De La Salle University

Manila, Philippines
College of Liberal Arts Department

submitted in partial fulfillment for SEMIRES:

Role of Feminist Women in the United States: The Labor Sector

De Guzman, Sharrey

Mohammad, Putri Shanen J.

Villero, Nigel May

Viloria, Patricia L.

SEMIRES A52 (12:45 PM - 14:15 PM; WF)

Submitted to: Prof. Ron Vilog

on the 16th of April, 2018

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 Table of Contents

Introduction 3

Background of the Study 4

Review of Related Literature 7

Scope and Limitations 14

Theoretical Framework 15
Figure 1 (diagram)
Figure 2 (diagram)

Methodology 17
Research Design
Data Gathering Procedure
Data Analysis Method
Validation

Main Findings 20

Conclusion 21

Bibliography 22

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INTRODUCTION

This research paper aims to dissect the role of feminist women in the United States within

the labour sector in its active role in promoting fair labor rights, and how these women are the

leaders of society in broadening the people’s perception of women empowerment. This paper

will also examine and disclose the disparities of methods in promoting fair labor rights in the

United States. Moreover, in order to dissect the role of feminist women better, this paper will

also discuss how the issue of fair labor rights for women evolved to become an advocacy for

feminist partisans; how did the United States respond to the rise of feminism within the labor

sector; as well as, how did the feminist movements in the United States influence feminism on a

global scale.

The first part of this paper will be focused on comparing the history and growth of

feminism in the United States and Sweden in order to show the quality that the two countries

have set regarding fair labor rights. The second part will lean towards the milestones that both

countries have achieved in their respective feminist movements. There will also be a discussion

on education as to how these can greatly affect the active participation and presence of women in

labor force. Finally, the last part will be showcasing the different statistics gathered in both

countries, ​regarding the participation of women in society and in the labor force. The information

gathered will be beneficial to the study as it would provide the necessary data in analyzing the

role of women in the labor sector.

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BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The history of feminism has been around and varies from place to place. It traces back to

approximately 24 centuries ago. In fact, ​Plato argued, “ for the total political and sexual equality

of women, advocating that they be members of the highest class - those who rule and fight”

(Rohrlich & Baruch, 1984). In the United States, the history of feminism began in Seneca Falls

in New York, which is now famously known as ​Seneca Falls Convention​, which lasted for two

days from the 19th of July to the 20th in the year 1848. It was marked as the first women’s rights

convention that discussed the social, civil, and religious stance, condition and rights of women.

This convention resulted in the emergence of the ​Declaration of Sentiments​, a document that was

modelled after the Declaration of Independence and was written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Two

weeks after the initial convention, the ​Rochester Women’s Rights Convention started on the 2nd

of August in 1848 in Rochester, New York. It was then, during this convention, that the

Declaration of Sentiments was approved. In 1872, Victoria Woodhull was the first woman to run

for president but lost to Ulysses S. Grant, who was re-elected for second term (May 2006; “The

Loc.Gov​ Wise Guide: The First Woman to Run for President… 50 Years Ago?”).

The Second-Wave of the Feminist Movement began in 1963, with Betty Friedan having

written the best-selling book ​The Feminine Mystique​, which explicitly objected to the

objectification of women in the mass media, and that the placing of women at home limited their

potential and wasted their talents. It is in this same year that the ​Equal Pay Act of 1963 was

signed into law by President John F. Kennedy on June 10, 1963. Under this act, it abolishes wage

disparity amongst the sexes. Upon the passing of the bill, the Congress pointed out that sex

discrimination decreases wages that affect the living standards of the workers in regards to their

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health and overall productivity; it causes worker and labor disputes, and it establishes unfair

competition. The year after, the ​Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed as well, garnering a victory

for women empowerment. It is within this act that abolished any sort of labor discrimination

against all sex, race, color, religion and national origin (​Transcript of Civil Rights Act, 1964​).

This act became the source of equality amongst race and sexes to access universality in suffrage.

