The Study of Language Use

A subfield of linguistics which studies how people use language

within a CONTEXT and why they use language in particular ways
Consider the word “BALL” in the
following sentences:
 He kicked the ball into the net.
 She dribbled the ball down the court and shot a basket.
 She putted the ball from two feet away.
 His racket missed the ball by mere inches.
 The ball rocketed across the alley and took down all ten
pins.
The discourse that surrounds a language unit and helps to
determine its interpretation
Subparts of Context
1. Physical Context
- Where the conversation takes place
- What objects are present
- What actions are taking place
2. Epistemic Context
- Background knowledge shared by speakers and hearers
3. Linguistic Context
- Utterances previous to the utterance
4. Social Context
- Social relationship and setting of speakers and hearers
The use of language to perform some act
Speech Acts
Sentence Type Speech Act Function Example
Declarative Assertion Conveys John Jones has bad
information, breath.
Is true or false
Interrogative Question Elicits information Who ate my
porridge?
Imperative Order Causes others to Leave me alone.
Request behave in certain Please leave me
ways alone.
Other speech acts include:
• Threats
•Warnings
•Bets
•Advises
•Promises
Performative Verbs
 Verbs that can be used to perform the acts they name
1. I assert that John Jones has bad breath.
2. I ask who ate my porridge.
3. I order you to leave me alone.
4. I request that you leave me alone.
5. I threaten you that if you do that again, I’ll punch you.
6. I warn that there is a gremlin at the back of your car.
7. I bet you five bucks that they will win tonight.
8. I advise you to go to class at least once a quarter.
9. I promise to pass the requirement tomorrow.
Direct and Indirect Speech Acts
Direct Speech Act
 They perform their functions in
a direct and literal manner
 Can be performed by:
A. Making a direct, literal
utterance, or
B. Using a performative verb
Indirect Speech Act
 What the speaker actually
means is different from what
s/he literally says.
 Never uses performative verbs
Conditions that must be satisfied if a speech act is to be correctly
and honestly performed
Question Felicity Conditions
 S questions H about P:
1. S does not know the truth about P.
2. S wants to know the truth about P.
3. S believes that H may be able to supply the information
about P that S wants.

 Where:
 S is the Speaker,
 H is the Hearer, and
 P is some state of affairs
Example
Direct Speech Act
 Did John marry Helen?
 I ask you whether or not John
marry Helen.
Indirect Speech Act
 I don’t know if John married
Helen. (S does not know the truth
about P)
 I would like to know if John
married Helen. (S wants to know
the truth about P)
 Do you know if John married
Helen? (S believes that H may be
able to supply the information about P
that S wants)
Request Felicity Conditions
 S requests H to do A:
1. S believes A has not yet been done.
2. S believes that H is able to do A.
3. S believes that H is willing to do A-type things for S.
4. S wants A to be done.

 Where:
 S is the Speaker,
 H is the Hearer, and
 A is some action
Example
Direct Speech Act Indirect Speech Act
 Please take out the garbage.  The garbage isn’t out yet. (S
believes A has not yet been done)
 I request that you take out the
garbage.  Could you take out the
garbage? (S believes that H is able to
do A)
 Would you mind taking out the
garbage? (S believes that H is willing
to do A-type things for S)
 I would like for you to take out
the garbage. (S wants A to be done)
Promise Felicity Conditions
 S promises H to do A
1. S believes that H wants A done.
2. S is able to A.
3. S is willing to do A.
4. A has not already been done.

 Where:
 S is the Speaker,
 H is the Hearer, and
 A is some action
Example
Direct Speech Act Indirect Speech Act
 I will buy you a doll tomorrow.  Would you like a doll
 I promise to buy you a doll tomorrow? (S believes that H wants
tomorrow. A done)
 I can buy you a doll tomorrow.
(S is able to A)
 I would love to buy you a doll.
(S is willing to do A)
 I still haven’t bought you a doll,
have I? (A has not already been done)
Threat Felicity Conditions
 S promises H to do A
1. S believes that H does not want A done.
2. S is able to A.
3. S is willing to do A.
4. A has not already been done.

