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ASSIGNMENT GURU (2018-2019)

M.P.C.-1
Cognitive Psychology, Learning and
Memory
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SECTION – A
Answer the following questions in 1000 words each.
Q. 1. Critically discuss Sternberg’s Information Processing Approach.
Ans. The study of memory has been given ample focus resulting in a number of hypotheses and views about the
integration taking place during the information processing. Now, we have many approaches to the study of this field.
For instance, Schacter and Tulving define the memory system based on the mechanism of brain and the type of
information it processes as well as the tenets of its operation. Here, all the experiences of the brain is included in
memory indicating latter’s diverse field and a long duration of life time.
The structure based explanation of memory is given by Eliasmith (2001). He says a new stimuli is incorporated
in the structure of the memory which has the ability to interpret the surroundings. However, there is intense debate
regarding the real shape of a memory. structure takes in reality.
Sternberg’s Information Processing Approach
Stressing over intelligence, Sternberg (1988) explains development on the basis of skills and continuity. Thus, for him
there is no difference between child and adult learning. Further, he leaves the biological aspects and takes into account
only the information processing dimensions of development. This model looks at cognitive development as a novice to
expert journey and treats intelligence as having three kinds of information processing components, namely, meta,
performance, and knowledge-acquisition. Learning and cognitive development are facilitated by all these components in
a holistic manner. Metacomponents are like executives and guides but do not act directly while the action taken is called
performance components. The knowledge-acquisition component learns new information so that a potential problem
would be solved (Driscoll, 2001). According to Kearsley (2001), apart from these components parts, Sternberg’s theory
has two more parts in his triarchic theory of intelligence. In his second part, Sternberg explains that an individual’s social
interaction or environment also influences cognitive development. This importance of environment shown by Sternberg
brings him closer to Bruner (1977, 1986) and Vygotsky (1978) who advocated to the interactional theories. In saying so
these scholars emphasize that learning does not occur in a vacuum. Similarly, while discussing education, Driscoll (2001)
emphasizes on considering the broader context in how culture shapes the mind. All these theorists assume that there are
memory structures in which new information is fitted.
Firstly thing that we can do about memory lasting for a long time so that we can recall the information when we
need is to pay attention to the meaningfulness or emotional content of an item which we are organizing at the Short-
Term Memory (STM) stage and transferring it to the Long-Term Memory (LTM) store. This would enhance the

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power of memory and help in its retention into LTM. Therefore, it is required that we must make learning experience
relevant and meaningful. For instance, chunking method can be used which help enhance the STM transfer to LTM
to a very great extent. When the chunking or making blocks of the available information is done grouping of certain
items together is made easy for the brain which in turn enhances the ability to remember thing for a long time and
learn better and in an easy manner. For instance, if there are ten things in a list a suitable chunking is done by grouping
three or four things together. This way individual information is not lost and do not float like a dry leaf on water.
Secondly, prepare a fixed framework for fixing knowledge into it. This allows the knowledge store of our LTM
to fit in information received from the STM. Actually, the knowledge stored in LTM chooses the information from the
environment and hence it is very difficult to fix the information in this store if it is not according to the perception of the
individual. Therefore, a fixed framework has to be present if we want to learn a lot and retain it for a long time. The
framework accepts the perceptual memory information keenly and stores such information for a time unlimited.
Thirdly, since the information inside the LTM is present in inter-related networks of schemas, the mental models
of the world, these schemas should be activated before the presentation of information. This greatly enhances
information processing of the new item. Instructors can use drawings, pictures, graphic organisers, curiosity-arousing
questions, movies, and so on for activating these schemas. We need to do this to enhance memory power because
schemas form intricate knowledge structures which mean the information activating one schema would also activate
other closely linked ones. Further, it is through these schemas that brain is able to pay attention to relevant information.
Obviously, unimportant details are left out. If information in LTM is rehearsed, it also increases the retention period.
Q. 2. Critically discuss Das, Naglieri and Kirby’s PASS theory.
Ans. Das, Nagliery And Kirby’s Pass Theory: The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive
(PASS) theory of intelligence, was developed by Das, Nagliery and Kirby (1994). The theories of Spearman, Thorndike,
Thomson, Thurstone are based on isolating factors after administering several intelligence tests over a large sample
of subjects. They did not take into account how an input. This theory has taken its inspiration from the Pioneering
neuropsychological researches of Alexander Luria. Luria described human cognitive processes within the framework
of three functional units. The function of the first unit is cortical arousal and attention; the second unit codes information
using simultaneous and successive processes; and the third unit provides for planning, self-monitoring, and structuring
of cognitive activities. There are four main components of the theory, viz, Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous,
and Successive (PASS) processing systems.