In the 1970’s, the National Organization for Women (NOW) - led by Betty Friedan, established

in 1966 - attempted to lobby a program designed to help older women and widows secure equal

labor rights due to the fact that majority of these women in that age group have less worker skills

than young workers belonging in the middle class group.

It is during the 1990’s, when Anita Hill accused Clarence Thomas - who is from the

Supreme Court - of sexual harrassment back in 1991. This event sparked the feminist movement

anew from the 60’s and the 70’s that had a grey and inactive era in the 80’s. However, Thomas

denied the accusations made against him, and in 1992, the United States Senate voted 52-48 in

favor of Thomas (Walker, 1995). In light of the verdict of the Hill-Thomas case, American

feminist, activist, and author Rebecca Walker established the ​Third Wave Direct Action

Corporation in 1992, which serves as a platform and organization for multiracial, multicultural,

and multi-issue for young activists. These forms of organization paved the way for individual

and small groups of feminist to emerge, and begin short-after the Fourth-Wave Feminism.

Together with the influence of actors and actresses and notable Hollywood figures, the

emergence of universal social media further expanded the reach and awareness on the need for

equality (Solomon, 2009).

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 The Swedish government, on the other hand, recognizes a set of goals with regards to

breaking gender disparity through political and economic equality between men and women.

Sweden has also pushed the notion that there must be equal rights among its citizens in terms of

opportunities in education, health, employment, religious, and political agenda. Moreover, they

have also taken initiatives in assuring that violence against women shall be strictly prohibited as

a significant goal of the feminist policy of their government. The Swedish government describes

itself as "the first feminist government in the world." The feminist movement in Sweden is not

heavily influenced politically unlike other European countries or in the United States. Feminist

groups, like Swedish Women’s Lobby (SWL), are politically and religiously independent, and

are based on feminist principles. Most of these groups’ goal is to achieve complete human rights

for women and a gender equal society within Sweden, the European Union and in the

international arena (The Swedish women’s lobby, n.a). Another feminist group in Sweden is the

Feminist initiative founded in 2005. It is the strongest political platform in Sweden and received

3.12% of the vote in the Swedish national election in 2014. The party is aiming to crush the 4%

parliament limit in 2018 (and the patriarchy). The Feminist initiative is mainly comprised of

feminists from the women’s movement, the LGBT movement and the Antiracist movement, that

work with feminist politicians across party lines to promote human rights and combat

discrimination based on gender, skin color, ethnicity, social class, sexuality, functionality, sexual

identity or religious belief. According to an article by David Crouch (2017), during most of the

past century, the Nordic countries have been dominated by centre-left Social Democrats who

supported women's rights, however states like Denmark support the far right. They are more

skeptical about liberal or feminist ideas and are more conservative on issues such as family. In

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effect, feminists in Sweden are pressured to take on more on the responsibility in Stockholm to

stand up for women's rights. However, in spite of Sweden's image to other states as an egalitarian

society where women enjoy high status, complete gender distribution within the labor sector still

has its flaws. Despite Sweden being the leader in the industrialized world in terms of public

sector gender equality, according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD), in the private sector, men still make up more than 80% of management

and 94% of top bosses.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

I. Milestones Achieved

In comparison with other countries, the United States has a long history of its

Gender-Equal Labor rights. These milestones, so far, have begun when the ​Equal Pay Act was

signed by President Kennedy on the 10th of June, 1963 (The U.S. Equal Employment

Opportunity Commission; 2003, June 10). Under this act, it is declared that unequal pay amongst

the workplace of men and women depresses wages and living standards for the employees that is

needed for their health and efficiency, prevents maximum utilization and productivity of the

available labor resources, causes labor dispute among the workers which resulted in

unproductivity, and promotes unhealthy competition between the workers. Therefore, this act is

now being mandated by the U.S. Department of Labor, and its jurisdictions have been given to

the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in the year 1979. According to the

Global Gender Gap Report of 2017 (World Economic Forum, 2017), the US has placed 49th in

the over-all ranking, however placing 19th for the Economic Participation and Opportunity

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subindex. So far, an emergence of numerous feminist groups have come into action, such as the

American Equal Rights Association, American Woman Suffrage Association, and Alliance for

Women for Media.