 Where:
 S is the Speaker,
 H is the Hearer, and
 A is some action
Example
Direct Speech Act
 If you do that again, I’ll punch
you.
 I threaten you that if you do
that again, I’ll punch you.
Indirect Speech Act
 You don’t want me to punch
you, do you? (S believes that H does
not want A done)
 I can punch you, y’ know. (S is
able to A)
 I wouldn't mind punching you.
(S is willing to do A)
 Seems your face is not yet
bruised, eh? (A has not already
been done)
A set of conventions governing language use that preserves it
integrity by requiring us, among other things, to be honest in its
use, to have evidence for what we say, and to make what we say
relevant to the speech context
H.P. Grice’s Cooperative Principle
 We are enjoined to make sure that what we say in
conversation furthers the purposes of these
conversations.
Maxims of Quality
1. Do not say what you believe is false.
2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Maxim of Relation/Relevance
1. Be relevant.
Maxims of Quantity
1. Make your contribution as informative as required.
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than
required.
Maxims of Manner
1. Avoid obscurity of expression.
2. Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief.
4. Be orderly.
Advertising is a business in which language is used to persuade
people to do things (e.g. to buy some product, to vote for
someone, or to believe things)
Entailment
 Logically valid inference
 If sentence X entails sentence Y, then whenever X is true Y
must also be true
Example
A. Ian drives a Corvette.
B. Ian drives a car.

 A entails B because B is true when A is true as all Corvettes

are cars.
Ian drives a Corvette. True
Ian drives a car. True

 B cannot entail A because A can be false when B is true as

not all cars are Corvettes.
Ian drives a car. True
Ian drives a Corvette. False
Implicature
 Not logically valid but is nevertheless warranted
 Sentence X implicates sentence Y if:
 X does not entail Y
 The speaker is warranted in believing that Y is true based
on the meaning of X and Grice’s Maxims of Conversation.
Example
A. Not everyone is going to come.
B. Someone is going to come.

 A implicates B because:
 A does not entail B
 B can be false when A is true
 Assuming that the speaker of A makes his contribution as
informative as required (1st Maxim of Quantity), the more
informative claim “no one is going to come” was not used
because it was not known to be true. Thus the hearer of A is
justified in believing that B is true.
Leaving out of the than phrase
 Campbell soups have one-third less salt.
 Ford LTD was 700 percent quieter.
 More people sleep on Sealy Posturpedic
 The cars more Americans depend on.
 Maytags are built to last longer and need fewer repairs.
Fine Print
 Fly anywhere Delta Airline goes.
 Fine Print: Some restrictions apply.
 Our UPS Next Day Air Letter. Guaranteed overnight
delivery to any address from coast to coast.
 Fine Print: See Air Service Guide for Guarantee Details.
 Le Sabre is the most trouble-free American car.
 Fine Print: Owner-related problems during the first 90 days
of ownership.
Idiomatic Language
 Mercedes-Benz cars: engineered like no other car in the
world.
 In one out of two American homes you’ll find Kenmore
appliances.
Modal Auxiliaries or Adverbs
 It may be one of the most powerful cars in the world.
 It could save you up to 15% on Allstate homeowners
insurance.
 If you choose to finance or lease your new GMAC vehicle
someplace other than GMAC, you might find yourself
waiting in line instead of out hugging one.
 It leaves clothes virtually static-free.
Analysis on how meaning is created as people tell personal
experience stories using narrations
Example
1) This is about a good-looking guy that made me a bit embarrassed
of myself
2) It happened to me last semester before summer
3) Early morning, I rode a jeep on the way to school
4) Uh. It was –uh- really cold and –uh- cold
5) I was still sleepy but when I looked around the jeep the guy in
front of me was so cute, not just cute –uh- gorgeous is more
fitting
6) Another man said, “Para,” and –uh- and he was like –uh-
preparing to go out of the jeep.
7) And so, while the gorgeous guy was fixing his bag –uh-
8) I winked and smiled at him
9) It was like so brave and stupid of me.
Example
10) I was waiting for him to get up and leave, but guess
what,
11) He didn’t, that gorgeous guy looked at me like he was
creeped out.
12) When I left the jeep, he was right behind me…
walking…gosh…
13) Until I reached a corner, and he was gone, it was still so
embarrassing…
14) I realized that I shoulda ‘never’ –uh- do that again
unless I’m sure that I won’t see him after the winking
ever.
Elements of Narration
1. Abstract
 One or more clauses that summarizes the story
2. Orientation
 Free clauses that provide relevant details about the
background of the story
3. Complicating Action
 Part of the story that answers : “Then what happened?”
4. Result or Resolution
 Tells what finally happened
Elements of Narration
5. Coda
 Brings the hearer back out of the world of the story and
into the present
6. Evaluation
 Linguistic strategies a storyteller can use to underscore
the fact that his/her story has a point
 External – phrases and clauses that interrupt the
narrative, thereby creating suspense
 Internal – intensifiers, comparators, and modifiers
Eye Infection
Sam, Coltz , Luigi, Tammy, Angge
BLL 101 JX
Ma’am Caguicla ♥