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RATIONALE
that shifted towards science and reason. It emphasized man’s freedom and ability to break free
from the hegemonic order that was previously put in place. However, despite freedom being a
concept supposedly inherent in all individuals, one cannot help questioning the scope of this
inclusivity.
Today, while Enlightenment thinking reverberates with the notions of science, reason,
and human rights, there is still a gap in terms of equity and equality women have vis-à-vis their
male counterparts. Efforts have been made to bridge the gap in gender parity, but in some cases,
“bridging the gap” through laws and standards written out for men and transmuting them to
apply to women, are insufficient. It is not enough to simply simulate women’s experiences and
many ways as well, this gap is exacerbated with the issue of equal pay, which persists in many
countries.
Despite its reputation as a patriarchal nation with machismo culture imbibed by our
very own President, the Philippines has managed to consistently make it to the top ten of the
Global Gender Gap. A report from 2014 shows that we ranked ninth in gender parity, and made
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it as the only Asian country in the Top 50 globally (Daniels, 2015). However, just this year,
the Philippines saw a drop in their ranking from first to fifth place in the Grant Thornton
International Ltd’s Women in Business report. Nevertheless, they ranked first on the list among
their Asian counterparts (Desiderio, 2019). Despite this, female executives still argue that there
are many barriers that continue to exist with regard to women acquiring the necessary skills for
finding time alongside core job responsibilities (51 percent), and caring for responsibilities
outside work, and lack of access to networking opportunities (both at 47 percent)” (Desiderio,
2015). The aspects which deal with with caring for other responsibilities are primarily concerns
of women, proving that gender and time-old expectations imposed on them continue to seep
out from time-to-time. One can surmise that this is significant grounds for companies to pay
women less––because of the latter’s time and resources split with other domestic
responsibilities.
While this is a major step towards equity and equality, the same cannot be said for other
countries where the gender pay gap continues to persist––despite proof that “gender diversity
is good for both nations and business as a whole” (Daniels, 2015). Furthermore, more
deliberate and assertive action must be taken to achieve a society where women have more
senior positions, and receive the pay that their male counterparts would get for the same roles.
Marivic Españo, Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of P&A Grant Thornton, claimed that policies
which give equal opportunities and biases in both recruitment and in flexible working hours
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and conditions must me rigorously enforced and revisited to ensure effectivity and actual
Sexual harassment in the workplace has also become a more widely discussed issue
which prevents women from feeling their true incorporation and protection in the companies
they work for. While its existence has coincided with their entry into the workforce and has
since become endemic to it, it is with more contemporary times that people are seeing this as
an issue that needs to be addressed. Resolutions should not be confined to pay-offs or “hush
money” as this reinforces the silence that was expected of them and engineered into the
patriarchal mindset.
Gender-based harassment in the workforce goes hand-in-hand with the issue of equal
pay as well, as its existence is a very real reality that women may face may force them into
positions which devalue their capabilities, on the grounds that they would like to avoid this
As Immanuel Kant described the Enlightenment as, “Man’s emergence from his self-
imposed nonage” (Kant, 1784) in What is Enlightenment? we see how society continues to
struggle with this today, against the very norms which are manmade. This is the very purpose
and necessitation of interrogating the Enlightenment––to see how far we have come and to
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OBJECTIVES
This paper aims to uncover the effect of the Enlightenment on women and to see how
developments (or lack thereof) are seen in contemporary society. It seeks to emulate the
By bringing forth the question of gender in relation to conventions and structures, this paper
remains critical of how these existing institutions continue to deter minorities solely on this
basis.
It now includes the questioning of existing conventions and structures that hinder the
entry of women in the overall landscape in society, especially in the workforce. It also wishes
to uncover possible solutions to remedy the injustice and inequality women face.
My group’s issue which my Thea has stemmed from was the Invention of the Political.
We claimed that because of the rate of theorizing, we are misled into thinking that we are
creating something entirely new. In reality, the things which we think we create ourselves are
actually just patterns or reactions to what has previously been put in place. The Invention of
the Political makes one think that what we create is fresh or novel, but this path to create has
Women have long been excluded from public domain for centuries, and are instead
confined to domestic spheres, while men are the “movers and shakers” of exterior discourse.