In the Global Gender Gap Index Report of 2017, Sweden has maintained its rank in the

top spot in terms of having a progressive country with regards to gender equality. Along with

this, they have also ranked first among the European Union members in the Gender Equality

Index of 2015. These are one of the many achievements Sweden has garnered through the years

since its inclusion of women in its society back in the 1800s. The country is seen as one of the

most progressive states in the European Union which boasts with its institutional reforms for the

empowerment of women. In relation to this, Sweden’s current government has declared itself as

a “feminist government” with its main goal of alleviating gender disparity in its society. This

further strengthens the current welfare state system of Sweden which recognizes both men and

women as competent and significant individuals in its gender mainstreaming movement. The

idea with a feminist government and with the kind of welfare state model that Sweden possesses

is backed by its objectives of gender mainstreaming which is one of the top initiatives of the

European Union. As previously mentioned, Sweden has maintained its rank in the top spot of the

Global Gender Gap Index Report of 2017 to which they have passed several laws that tackle

various gender inequality issues. In the 1250s, King Birger Jarl, the incumbent king of Sweden,

passed a law on violence against women prohibiting rape and abduction, similarly in 1998 The

Act on Violence against Women was introduced; it states that the violence and abuse to which a

woman is subjected, for example by a man in a relationship, is assessed cumulatively, where

each instance of sexual and psychological degradation against the woman is taken into account.

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To further strengthen the right of every individual to sexual integrity and self-determination,

Sweden has passed several laws to accomplish this. For instance, in 1965, Sweden passed a law

against rape in marriage; in 1999, The Act Prohibiting the Purchase of Sexual Services comes

into effect; and in 2005, a new legislation on sexual crimes 2011 Stalking – repeated harassment

– becomes an offence, which aims to further prevent male violence against women. Regarding

parental leaves, in 1974, Sweden replaces maternity leave, where it is only applicable solely on

mothers, to parental leaves which allows fathers the chance to take a leave with the mother. This

paved way to the world’s first introduction to parental leave. Moreover, in 2002, parental leave

has been increased to 480 days, wherein each parent is allowed to two months of

non-transferable benefits, but in 2016, the parental leave is extended and grants each parent three

months of non-transferable benefits.

II. Education and Women

During the 20th century in the United States, almost thirty percent of women ages 25 and

above have started obtaining bachelor’s and master’s degrees and not long after, it’s inclined up

to forty percent. Also, the amount of women that’s not acquired a high school diploma has

decreased from 9 percent to 6 percent in the 21st century. Younger women now have a higher

educational attainment in comparison to the women in the 1970s. Nowadays, women earn a

bachelor’s degree more than men by the age of 29. Less than majority of the women population

believed that an educational attainment is better than having the right to vote. The pattern of the

women’s lives were altered in various ways by their access in education. (Solomon, 1985)

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 Financially limited women meant that they had to automatically look for jobs while the

young ones were meant to only pursue an educational attainment and sometimes even worked in

order to save money for school. Women who were academically educated either became

teachers, factories and mills workers. Although, for most, a marriage was their highest goal.

Educated women, on the other hand, married later in comparison to the ones that did not attend

school. (Dentith, 2016)

Women’s social reformation in education is traceable all through from the seventeenth

and mid eighteenth century. During that period, contentions for change in women’s education

were first propelled in the fallout of the Revolutionary War. The greater part of this help

concerned the requirement for women’s primary education while endeavors to secure women’s

education in secondary schools or in colleges were less capable of being heard. Requests for

equality in educational opportunities for women were very progressive for the new nation and

incredibly tested the status of women’s current position in the domestic sphere. (Solomon, 1985)