Planning is a frontal lobe function. It is, more specifically, associated with the prefrontal cortex and one of the
main abilities that distinguishes humans from other primates. The prefrontal cortex “plays a central role in forming
goals and objectives and then in devising plans of action required to attain these goals. It selects the cognitive skills
required to implement the plans, coordinates these skills and applies them in a correct order. Finally, the prefrontal
cortex is responsible for evaluating our actions as success or failure relative to our intentions”. Planning, therefore,
helps us achieve through the selection or development of plans or strategies needed to complete tasks for which a
solution is needed and is critical to all activities where the child or adult has to determine how to solve a problem. This
includes generation, evaluation, and execution of a plan as well as selfmonitoring and impulse control. Thus, Planning
allows for the solution of problems, control of attention, simultaneous, and successive processes, as well as selective
utilization of knowledge and skills (Das, Kar and Parrila, 1996).
Attention is a mental process that is closely related to the orienting response. The base of the brain allows the
organism to direct focused selective attention toward a stimulus over time and resist loss of attention to other stimuli.
The longer attention is required the more the activity can be one that demands vigilance. Attention is controlled by
intentions and goals and involves knowledge and skills as well as the other PASS processes.
Next, Knowledge base is closely associated with the PASS model and all processes are found within this
framework. Knowledge base of the PASS model represents all information obtained from the cultural and social
background and throws light on various parts of behaviour.
Simultaneous Processing is essential for organization of information into groups or a coherent whole. The parieto-
occipital-temporal brain regions provide a critical ability to see patterns as interrelated elements. Planning processes
provide for the programming, regulation and verification of behaviour and are responsible for behaviours, such as
asking questions, problem-solving and the capacity for self-monitoring.
Successive Processing is involved with the use of stimuli arranged in a specific serial order. Whenever information
must be remembered or completed in a specific order successive processing will be involved. Importantly, however,
the information must not be able to be organized into a pattern (like the number 9933811 organized into
99-33-8-11) but instead each element can only be related to those that precede it.

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 The PASS theory is an alternative to approaches to intelligence that have traditionally included verbal, non-verbal,
and quantitative tests. Not only does this theory expand the view of what “abilities” should be measured, but it also
puts emphasis on basic psychological processes and precludes verbal achievement-like tests such as vocabulary.
Additionally, the PASS theory is an alternative to the anachronistic notion of a general intelligence. Instead, the
functions of the brain are considered the building blocks of ability conceptualized within a cognitive processing
framework. While the theory may have its roots in neuropsychology, “…its branches are spread over developmental
and educational psychology” (Varnhagen & Das, 1986, p. 130). Thus PASS theory of cognitive processing, with its
links to developmental and neuro psychology, provides an advantage in explanatory power over the notion of general
intelligence.
Salient features of pass theory Das (1998, p. 221):
1. It tests intelligence as a set of cognitive processes,
2. The PASS theory of intelligence examines what the major processes are
3. The PASS theory of intelligence guides us in the remediation of preparing troubles.
Cognition is a dynamic methodology that works inside the setting of the singular’s knowledge base, reacts to his
encounters, and is liable to developmental varieties. When we measure the Cognition processes then concerned the
effective processing. Despite the fact that these methodologies are interrelated and persevering, they are not just as
included in all assignments. Therefore, cognitive evaluation errands for planning, attention, simultaneous and successive
processing were produced to hold fast to PASS theory and prevalently require a particular cognitive process.
Children in the age group of 8 to 17 years, Ability/achievement, Ability/reading and ability/mathematics normative
taxonomies for reading and mathematics were developed from the PASS theory scales of the CAS (Cognitive
Assessment System). Further, eight perusing and five math bunches were recognized and depicted utilizing demographics
and generally speaking capacity and accomplishment levels. This helped Ronning (2004) to advance intervention
programme likewise using the PASS theory.
Critical Appraisal of the Pass Theory
Intelligence is tested in a unique manner with the help of PASS theory. It basically based on the Luria’s neurological
studies. PASS theory is useful to link PASS processes to the brain. The linking of PASS processes to brain becomes
helpful, for example, in understanding the loss of sequential and planning functions due to aging in a study of individuals
with Down’s Syndrome. The PASS theory provides the theoretical framework for a measurement instrument called
the Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). One unusual property of the PASS theory of cognitive
processes is that it has proven useful for both intellectual assessment (e.g., the CAS) and educational intervention.
The theory provides the theoretical framework for the PASS Reading Enhancement Programme (PREP), a remediation
curriculum designed to improve the planning, attention and information processing strategies that underlie reading. A
related school-readiness program aims at improving the foundations of cognitive processes(COGENT) in preparation
for schooling (Das, 2009). Both are evidence-based intervention programs
Q. 3. Compare and contrast behaviouristic and innateness theory of language acquisition.
Ans. Language acquisition is not mere copying and doesn’t depend on general intelligence. Therefore, it may be
argued that some innate feature of the mind causes universally rapid and natural acquisition of language in child.
Thus, Chomsky summed up children must have an inborn faculty for acquiring language. This means the process
is biologically determined which is explained by the fact that human species has a developed kind of brain. This has
provided human beings with neural circuits having linguistic information at birth itself. Hearing speech and the following
interpretation with help of inborn principles or structures makes available the natural faculty called the Language
acquisition Device (LAD) in the human beings.