Nowadays, inclusion has combatted this. While a number of efforts have been made in
contemporary times with regard to making a more inclusive society, many existing conventions
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are still patterned after men’s needs, and this is less visibly seen, especially by those who
implement it.
As women have now become part of the workforce in contemporary times with an idea
of a more “equal” shot at the same jobs as men, the results are not as evident in terms of salary,
and even in terms of treatment and basic respect which is mistranslated into harassment. There
is this reinforced belief that women are not actually as free to create their own destinies because
of the ones already predetermined for them. There is a promise of “newness” with opportunity
for the marginalized, but the promise actually holds no value for them to have equal footing.
Cooptation is a tool or strategy used by the elite to feign cooperative practices for
seekers of change. Through cooptation, these seekers of change work with the elite and think
that they have experienced developments in doing so. However, this is merely a façade as they
do not receive any new advantages. Sometimes, this cooptation is successful, and seekers of
change aim to make new compromises in order to advance their positions, to little or no luck.
Cooptation maintains the natural order put in place and preserves the stability of the
differentiation and arouse feelings of maltreatment when members of a group do not receive
“a ‘fair’ share of the collective benefit” (Lawler, 1983, p. 89). Theoretically speaking,
Cooptation of the Political is an ongoing phenomenon where gender is a main concern. And in
most settings nowadays, this is a very real and pressing concern. Gender-based discrimination
is further translated and concretized in terms of the positions women can enter, how much pay
they will receive for these jobs (in contrast to their male counterparts), and how they will be
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treated whilst they are merely trying to do the work they have earned. It is an ongoing process
with many roadblocks––realities that men, who are in advantageous positions because of
The Cooptation of the Political further illustrates that nothing new is being created,
because women, or the minority, are given a false idea that they have benefitted from the
change that they have long sought after. However, when the organizational structure employs
cooptation as a strategy, it proves that there is nothing new actually done to give reparation to
the injustices that gender-based discrimination holds. The Political would rather maintain its
stability, which both directly and indirectly benefits the majority––the men. When it appears
that there is actually some form of change, it is merely in the form of a temporary fix––a
patterning after standards of men, or a law or rule that does not actually hold any real value.
Hegelian thought from Philosophy of Right illustrates the distinction between the public
and private spheres as a unified entity. Hegel emphasized the importance of individuals being
members of a family unit, which is further solidified with the birth of a child. When children
are fully grown and the cycle repeats, the man of the house returns to his public duty as a
member of civil society or government, while the woman is to remain in the private domain of
the home––and to find fulfillment in this. These writings are actually very anti-feminist, as they
echo the narrative that women have their lives written out for them already.
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In Philosophy of Right, Hegel states that “Woman, [...] has her substantive destiny in
the family, and to be imbued with family piety is her ethical frame of mind” (Hegel, 1896, p.
167). In addition to this, Hegel accepts women receiving an education, but still did not think
that they were made “for activities which demand a universal faculty such as the more advanced
sciences, philosophy, and certain forms of artistic production” (Hegel, 1896, p. 168).
plants. He makes this distinction on the grounds that our development is “more placid” (Hegel,
1896, p. 168). He thinks that if women were to lead a government (which he probably did not
see in the foreseeable future at the time Philosophy of Right was written), the state would be in
total chaos because of women’s arbitrary inclinations and subjective opinions, rather than
Hegel’s claims undervalued women’s abilities then, and the gendered mindset today
is reminiscent of this, especially now that women have been making their entry as they should.
Instead of addressing the issue from head-on, and seeking to delve into the depths of how
structurally ingrained the gender gap is, band-aid cures are put in place to give women
fabricated solutions to the very problems they claim are detrimental to their experience of
Despite his attempt to harmonize the private and public realms, he further aggravated
their divisions. Reflections on Hegel’s claims contemporarily unearth the structural limits that
have gone unchanged. Perhaps this is why from time-to-time, it is surprising when women
attempt to assert their power even in the smallest of degrees, like in demanding equal pay, or
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Immanuel Kant, who was a prominent Enlightenment philosopher, emphasized the
autonomy and the equality of all human beings. In What is Enlightenment? Kant distinguishes
what it means to live in an enlightened age and what it means to live in an age of enlightenment.