An essential sector in the society that paves way to the growth of women and should be

given focus at the same time, is the education sector. The role of education is apparent in the our

society now as it gives us the power to be educated and to learn. Through education, we have

been opened with the idea of significant terms and theories vital for the development of the

society, including the role of gender equality, feminism, and women empowerment. All

throughout history, education has been a significant cause of the development of both men and

women in various sectors of the society. However, women are prone to discrimination because of

the society is still with the norms it has constructed, along with the traditional values that still

exist today. In the general European context, the European Union have promoted the idea of

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gender mainstreaming as a way to alleviate discrimination. According to Debusscher (2012),

“The main EU strategy to pursue gender equality in its internal and external policies is gender

mainstreaming”. Critical analysis is aimed towards the pursuance of the EU to achieve gender

equality in which, inequalities are taken into account as well as identifying conditions to which

they have to attend to be able to address the disparities in terms of gender. In relation to this, they

proceed onto the policy-making steps that would convey gender equality in a more

comprehensive manner. This initiative was said to have contributed to the large and growing

number of people in Europe with a degree in higher education as it promotes progress in the

society. Although this model of the European Union may have been taken into consideration by

other states, it could still be molded and improved so as to give more encouragement to the role

of equality for development. Alongside with this and the fact that Europe has been producing

individuals with accomplishments in higher education, they believe that citizens who pursue

higher education are of “importance to policymakers within Europe” (Brooks, 2017). Achieving

a higher education could pave way to economic and political developments in the region which

would further strengthen the growth of the European nation and its status as one of the major key

players in the international arena. The importance of the study of politics and economics are

significant to states as this would not only provide them leverage but it would help boost the

capabilities of the state in the international and domestic areas. Opening this opportunity to

women would provide essence to the notion of women empowerment. Since men are usually

viewed as the upper hand in this case, as embraced by the norms of society, it would also give

women a chance to be liberated from the confines of traditional view on their role in the society.

To support this point, Debusscher (2012) states that, “Education is often framed as tool for

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economic development or poverty reduction...” This would help women contribute to the

progress of the nation and impart to them resources on how they would hone themselves better as

productive individuals of the society.

III. Women in Labor

75% of the women, ages 25 to 34, were in the labor force in the year 2000. Young

women were working more hours than married women in the 20th century. However, almost a

million of women of the same age bracket were displaced from working between the years 1997

and 1999 during a survey done in the year 2000. Since the 1970s, the proportion of women in

labor has risen by 20%. Most of this large inclination came from white women, though black and

hispanic women also had a large increase. It is believed that one of the factors for this increase is

the growing number of women with greater educational attainment and the lower tendency of

women getting married at a younger age. In addition to this, the percentage of working women

with children were low.

In the 1980s, women have started to arose to higher job positions like managerial and

professional specialty line of work. In comparison to the year 1983, women were more fixed on

service occupations in the year 2000. Additionally, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics

has identified other types of alternative occupations: ​independent contractors, on-call workers,

temporary help agency workers, and contract company workers​.

The Swedish government’s overall goal for its gender equality policy is to ensure that

women have equal power to shape society, as well as their lives. To an extent, it means that both

genders must have equal opportunities in terms of education and paid work that provide

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economic independence. In the Swedish labor market, the rate of gainful employment rose

among women between 1970s and 1990s; at the same time, the percentage of women working

full-time increased during the 1980s. At the beginning of the 2000s, the percentage of

unemployed women dropped and the percentage working full-time for women further increased

in the mid-2000s. In 2015, the relative figure for women aged 20-64 in the labor force was 83.7

percent and the relative unemployment rate was 6.4 per cent. Moreover, in the statistics research

Women and Men in Sweden that was published in 2014, women earned 86 percent of what men

earned. However, in Women and Men in Sweden that was published in 2016, the gap in the pay

is smaller and women earn 94 percent of what men earn. The difference has dropped by one

percentage point since the 2014 edition. However, in the private sector of the Swedish labor

market, sex distribution is uneven in boardrooms or occupations that deal with power. One of the

gender equality policy goals of Sweden is the even distribution of power and influence. The

government’s efforts are seen in the even gender distribution in Swedish Parliament.