According to Chomsky, all human languages show common principles as is reflected by the presence of words
for things and actions (nouns and verbs) in all the languages of the world. The child relates his native language with
underlying principles of his natural faculty. This theory, for for example, says the LAD already contains the concept
of verb tense and the child forms the hypothesis that the past tense of verbs liked “played”, “got” is formed by
clubbing the sound /d/, /t/ or /id/ to the base form of the verb. That is why children show up “virtuous errors” like
using “goed” for past tense of “go”. Undoubtedly, Chomsky knows that this process is unconscious.
The path breaking Chomsky’s theory is still a main theory of language acquisition but over the period it has
undergone changes. To begin with, Chomsky believed that the LAD contained specific knowledge about language.
According to Dan Isaac Slobin, it may be more of a process mechanism to work out language rules.

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Evidence to Support Innateness Theory
It appears that Chomsky proposes new theories without much empirical evidence. In his innateness theory, he
said that children face poverty of stimulus. But there is no evidence to say that children actually face this problem.
Unlike the minds of the adults, the minds of the children are not cluttered. An uncluttered mind can take more input
and absorb it. This might be the reason behind the ability of the infants in internalizing their mother tongue at a rapid
pace. Moreover language is not something which remains static. It keeps changing. It evolves constantly and
continuously.
Three types of evidence to support innateness theory:
l Slobin has acicular out that human analysis is abnormally acclimatized to the assembly of speech. Unlike our
abutting relatives, the abundant apes, we accept acquired a articulate amplitude which allows the absolute
delivery of a advanced repertoire of articulate sounds.
l Neuro-science has additionally recognized particular regions of the mind with notably semantic capacities,
prominently Broca’s range and Wernicke’s territory. Stroke victimized people furnish important information:
contingent upon the site of mind harm, they might endure a reach of dialect brokenness, from issues with
finding expressions to an ineptitude to decipher syntax.
l Trials pointed at educating chimpanzees to convey utilizing plastic images or manual signals have demonstrated
dubious. It appears to be likely that our gorilla cousins, while equipped to study distinctive “expressions”, have
almost no syntactic capability. Pinker (1994) offers an exceptional record of this research.
Sign language is a language which, instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns, uses manual communication
and body language to convey meaning. This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and
movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker’s thoughts. They share
many similarities with spoken languages, which is why linguists consider both to be natural languages, but there are
also some significant differences between signed and spoken languages.
SECTION – B
Answer the following questions in 400 words each.
Q. 4. Explain the key issues in the study of cognitive psychology.
Ans. Key Issues In The Study of Cognitive Psychology: The issues or major themes in the study of cognitive
psychology are discussed below.
Nature versus Nurture: We may emphasize nature, that is, innate characteristics of human cognition or nurture,
that is, the environment in the study of cognition.
Rationalism versus Empiricism: The truth about ourselves and about the world around us may be approached
through applying reason and logic or by observing and testing our observations.
Structures versus Processes: Psychologist may study the structures of the human mind or human thinking
processes.
Domain Generality versus Domain Specificity: The processes or observations may be studied as limited to
single domain apply also to all domains.
Validity of Causal Inferences versus Ecological Validity: Psychologists may use controlled experiments for
valid inferences regarding causality or they may use more naturalistic techniques for ecological validity.
Applied versus Basic Research: Some research may be inclined towards practical applications and yet others
may be conducted into basic cognitive processes.
Biological versus Behavioural Methods: The brain and its functions may be studied directly during the
performance of cognitive tasks or people’s behaviour in cognitive tasks may be emphasized.
It may be noted that any of the extreme positions mentioned above are generally not taken rather both types of
questions are posed.
Q. 5. Explain the Levels of processing model by Craik and Lockhart.
Ans. Levels of Processing: Craik And Lockhart: The levels of processing model of memory (Craik and
Lockhart, 1972) was put forward partly as a result of the criticism leveled at the multi-store model. Instead of
concentrating on the stores/structures involved (i.e., short-term memory and long- term memory), this theory
concentrates on the processes involved in memory. Unlike the multi-store model it is a non-structured approach. The
basic idea is that memory is really just what happens as a result of processing information. Psychologists Craik and
Lockhart propose that memory is just a by-product of the depth of processing of information and there is no clear
distinction between short-term memory and long-term memory. Craik defined depth as “the meaningfulness extracted
from the stimulus rather than in terms of the number of analyses performed upon it.”

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 In this model, Shallow Processing takes two forms–structural and phonetic processing. Structural processing
(appearance) occurs when we encode only the physical qualities of something. For example, the typeface of a word
or how the letters look. Phonemic processing occurs when we encode its sound. Shallow processing only involves
maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold something in the STM) and leads to fairly short-term retention of
information. This is the only type of rehearsal to take place within the multi-store model. On the contrary, Deep
Processing involves semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to
similar words with similar meaning. Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful
analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. For example, giving words
a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge.
To sum up, the idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level
of processing, the easier the information is to recall. Its aim is to investigate how deep and shallow processing affects
memory recall.