He discusses that we live in the latter, and implicit in this is the understanding that the age of
enlightenment is a period of transition (as opposed to fixed and already present freedom).
As such, this work is concerned with the transition man goes through in being
enlightened (Kant, 1896). In this process, there may be the overthrowing of tradition. In
transitioning in becoming freer in thought and freer from the structures that restrict us.
Now that inclusivity of women in the public sphere is becoming normalized, it appears
that it is high time to reinterpret and take a second look at certain philosophies that widen the
gender divide. The way convention has worked in maintaining a sense of order and stability
continues to benefit the same group of people it has always benefitted––the men; the patriarchy.
The reinterpretation of convention means that the realities, aphorisms, and belief systems that
were manmade supposed to have been created by philosophers who set the precedent for
paradigms that were to encompass all genders or members of society. The standards or
references that were modeled on a single gender now have actual detrimental repercussions.
The same can be said in a number of fields. In science, we can see the damaging effect this has
in using an able-bodied male model as an archetype for the diagnoses of diseases and
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prescriptions of medicine. Women are then considered deviations from that norm when they
It is far less explicit in the workforce, as it makes women think that conventions have
already been interpreted to accommodate their needs and interests. But perhaps, the evidence
of numerous cases of gender-based sexual harassment in the workforce and the existence of
the gender pay gap in jobs that were previously catered to men alone and now hire women,
show that conventions were instead reinterpreted in a way that would make women think that
they have equality and freedom, but instead, it appears to have been just put in place for the
Many changes have occurred in building a more inclusive and free society.
Philosophers from the Age of Enlightenment wrote their now renowned works without perhaps
considering or having the foresight that one day women would be able to attain the same rights
in the public sphere as men. This is why there is still much to be done with regard to questioning
preexisting knowledge that has been intrinsic to the very nature of the laws, norms, and ideals
that govern society. The very fact that these are built upon age-old dictates of patriarchal rule
proves that perhaps what we have already created––that which is manmade, needs to be
changed, or interpreted to be more accommodating of the needs of the minority, instead of the
majority.
However, there is still much to be done because the existing order is one that has been
built upon by men. This is why it is not merely enough to innovate what they have already
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created. It may now require a radical restructuring or revisiting of what they have put in place,
and a questioning of whether what is interpreted as liberty is actually authentic or just done for
the sake of it. People must now understand that with women having received the education
they were previously denied, they have developed their own agency and autonomy in being
able to think for themselves. They can now identify the injustices they have been facing in
varying degrees.
In contemporary society, the gender spectrum has become so wide and it is no longer
binary. The previous model that was put in place was a dichotomy which no longer exists as
well. When the people in the society change, the ways by which systems function, needs to
change as well. It should be these systems adapting to the changing needs of the people, instead
of the latter trying to fit into the mold that is being offered to them.
What many mistake about the plight of women is that they wish to usurp power from
the hands of men. This is perhaps why men have been so skeptical in allowing their entry, as
it may cause further inequality. In this regard, the stronghold of organizations is lessened when
they do allow women to take part in the same roles of men. However, it is the women who
have to adjust to their environments. Often times, they are subject to discrimination based on
their gender. They may be ridiculed or doubted for their capabilities, even when they are
already in the positions they have worked hard to reach. In many ways, this proves that there
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Feminism has long been associated with the burning of bras and the rallies or angry
women demanding for abortion rights. But in reality, what it is that women and the
marginalized genders (now that the spectrum has widened) really seek is to be emancipated
from the binding chains of gender, and to gain equal footing in contributing to the ongoing
results do not show in terms of how they are deemed unworthy of being paid the same salaries
as men.