Nevertheless, in other positions of power such as managerial positions, gender distribution is the

opposite of it, still it is very distant from the uneven circumstance among chairpersons on the

boards of several companies. Five percent are women and 95 percent are men; this percentage in

this kind of situation in Sweden is the same gender distribution as two years ago when the last

Women and Men in Sweden was published in 2014.

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SCOPE & LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The researchers will conduct a study to explain what is the role of feminist women in the

United States, and how these women have contributed to the cause in their active role in

promoting fair labor rights. The researchers will also limit the focus of the study on the United

States’ methods of promoting fair labor rights with the current status of Sweden as a reference.

The milestones of both the United States and Sweden will be analyzed as well, to show the

standards they have set in their respective countries. The researchers have chosen to include how

women and education affect the participation of women in the labor force with reference on the

statistical data of both states gathered from credible online materials. Materials regarding these

sectors are also easily accessible in comparison to other sectors of society which is why it will be

utilized by the researchers.

Due to the limited time, and resources, the study itself will be conducted within the

Philippines and with the aid of journal articles, past researches, and other materials which would

be vital to the study. Since Sweden will be used as a standard to determine what is to be

considered as feminist, and considering that the researchers are unable to speak the Swedish

language, the researchers will heavily rely on literature on the context of Sweden in relation to

the study that are published in English.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

LIBERAL FEMINIST THEORY

Liberal feminists regard the end goal of feminism as the achievement of “formal

equality” under the law. Formal equality does little to redress the inequities of ingrained habits

and unjust institutions. Despite formal equality women and minorities still face gross

discrimination in hiring and promotion, blacks and other members of minority groups still find it

difficult to get home mortgages and favorable rates on car loans, and others who are not rich,

young, white, Anglo- Saxon males are disadvantaged in a variety of ways. Liberals recognize

that the market and the economy, is not perfect to efficiently fix these inequities. Therefore, the

main argument of the liberal feminist theory is that the most effective way to improve the

inequitable distribution of options is through massive state intervention, through establishment

and enforcement of affirmative action policies, which includes hard quotas, and through the

provision of a variety of benefits, including state-provided childcare, to level the male-female

playing field. The benefits of “formal equality,” are negligible because of the insufficiency of

realistic options available to women is not a result of legal restrictions but rather a consequence

of traditions and social habits, entrenched assumptions and established institutions that lock in

male-female inequality.

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 Based on the main argument of the liberal feminist theory that the most effective way to

improve the inequitable distribution of labor right through massive state intervention, through

establishment and enforcement of affirmative action policies, which includes hard quotas, and

through the provision of a variety of benefits to balance the male-female playing field; there are

labor laws in the United States that cater to the liberal feminists’ advocacies which promote fair

labor right to both genders. As seen in figure 2, liberal feminist advocacies, such as the right to

vote, the allowance of parental leave for both parents and the equal labor standard, are being

taken into account for when passing US labor laws. The Equal Pay Act of 1963, d​uring the early

1960s, was passed in an attempt to establish equal wages and overtime pay for women, as well

as, discourage the employment of minors under 16-years old, limit the hours and jobs that

children, 16-years and older, could work, this caters to the advocacy of equal labor standard that

16
there should be equal opportunity for everyone to work and for work. Furthermore, despite the

Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) is meant for companies of 50 plus employees. It

still states that employers must allow a maximum of 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave to

expecting employees for the birth or adoption of a child. Not only did the FMLA Act protect

women’s jobs should they decide to have a baby, it also left the FMLA open to men should they

want to take leave or remain home to care for a spouse, child or parent with a serious illness,

allowing parental leave for both parents. Furthermore, women’s suffrage was ratified in 1920,

and stated that congress would protect: The right of all citizens of the United States to vote

regardless of sex. Even though women’s suffrage is not a labor law, the right to vote gave

women the power to check the box of candidates that would protect their labor rights, fair pay

and equality in the workplace.