Method: Participants were presented with a series of 60 words about which they had to answer one of three
questions. Some questions required the participants to process the word in a deep way (e.g. semantic) and others in
a shallow way (e.g. structural and phonemic). For example:
Structural / visual processing: ‘Is the word in capital letters or small letters?
Phonemic / auditory processing: ‘Does the word rhyme with . . .?’
Semantic processing: ‘Does the word go in this sentence . . . . ?
Participants were then given a long list of 180 words into which the original words had been mixed. They were
asked to pick out the original words.
Results: Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and
visually processed words.
Conclusion: Semantically processed words involve elaboration rehearsal and deep processing which results in
more accurate recall. Phonemic and visually processed words involve shallow processing and less accurate recall.
Real Life Applications: This explanation of memory is useful in everyday life because it highlights the way in
which elaboration, which requires deeper processing of information, can aid memory. Three examples of this are:
Reworking: Putting information in your own words or talking about it with someone else.
Method of Loci: When trying to remember a list of items, linking each with a familiar place or route.
Imagery: By creating an image of something you want to remember, you elaborate on it and encode it visually
(i.e. a mind map).
The above examples could all be used to revise psychology using semantic processing (e.g. explaining memory
models to your mum, using mind maps etc.) and should result in deeper processing through using elaboration rehearsal.
Consequently more information will be remembered (and recalled) and better exam results should be achieved.
Levels of Processing versus Information Processing: While structural components are emphasized
information-processing models, Craik and Lockhart have first postulate process and then formulated a memory
system in terms of these operations. Another point of difference is the sequence of stages being emphasized by the
information processing models. Levels-of-processing model states that memory traces are formed as a by-product of
perceptual processing whereby linking the durability of memory with the depth of processing. However, the levels-of-
processing model has been criticised because while it is vague and largely untestable, it makes a very ordinary
conclusion that meaningful events are well remembered. Since the well remembered events are designated “deeply
processed,” without any objective and independent index of depth.
The notions concerning rehearsal also make the two models different whereby the information processing model
rehearsal transfers information to a longer-lasting memory store, while LOP sees rehearsal as either maintaining
information or processing it to a deeper level of the memory.
In order to whether the level of processing affected how well we remember information, Craik and Tulving
(1975) conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a list of 60 words. They were then asked to recall
certain words by being shown one of three questions, each testing different level of processing. The researchers
found that participants were better able to recall words which had been processed more deeply–that is, processed
semantically, supporting level of processing theory. Moreover, similar were the findings of D’Agostino, O’Neill, and
Paivio (1977); Klein and Saltz (1976); and Schulman (1974).

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 Q. 6. Explain aphasia and highlight the types of aphasia.
Ans. Aphasia: Aphasia is an acquired communication disorder that impairs a person’s ability to process language,
but does not affect intelligence. Aphasia impairs the ability to speak and understand others, and most people with
aphasia experience difficulty reading and writing. Aphasia is a disorder caused by damage to the parts of the brain
that control language. It can make it hard for you to read, write and say what you mean to say. It is most common in
adults who have had a stroke. Brain tumors, infections, injuries, and dementia can also cause it. The type of problem
you have and how bad it is depends on which part of your brain is damaged and how much damage there is.
l Wernicke’s aphasia (‘fluent aphasia’): In this form of aphasia the ability to grasp the meaning of spoken
words is chiefly impaired, while the ease of producing connected speech is not much affected. : Wernicke’s
aphasia is caused by damage to the left temporal lobe of the brain. Therefore Wernicke’s aphasia is referred
to as a ‘fluent aphasia.’ However, speech is far from normal. Sentences do not hang together and irrelevant
words intrude-sometimes to the point of jargon, in severe cases. Reading and writing are often severely
impaired.
l Broca’s aphasia (‘non-fluent aphasia’) : In this form of aphasia, speech output is severely reduced and is
limited mainly to short utterances of less than four words. Broca’s aphasia is caused by damage to the brain’s
premotor area, responsible,in part, for controlling motor commands used in speech production.Vocabulary
access is limited and the formation of sounds by persons with Broca’s aphasia is often laborious and clumsy.
The person may understand speech relatively well and be able to read, but be limited in writing. Broca’s
aphasia is often referred to as a ‘non fluent aphasia’ because of the halting and effortful quality of speech.
l Receptive aphasia – you hear the voice or see the print, but you can’t make sense of the words
l Anomic aphasia: This term is applied to persons who are left with a persistent inability to supply the words
for the very things they want to talk about-particularly the significant nouns and verbs. As a result their speech,
while fluent in grammatical form and output is full of vague circumlocutions and expressions of frustration.
They understand speech well, and in most cases, read adequately. Difficulty finding words is as evident in
writing as in speech.
l Global aphasia: you can’t speak, understand speech, read, or write. This is the most severe form of aphasia,
and is applied to patients who can produce few recognizable words and understand little or no spoken language.
Persons with Global Aphasia can neither read nor write. Global aphasia may often be seen immediately after
the patient has suffered a stroke and it may rapidly improve if the damage has not been too extensive.