This may also be tied to the fact that they have other responsibilities––the expectations
are doubled because of the other supposition that women have to care for their families. Women
must keep up with the demands in both their private and public spheres, which is a worry
inherent to their gender. Sometimes the fields themselves are gendered too. Usually positions
in the corporate world, in science, medicine, engineering, and politics, are still geared towards
men. This is why it poses more of a challenge to women to prove their competence.
Qualifiers are even placed in preceding these job titles, as if their basis was the male
standard: “First Female Scientist,” “Female President,” “Woman CEO.” When women are in
powerful positions, every one of their actions is watched as if they were under a microscope.
A small assertion of power or a clear and loud intonation may immediately be branded as
“bossy.” This further entitles men to thinking that this is still very much a man’s world, and
women are just living in it and testing the waters when they can.
By hiring women in these fields, there is a pretense that the company is adapting to the
times, and acknowledging women’s competence. While this is true to an extent, the behavior
afterwards speaks for itself. What appears to be a change in the system is actually just a re-
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simulation of standards. And these standards which have become the rule, are male-centric.
This is why it seems that there is a misappropriation present from context to context. It becomes
an issue of form over substance, because hiring women may seem like a portrait of equality,
but behind it is the reality that it is a façade. It echoes the deception that there is a recreation of
opportunity, but it is actually a lack. It is merely a re-simulation of the standards set in place
for men and by men, but is one with decreased quality and unacceptable treatment, as well as
decreased pay.
A mere re-simulation of male-centric standards really does not address the problem that
exists because this discrimination and sexism have already been structuralized into norms and
newly created reality catered to the minority. Nothing is actually changed because it is just a
It does not merely stop at their inclusion. Now the question is, “Inclusion, but at what
cost?” If women are made to deal with workplace harassment, and are cheated of their rights
for equal pay, then there really is no point to their inclusion. Inclusion is in itself a front for
ongoing discriminatory behavior. The reasons for the pay gap can be illustrated in two
categories: voluntary (i.e. working part-time) and involuntary (i.e. socially mandated
discrimination) (Mangan, 2019, p. 318). Most, if not all data suggests that it is discrimination
that causes the pay gap (Mangan, 2019, p. 319). The assumption that men are the main
breadwinners of the family also serve as justification for their larger pay. This justification does
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Public: Re-marginalized women with the desire for equity
The assumption has long been that women belong in the margins of society, confined
to their homes and made to raise families while their husbands go out to earn an income and
remain breadwinners. But with changing times, women have taken it upon themselves to fight
for their rights––whether it be the right to education, the right to suffrage, or the right to hold
office. We now live in an age where women see that there are other areas where they can
percolate into. Women must realize that they no longer need to adhere to their predetermined
But whether we like it or not, and whether developments have improved the status of
women, men continue to hold the most power in society. The hegemony is patriarchal in nature.
The dictation of rules and conventions typically comes from them. It always has, and it
continues to; however, it does not mean that it must go on. It is imperative for men to
understand that this day and age calls for more women to engage in the public sphere. And
Women are re-marginalized when they are included, but do not receive the appropriate
compensation for their efforts. This leaves them feeling shortchanged, and is the reason they
are doubly marginalized. Similarly, their trust in institutions is betrayed when they are
maltreated once they are already part of the public sphere. This can be in the form of sexual
harassment, and how it “wrecks both personal lives and careers, causing loss of confidence and
While women as a group are considered marginalized, there still exists a hierarchal
order within this marginalization. The intersection of race, age, class, and upbringing, with
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gender further stratifies an already stratified society. This, of course, leads to even more
in too many women’s lives––in the developed and developing world” (Mangan, 2019, p. 327).