METHODOLOGY

A. Research Design

A qualitative based approach, through grounded theory, will be used to gather all the data

needed and findings in this research. In grounded theory, it focuses on seeking an explanation or

theory behind particular events. With this, existing documents will be used to gather all the

information needed to create or build research findings.

A series of documented articles with regard to women in the labor sector in the United

States will be used because, due to the short amount of time in conducting this research, it had

the most convenient portrayal of behavior, opinions, beliefs, and knowledge of the situation at

17
the given time period. This process was chosen to meet the objectives of the study, and to

determine the opinions of the American people with regard to women in the labor sector.

B. Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers will use the data gathered through analyzation of outcomes from each

document that will be used and read. Amongst the gathered data, the researchers will look into

the background, milestones achieved, and the current patterns of feminist groups in both of the

studied countries in order to have a comparison of their current status -- their specific causes,

previous successful lobbies, policies, and advocacies.

C. Data Analysis

The United States has had a diverse experience with women empowerment. The findings

from this research will be analyzed through the grounded theory with the liberal feminist theory

in comparing the behavior of the people that falls on the issue and situation with regards to the

role of women in the labor sector.

With the women in the labor sector, the United States has showed that as the years go by,

more and more women are given the chance to participate in much higher positions such as

18
managerial and professions like a medicinal doctor and a juris doctor, and even higher

government positions.

In 2017, 51.6% of the women population in the United States held management,

professional, and other related occupations and 44% for the subcategory management, business,

and financial operations occupations. Also, there were 75,175,000 women aged 16 and above in

the labor sector in which where they represent 46.9% of its totality of population.

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 D. Data Validation

This research will be validated through a comparative analysis. This analysis will consist

of the men and women population in the labor force sector of the United States which will then

identify the contrast between both genders.

MAIN FINDINGS

The issue of fair labor rights for women evolved to become an advocacy for women in

the labor force, who are affected by the disparity and unconstitutional nature of their work

environment. Between the two compared countries, the United States has been in a constant

dispute within their rights for equal pay, treatment and due equality amongst its citizens that are

employed. However, given the laws and acts that have long been implemented, companies and

employers continue to neglect the following laws, which in turn, constitute to the continued

emergence and lobbying for equal rights.

Furthermore, this research utilizes and analyzes the perspective, advocacy and existence

of liberal feminists; who strive to advocate and pressure the administration responsible for

allowing employers and companies to maintain status quo in regards to unequal pay and gender

discrimination. In comparison to the two countries, US and Sweden, the latter has maintain the

level of accepted equality. The liberal feminist groups in Sweden and the government has been

working simultaneously in order to eradicate the existence of companies and employers who

misuse their authority and sustain unequal rights in the workforce.

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 The United States responded to the rise of feminism within the labor sector by becoming

more open with and accepting the idea and the fact that more and more women are becoming a

huge part of the workforce. The feminist movements in the United States influenced feminism on

a global scale through the country itself being one of the most powerful in the world.

CONCLUSION

The role of feminist women in the advocacy of fair labor rights in the US is that they are

the leaders of society in broadening the people’s perception of women empowerment.

It shows that their role has been instrumental for the accomplishment of women

empowerment today and in helping people understand the importance of its cause. These women

are leaders because they stood up and spoke out for their advocacy. The different challenges they

have faced is a wake-up call for society to stop conforming to old standards that degrade women

of their capabilities. The future is bright for women empowerment with its different movements,

causes, and established laws to protect it. And it is shown in studies that women in the United

States take up almost half of the labor force which tells a lot of how far the movement has come

to empower women to strive for their jobs. The researchers also discovered in the research that

the two countries have responded well with the issue and has influenced much of the world as

well.

The researchers learned a lot from feminist women and their fight for fair labor rights,

and as long as people continue to speak up and offer solutions that create a world that is equal for

men and women, no matter how idealistic it may seem, it must be striven for.

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