However, with greater brain damage, severe and lasting disability may result.
Q. 7. Explain Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence.
Ans. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Howard Gardner is a Professor of Education at Harvard
University where he has received all of his post-secondary education. He is trained both as a developmental and
neuropsychologist. Gardner has authored numerous books and articles in professional journals, most notably the
theory of multiple intelligences. The theory came about as a fusion of his cognitive capacities research with normal
and gifted children and with adults with brain damage. Since the release of his book he began teaching in the Harvard
Graduate School of Education, has become actively involved in school reform and in developing means of performance-
based assessments in relation to the multiple intelligences and improving curriculum and instruction (Harvard Project
Zero: Howard Gardner, 2001).
The Harvard Graduate School of Education has maintained a research group called Project Zero for the past 32
years. Project Zero exists to conduct research on the development of children’s learning processes. Over time, the
scope of Project Zero has expanded to include many more aspects of education–from individual students and classrooms
to curricula, schools, and educational organizations.
Intelligence can be defined as example a girl of twelve is given a set of paints, a brush, and a canvas and very
accurately replicates Van Gogh’s A Starry Night. This same young girl, however, is considered mentally retarded
according to intelligence and other standardized tests. Another child, who is only six, can quickly solve mathematical
problems that most children twice his age struggle to unravel. Both of these children exhibit different types of
intelligence. The girl exhibits Spatial Intelligence and the boy Logical-Mathematical according to Howard Gardner’s
theory of multiple intelligences that was first introduced in his book, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences in 1983.

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 IQ tests, such as those created by Binet and Simon at the beginning of the twentieth century, were not used to
identify the intelligences that encompass Gardner's theory. In its place are eight criteria created from findings gathered
from studies of many different types of people as well as from biological and various psychological findings. Gardner
precedes the introduction of these criteria with a cautionary note by saying, “once and for all, that there is not, and
there never can be, a single irrefutable and universally accepted list of intelligences”.
Gardner originally identified seven intelligences and has recently added an eighth that has met his criteria. These
intelligences are musical, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, bodily intrapersonal, interpersonal and naturalist.
According to the theory, everyone possesses all of these intelligences: However, the extent to which each is developed
in an individual varies from person to person.
Linguistic Intelligence
This intelligence involves the knowing which comes through language; through reading, writing, and speaking. It
involves understanding the order and meaning of words in both speech and writing and how to properly use the
language. It involves understanding the sociocultural nuances of a language, including idioms, plays on words and
linguistically-based humour.
If this is a strong intelligence for you, you have highly developed skills for reading, speaking, and writing and you
tend to think in words. You probably like various kinds of literature, playing word games, making up poetry and stories,
engaging in involved discussions with other people, debating, formal speaking, creative writing, and telling jokes. You
are likely precise in expressing yourself and irritated when others are not! You love learning new words, you do well
with written assignments, and your comprehension of anything you read is high.
Logical-mathematical Intelligence
This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the various patterns that occur in our lives:
thought patterns, number patterns, visual patterns, colour patters and so on. It begins with concrete patterns in the real
world but gets increasingly abstract as we try to understand relationships of the patterns we have seen.
If you happen to be a logical-mathematically inclined person you tend to think more conceptually and abstractly
and are often able to see patterns and relationships that others miss. You probably like to conduct experiments, to
solve puzzles and other problems, to ask cosmic questions, and analyze circumstances and people’s behaviour. You
most likely enjoy working with numbers and mathematical formulas and operations, and you love the challenge of a
complex problem to solve. You are probably systematic and organized, and you likely always have a logical rationale
or argument for what you are doing or thinking at any given time.
Musical Intelligence
This is the knowing that happens through sound and vibration. In the original research on the theory of multiple
intelligences this intelligence was called musical-rhythmic intelligence. However, it is not limited to music and rhythm
so I’m calling it auditory-vibrational, for it deals with the whole realm of sound, tones, beats and vibrational patterns as
well as music.
If you are strong in this intelligence area you likely have a love of music and rhythmic patterns.
You are probably very sensitive to sounds in the environment; the chirp of cricket, rain on the roof, varying traffic
patterns. You may study and work better with music in the background. You can often reproduce a melody or
rhythmic pattern after hearing it only once. Various sounds, tones, and rhythms may have a visible effect on you–
others can often see a change in facial expressions, body movement, or emotionalresponses. You probably like to
create music and you enjoy listening to a wide variety of music. You may be skilled at mimicking sounds, language
accents, and others’ speech patterns, and you can probably readily recognize different musical instruments in a
composition.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Everyone shares this intelligence. At its most basic level, it is seen in a child working on their fine and gross motor
skills and at its ultimate level, in a professional athlete such as Micheal Jordan, soaring gracefully in the air to dunk the
ball or a ballerina dancing her way across the stage. Students who exhibit an affinity for sports, excellent hand-eye
coordination, an enjoyment from creating with their hands craft, art and model items exhibit this intelligence.