If this is still a problem in high-profile jobs, where cases have higher chances of being
documented, then the reality is even bleaker for undocumented workers or those in far-fetched
rural areas. Those who work minimum wages in factories or landfills are at even graver risk
for becoming victims of sexual harassment and abuse. “The less control individuals have, the
greater the likelihood that employers or others in a position of power will abuse that power,
often sexually" (Mangan, 2019, p. 327). This in itself, is another form of re-marginalization. It
makes the marginalized believe that attempts to quell discrimination are futile, if with their
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Critical Abstraction: Relegation of the Minority
Although women have slowly started assimilating in the public domain, intentionally
on the receiving end of sexist standards. This continues to reinforce the silencing that has long
existed, that puts a cap on women’s freedom. The freedom they are granted is one that is merely
illusory. They continue to experience relegation in the assumptions that trickle in with regard
These assumptions are abstract realities that are not always explicitly said. This is what
makes them even more insidious. When these biases are acted upon, there is no gauge in
measuring how damaging the outcomes can be. The relegation is concretized when the pay gap
exists because it downgrades women’s worth and downplays their capabilities. Women have
not fought long and hard just to come this far. They also did not take it upon themselves to
receive an education only to be expected to take on positions that are less demanding or
technical. Even more so, they did not choose their lines of work only to be treated like pieces
problem by those who succumb to it. This is the reason why many things that are second nature
are actually so because of what we have grown accustomed to, without realizing that relegation
is going on in the process. As a minority, they are relegated, but this happens two-fold when
they go through the process once again once they are stripped of their chances at receiving even
the slightest taste of change, according to their terms, once they have already been included in
the narrative.
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Systemic Mistake: Re-patriarchalization of the Collective Consciousness
The gender pay gap stems from patriarchal structures which dominate the world. These
are deeply ingrained into not only the cultural fabric of nations, but into the social, political,
and economic aspects of them as well. Despite inclusivity and women now being given more
equal opportunities to work the same jobs and positions as men, the patriarchal ideology
reinforces itself when the pay gap exists. It becomes a form of re-patriarchalization.
Furthermore, the levels of dissatisfaction in the workplace may also come from the
overlooked, and now becomes a form by which women can be further abused just because the
dominant party can do so. The stronghold of the patriarchy continues to reinforce itself every
further allows it to be overlooked and seem as something totally normal. Women can fight for
their right to equal benefits and treatment as men, that actually treats their deeply rooted
problem, but this can only do so much when the collective consciousness is constantly
It will not seek to create true and lasting change for the marginalized because it will
keep being content with the conventions that are put in place and therefore, nothing is actually
created to improve the working conditions of women in a society. There will be little to no
chance of women getting their due when those who hold the most power in society are men
who refuse to see the need for this to happen. Our very systems are gendered and biased in
their preferences and this is translated into what they consider to be worthy of addressing.
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Symbolic Picture of Ordered Rule: Hyper-restructuration of Politics
Now that women are learning to see the ways by which they can make a difference as
not merely wives and mothers as they were expected to be, it is time to convince men who
refuse to see this––especially men in power. Many still question the competence and capability
that women have in doing so, and this flows from the created reality that polarizes genders
instead of bringing them together where they can both affect change and both receive the same
The way that politics has been structured is already gendered. The reference point is
always to a man––what a man can do; what a man can contribute; how a man can lead society.
It can be said that restructuring initially took place in terms of first recognizing women as
productive members of Civil Society––and not just within the family. With this recognition,
came more embracing laws which allowed them to receive a semblance of equality. Education
and suffrage both helped them realize what they can do in the public sphere.
However, there still exists the phenomenon of coopting the political when change is
feigned to make women think that there is change. It is not enough now that politics are
restructured, because this was already done when women were granted their right to education
and suffrage. Now, politics must be restructured in such a way that there is a radical change
that uproots the hegemonic power. There must be a turning away from predetermined male
The stability that cooptation tries to maintain must now be shaken and disturbed. So
must the structure of existing institutions, laws, and ideologies. They must be upturned and
revisited, and compared against with the actual needs that women have. Perhaps, in this way,
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one will be able to see that women do have a say in what they want and need. They have the
capacity to see through what is allegedly put in place for them, and to question and file
complaints when necessary. However, because of the way politics is structured, these
up the process, because there is still so much that can and so much that needs to be done.
Much of what has been established has benefited a great number of people, but these
are the elite, and the men in power in society, despite the argument that women have already
been given entry in ways thought impossible before. However, women remain on the
marginalized end of the spectrum because many norms which society is already conditioned
to, prohibit them from getting the pay they deserve for their labor.
