lower Bound Axiom (Theorem)

If is any nonempty subset of that is bounded below, then has a greatest lower
bound in .

Result

1. If is singleton set then =

2. If is a nonempty bounded subset of , and the for is equal to the for
then is singleton set.
3. If is a nonempty bounded subset of , and is the set of all upper bounds for then

Example of a countable bounded subset A of R whose & are both is R-A

Let

= are both in R-A.

PG – TRB – Questions

1. The greatest lower bound of the set is [2002-03]

a) b) c) d)

2. The lub of is [2012-13]

a) b) c) d)
3. Let then [2015]

a) is bounded b) is unbounded
c) has l.u.b. only d) has g.l.b only

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