Spatial Intelligence
Artists, designers in many areas, architects, navigators and photographers, among other careers where an eye for
images, shapes, details, colours, and textures is needed fall into this intelligence category. Students who have the
tendency to sketch or “doodle” on their papers (or desk) may be demonstrating this intelligence.

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Interpersonal Intelligence
Where intrapersonal focuses on self-introspection, interpersonal intelligence focuses on the ability to relate with
others. An aspect of this is the ability to understand the feelings, thoughts, and opinions of others in order to create a
favourable atmosphere for working and problem-solving. Students who demonstrate this intelligence are typically
very social, they have well-developed verbal and non-verbal communication skills, and they can use these skills to
manipulate others. This intelligence is found in careers like politicians, teachers, counsellors, sales people, clergy and
tour guides.
Intrapersonal Intelligence
“Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to gain access to understand one’s inner feelings, dreams and ideas”
(Perry, 1996). This particular intelligence is difficult to evaluate in students. Some traits of this intelligence can be
found in students who have clear goals, a good “sense of self” and who are aware of their own strengths and
weaknesses. Careers matches for this intelligence are philosophers, counsellors, psychologists, theorists, and writers
to name a few.
Naturalistic Intelligence
The latest intelligence to be identified is the naturalist intelligence. This intelligence is, “directly related to our
ability to our recognition, appreciation, and understanding of the natural world around us” (Lazear). From people who
adore gardening and can name every flower in their yard to a biologist who has a mastery of taxonomy are those who
exhibit this intelligence.
Existential Intelligence
Existential intelligence can be defined as the ability to be sensitive to or have the capacity for, conceptualizing or
tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why are we born, why do we
die, what is consciousness, or how did we get here. Expressive and put their opinions to astonishing facts and
information. Frequently inspired and good at evaluating themselves, they have their own preferences and convictions.
Existential intelligence driven people may be drawn towards careers like human resources workers, ministry, psychiatrist,
philosopher, psychologists, social workers and counsellors.
Gardner (1983), “Intelligences” has a particular set of capabilities that could be watched and measured. The
predominant two types of intelligence are commonly the capacities that help solid execution in traditional school
environments and to transforming high scores on generally IQ measures or tests of accomplishment. The following
three structures are exceptionally vital for craftsmen. The following two, viz., interpersonal and intrapersonal
intelligences, are individual intelligences. Interpersonal intelligence demonstrates an individual’s capability to recognise
the propositions, sentiments and causes of others. Individuals who hold and advance this quality are prone to work
well with others and might pick fields like bargains, teaching, counselling or governmental issues so as to utilize them
when needed. Intrapersonal knowledge is portrayed as the capability to grasp oneself and utilize that data to control
one’s own life.
In Frames of Mind, According to Howard Gardner (1983), Intelligence interfaced the personal intelligences ‘as a
piece’. Due to their nearby affiliation in generally societies, they are regularly interfaced together. Nonetheless, he
still contends that it bodes well for think about two types of personal intelligence. Gardner guaranteed that the seven
intelligences infrequently work freely. They are utilized in the meantime and have a tendency to supplement one
another as individuals advance aptitudes or settle problem.
Our schools and the social order center the greater part of its consideration on linguistic and logical-mathematical
intelligence. Gardner emphasises that we may as well likewise place equivalent consideration on people who indicate
endowments in the different intelligences: the specialists, engineers, performers, naturalists, creators, dancers, therapists,
business people, and other people who advance the planet in which we live. A large number of these youngsters,
indeed, wind up being named “studying handicapped,” a lack of ability to concentrate consistently, or essentially
underachievers, when their novel methods for thinking and studying aren’t tended to by a vigorously etymological or
intelligent numerical.
According to this theory, educators should to present their lessons in a wide mixed bag of music, helpful studying,
workmanship exercises, pretend, media, field excursions, inward reflection, and significantly more. The hypothesis of
various intelligences likewise has solid suggestions for mature person studying and advancement. Numerous mature
people end up in employments that don’t make optimal utilization of their generally exceptionally improved intelligences.
The hypothesis of multiple intelligences gives grown-ups an entire better approach to take a gander at their lives,
inspecting possibilities that they abandoned in their adolescence, (for example an adoration for symbolization or show)
yet now have the chance to advance through courses, diversions, or self-improvement programmes other variety.

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Evaluation
On the basis of a new typology the excessive importance of Gardner’s approach is placed on the independence
of these intelligences from one another and divides human beings. In fact, the brain and indeed the human being act
as a whole, and no one mental activity can be truly independent of another. Multiple intelligences can be useful in
investigating specialised functions. According to Gardner’s Schools have often sought to help students develop a
sense of accomplishment and self-confidence. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences provides a theoretical
foundation for recognizing the different abilities and talents of students. This theory acknowledges that while all
students may not be verbally or mathematically gifted, children may have an expertise in other areas, such as music,
spatial relations, or interpersonal knowledge. Approaching and assessing learning in this manner allows a wider range
of students to successfully participate in classroom learning.