Currently, women who have tried to penetrate the public sphere are criticized or
doubted because of the prevailing and insidious schools of thought. These may be explicit or
implicit in the form of a paycheck, and the lack of transparency in the actual pay gap. Or they
may even be subject to unwanted advances because norms state that women are docile and
unassertive, and thus, no action will be taken, and this will in turn, strengthen the existing
norms put in place. This is why the norms themselves are the very problem that needs to be
changed or renounced.
In revisiting what has been previously brought forth by asking women what they think
instead of assuming the answer, we may build a society with more just and ethical laws that
give the second sex the equity that they have long pleaded for, in this case, translated into the
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work they are capable of putting in. It is necessary that one question the breadth and depth that
our existing laws cover–– Do they give them a fair shot? Do they really aim to protect women,
whether in terms of equal pay, working hours, and a promise that action will be taken should
sexual harassment in the workforce occur? If the answer to both questions is a no, then this
Now what needs to be done is an addressing of the very root of all of this evil: the norms
themselves. Perhaps now what needs to be questioned is the existence and validity that these
norms have in contemporary society. Just because they have been a reality for all this time does
not mean that it must remain this way, especially when there are people who are suffering
because of it. Many of them are also unethical in that they are grounded on nothing other than
Women’s agency now combats the Hegelian thinking that we are placid in our
development. Movements and demonstrations have been organized to contend with the norms
put in place, as a way to dismantle them. But there is only so much that can be done on the part
of the women, if people refuse to listen. Norms which are unethical need to be renounced
because this will reconfigure the way people think and feel about certain issues in
contemporary society.
This can be on the level of people in Civil Society who may be encouraged to help in
fighting for this cause, instead of siding with institutions. But it may also be on the level of the
institutions themselves. If norms are inherent to the way they conduct and govern, then the
more people will see them as acceptable. It streams down to the various participants in society.
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This is why the norms themselves must be renounced, because only then can there be a clearer
CONCLUSION
The legacy that the Enlightenment has left on contemporary society was a period that
probed the limits of authority and power and the effects this plays on society. Now, with more
awareness and an understanding of the deception that can take place when traditional standards
In interrogating the Enlightenment, one can now see that perhaps the freedom and
equality that were supposed to have been put in place by science and reason were not actually
beneficial to the entire spectrum of human civilization. Rules which favor the majority without
taking into account the plight of the minority are not very beneficial after all. In this regard,
this is why it is incorrect to merely re-simulate standards put in place just for the sake of
claiming that something new is being given to those who ask for it. Standards are after all,
gendered.
Re-patriarchalization in society occurs when this is done over and over again. In line
with this, re-marginalization also occurs because women bear the brunt of the effects that this
has. One step closer to assimilation could even be akin to a few steps back every time they
realize they are being watched intently with an expectation that they will do something wrong,
or every time they must fight for equal pay, or for benefits that will ensure them maternity
leave, and especially when they become victims or workplace gender-based harassment
because there are no laws in place that will ensure the perpetrator gets punished.
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While these of course vary from case-to-case and from organization-to-organization,
the general rule of thumb is one that favors the men. Because of the developments in thinking,
in education, and in human rights, it is important to constantly revisit systems put in place.
Sometimes, there may just be an appearance of change, but it may just be an illusion with no
real depth to substantiate it. This is especially necessary every time there is an intersectionality
with other factors like race, class, and age that intersect with gender, making the mix even more
complicated, but even more cause for concern. Intersectionality is another cause for
stratification, and illustrates how this issue effects all members of society
Existing norms are perilous because there is no controlling of the extent they can reach
in becoming abusive. However, they do not need to remain stagnant forever. Perhaps now, we
transition means ridding our collective consciousness of prejudices and norms because these
are forms of regression. What might need to be done is to obliterate these norms through
renunciation, especially of those which are unethical. Only then will we be able to achieve a
society where meaningful and lasting change is created and not re-simulated to benefit all
members of society, and demonstrating the inherent freedom each one of us has.
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