Q. 8. Discuss Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
Ans. Cognitive Theory: Psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), children progress through a series of four key
stages of cognitive development marked by shifts in how they understand the world. Piaget believed that children are
like “little scientists” and that they actively try to explore and make sense of the world around them. Through his
observations of his own children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four
distinct stages: The sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the
concrete operational stage, from age 7 to 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and spans
into adulthood.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years): During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating objects. The first stage of Piaget’s theory lasts from birth to approximately age
two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's
knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviours are limited to
simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with (such as
looking, sucking, grasping, and listening) to learn more about the environment. Object permanence is a child's
understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard.
The Pre-operational stage (2 to 7 Years): occurs roughly between the ages two and seven. Language
development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand
concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people,
which he termed egocentrism.
The concrete operational stage (7 to 11 Years): begins around age seven and continues until approximately
age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking
logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts. They begin to
understand the concept of conservation; the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass.
The formal operational stage (12 and Up) begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood.
During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive
reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage. Abstract thought of this stage, while children tend
to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during
the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible
outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning.
Piaget did not view children’s intellectual development at a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more
information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a
qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn’t
just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about
the world. In Piaget’s view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing
schemas.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child’s sole experience has
been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child
encounters a very large dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to
include this new information.

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 SECTION – C
Answer the following questions in 50 words each.
Q. 9. Sensory Memory
Ans. Sensory Memory: It is related to the change in form of energy or transduction. Through special sensory
receptor cells, our body changes various sources of energy to electrical stimulation for the brain to function. However,
such memory is very short. Therefore, the information at this stage should be transferred to the next one, i.e. Short-
Term Memory (STM). Information into STM can be fed in two ways: (i) the stimulus should have an interesting
feature; (ii) a known pattern is activated by the stimulus.
Q. 10. Neuroscience and Cognitive Psychology
Ans. Neuroscience and Cognitive Psychology: Today, cognitive psychology and neuro-psychology are closely
associated but physiological psychology or neuroanatomy worked separately in the beginning. Neurologists contributed
to the knowledge of functioning of brain and helped research in cognitive psychology. The neurologists like Karl
Lashley (1929) studied as to whether the brain was a holistic organ, or whether activities were localised. The 21 st
century is witnessing another paradigm shift whereby neuro cognitive imagery is being used in a major way in the
cognitive psychology research along with the traditional issues of perception, memory, etc. With the recent progress
in the field of neuroscience, the Cognitive Psychology studies both the structural and functional aspects of the brain.
Thus, neuro cognitive techniques such as MRI, PET, EEG, etc. provide a deeper and clearer insight into the brain
showing both the structures of cognition as well as the processes. With a number of remarkable results, this trend is
expected to continue and grow in future.
Q. 11. Artificial Intelligence
Ans. Artificial Intelligence (AI), the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks
commonly associated with intelligent beings. Problem solving, especially in artificial intelligence, may be described as
a methodical hunt through an extent of conceivable activities with a specific end goal to achieve some predefined
objective or result. An unique reason system is perfectly customized for a specific issue and frequently abuses
exceptionally particular characteristics of the scenario in which the issue is installed. Interestingly, an universally
useful technique is pertinent to a wide mixed bag of issues. One universally useful method utilized as a part of AI is
methods end dissection an anything but rushed, or incremental, lessening of the distinction between the present state
and the last objective.
Q. 12. Developmental apraxia of speech
Ans. Developmental apraxia of speech is also known as childhood apraxia of speech. This condition is present
from birth, and it affects a child’s ability to form sounds and words. Children with speech apraxia often have far
greater abilities to understand speech than to express themselves with spoken words. The majority of children with
developmental apraxia will experience significant improvement, if not complete recovery, with the correct treatment.
DAS is a speech disorder that interferes with a child’s ability to correctlypronounce sounds, syllables and words.
It is the loss of ability to consistently position the articulators (face, tongue, lips, jaw) for the production of speech
sounds and for sequencing those sounds into syllables or words.
Q. 13. Phonemes
Ans. Phonemes are the smallest distinguishable units in a language. In the English language, many consonants,
such as t, p, and m, correspond to single phonemes, while other consonants, such as c and g, can correspond to more
than one phoneme. Vowels typically correspond to more than one phoneme. For example, ocorresponds to different
phonemes depending on whether it is pronounced as in bone or woman. Some phonemes correspond to combinations
of consonants, such as ch, sh, and th.
Q. 14. Einstellung
Ans. Einstellung: The Gestaltists define einstellung as a process to portray the inclination to set the psyche into
a standard approach to problem solving. Wertheimer’s study showed that past experiences are very helpful in solving
straightforward problems. On the other hand, Luchins (1942; Luchins & Luchins, 1950, 1994a, 1994b) show the path
in which rehashing a specific problem-solving technique can make an individual ignorant concerning elective methods
for settling the problem.
Luchins (1942) used water container to study problem. He allotted a fancied amount of water utilizing three jugs
with distinctive limits. Jugs utilized have no degrees on them so they must be topped off to the top to measure sums
that bring about the sought amount.

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 Luchin’s Water Jar Problems
Jar Size
A B C Goal
Problem 1 21 127 3 100
Problem 2 14 163 25 99
Problem 3 18 43 10 5
Problem 4 9 42 6 21
Problem 5 20 59 4 31
Problem 6 23 49 3 20
For example, assume the wanted amount was 5 mugs and Jar A held 10 containers, Jar B held 4 glasses and Jar
C held 1 glass, the result might be to fill A first. Next from A spill into B once, then after that spill from B into C once
(A-B-C). Attempt every one of the six problems in above Table. According to Langer (1989), Einstellung impacts are
one sort of heedlessness that characterises human conduct, especially when we deal with other individuals. Time
after time we act from a solitary viewpoint or decide that has worked previously. Rather than investigating our
surroundings deliberately to search out elective courses of activity, we examine simply enough characteristics to see
that we are right.
Q. 15. Heuristics
Ans. Heuristics: Generally speaking, heuristics is a context free strategy. A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb
strategy that may or may not work in certain situations. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not always guarantee a
correct solution. However, using this problem-solving strategy does allow people to simplify complex problems and
reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.
Q. 16. Mental age
Ans. Mental age is a measure of an individual's mental attainment based on the age in which it takes an average
individual to reach that same level of attainment. Explore mental age, how it differs from chronological age, and more.
Mental age is the age level of an individual's mental ability. It is based on the age in which it takes an average
individual to reach that same level of mental attainment. Mental age is usually measured by standardized intelligence
tests. For example, early versions of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales calculated a mental age based on how
well a child performed on the test.
The concept of mental age is somewhat debatable. Those who support mental age believe that even though
children develop intellectually at different rates, the path of intellectual development is essentially the same for all
children. They also believe that mental age is less meaningful for adults because adult intelligence changes very little
year to year.
Q. 17. Creativity and Intelligence
Ans. Creativity and Intelligence: Creativity and intelligence are viewed as completely free of one another.
Intelligence shouldn’t impact creativity. Creativity is seen as a mental operation open to every living soul. It is probably
reliant on area particular information (i.e. the measure of presentation to and skill in a given field) and think practice.
According to studies of Terman’s (1925), a high IQ shows a lacking for innovativeness. The majority of these
youngsters attained momentous word related victory in later life, none of them hinted at a huge innovativeness. The
majority of the studies concerning the acquaintanceship between psychometric insights and imagination yielded just a
feeble relationship. Case in point, Torrance (1977) reported that the average of 178 correspondence coefficients
between IQ and the TTCT was just .20. Additionally, element examinations of IQ and innovativeness tests yielded
divide components.
On the other hand, an inventive individual’s IQ has been showed to be no less than a standard deviation above the
mean, regularly more. Guilford (1967) inferred a theory that an insignificant level of IQ, frequently subjective set to
120, ought to be vital, however not sufficient for inventiveness. Innovative accomplishment was thought to be
unimaginable beneath this limit. Guilford additionally suggested that scramble plots of IQ and innovativeness might as
well show a triangular design with no information focuses in the low Iq/high inventiveness quadrant.
Later, Hayes (1989) put forward an elective ‘certification theory’, which questioned natural connections between
inventiveness and brainpower. Rather, it expressed that generally potential outcomes to presentation a recognisable
level of inventiveness, for example occupations in structural engineering or science, essentially require an elevated
amount of formal instruction. Since scholarly execution is related with IQ, social order basically prevents innovative
people from securing low IQ the opportunity to express their story.

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 Q. 18. Functional Fixedness
Ans. Functional Fixedness: Duncker (1935) came up with this concept which alludes to the inclination to see
questions as having just a solitary, normal utilization. A sledge is for pounding nails and different things for example.
We categorise protests dependent upon their useful characteristics and additionally their characteristics. To help
break their useful fixedness, he rehashed the test however this time exhausted the candles, tacks, and matches on the
table, leaving the containers unfilled. Under these circumstances, all members tackled the problem by first mounting
the crates on the divider utilizing the tacks, which then served as stages for the candles. Here is an alternate sample
of useful fixedness, called the coin problem (Simmel, 1953). Assume you have eight coins and an equalization. One of
the coins is a fake coin and hence lighter than the others. The problem is to discover the fake coin by utilizing the
equalization just two times.
In Simmel’s coin problem, the result is regularly extremely challenging to see. You have to isolate the coins in a
manner that is a long way from clear right away. Assume you isolate them into three aggregations of three, three and
two coins. At that point weigh three versus three. In the event that they adjust, then the fake coin must be in the
gathering of two coins. Your second weighing, then, is to take the aggregation of two coins and weigh one versus one.
On the other hand, assume on your first weighing one aggregation of three coins is lighter: Then on your second
weighing, take any two of the three coins furthermore weigh one against the other. In the event that they equalize,
then the third (unweighed) coin must be the fake one. In the event that they don’t equalization, then lighter one is fake.
This system is ensured to discover the result. Notwithstanding, as compared to a wrong process, it is significantly
more complex and new.
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