UNIT: I- MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Introduction to Manufacturing processes:

The process of converting raw materials, components, or parts into finished goods that meet a
customer's expectations or specifications. Manufacturing commonly employs a man-machine
setup with division of labour in a large scale production.

Classification of Manufacturing Processes:

Material removal or Machining:

Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired
final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. The processes that have this
common theme, controlled material removal, are today collectively known as subtractive
manufacturing.

 Centre Lathe
 Drilling Machine

Centre Lathe:
Working Principle
The lathe is a machine tool which holds the workpiece between two rigid and strong supports
called centers or in a chuck or face plate which revolves. The cutting tool is rigidly held and
supported in a tool post which is fed against the revolving work. The normal cutting operations
are performed with the cutting tool fed either parallel or at right angles to the axis of the work.

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Construction

Bed
The bed of Lathe acts as the base on which the different fixed and operations parts of the Lathe
are mounted. Lathe beds are usually made as single piece casting of semi-steel (i.e., toughened
cast iron. The rigid structure will helps to avoid deflections. The guides and ways which are
present on the top of the bed will act as rails and supports other parts like tail stock. The bed
will be designed in such a way that easily bolted to the floor of the machine shop.
Head stock
The head stock is the part of the lathe which serves as a housing for the driving pulleys and
back gears, provides bearing for the machine spindle and keeps the latter in alignment with the
bed. It is a fixed part which will present on the left side of the lathe bed. Head stock will consists
of a hollow spindle and drives unit like main spindle, feed reverse lever, live center cone pulley
etc., The tapered bar with pointed or projected end is going to grip the work piece between two
centers of lathe bed.

Tail stock
It is also sometimes called the LOOSE HEAD- STOCK or PUPPET HEAD. It is mounted on
the bed of the lathe such that it is capable of sliding along the latter maintaining its alignment
with the head stock. On common types of medium size or small size lathes it is moved along
the bed by hand, whereas in heavier types of lathes it is moved by means of a hand wheel
through a pinion which meshes with the rack provided on the front of the lathe bed. The main
function of the Tail stock is to provide bearing and support to the job which is being worked
between centers. To enable this, the tail stock is made to possess a number of parts which
collectively help in its successful function.

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Carriage
The lathe carriage serves the purpose of supporting, guiding and feeding the tool against the
job during the operation of the lathe. The carriage will present between head stock and tail
stock which will slides on the bed ways of the lathe bed. The carriage will give feed to the tool
and it holds the tool, for taper turning the feed is cross feed, for turning it is longitudinal feed.
The carriage consists of the following parts.

 saddle
 cross-slide
 compound Rest
 Tool post
 Apron
Saddle

It is the part of the carriage which slides along the bed way and support the Cross-slide,
compound rest and Tool post.
Cross-slide

The cross-slide function is to provide cutting action to the tool and the action of cutting tool
will be perpendicular to center line of lathe. It can either be operated by hand, by means of the
cross-feed screw, or may be given power feed through the Apron Mechanism.
Compound Rest

The compound Rest will be placed over the cross slide and it consists of a graduated circular
base which is having swivelling nature.
Tool post
It is the top most part of the carriage and is used for holding the tool or tool holder in position.
Apron

Apron houses the feed mechanism, clutch mechanism split half nut, gears, and leavers. The
apron wheel can be rotated by hand for longitudinal motion of the carriage.
Legs

They are the supports which carry the entire load of the machine over them. The prevailing
practice is to use cast legs. Both the legs are firmly secured to the floor by means of foundation
blots in order to prevent vibrations in the machine. One of these legs, usually the one on the
left hand side of the operator, serves as a housing for the electric motor and counter shaft etc.,
Both these legs should be of robust construction.

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Basic operations performed by Lathe

Drilling machine:
Introduction
The drilling machine or drill press is one of the most common and useful machine employed
in industry for producing forming and finishing holes in a workpiece. The unit essentially
consists of:
1. A spindle which turns the tool (called drill) which can be advanced in the workpiece either
automatically or by hand.
2. A work table which holds the workpiece rigidly in position.

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Working principle
The rotating edge of the drill exerts a large force on the workpiece and the hole is generated.
The removal of metal in a drilling operation is by shearing and extrusion.

Construction

Components of Drilling machine

Base: This is the main supporting portion of the machine. It is usually made of heavy gray iron
or ductile iron casting, and generally has slots to support structures that are too large for the
table.

Column: This generally round-shaped column is usually made from gray cast iron or ductile
iron for larger machines, or steel tubing for drill presses which are smaller in size. It supports
the table and the top half of the drilling machine.
Table: You can adjust the table up or down the column to reach the proper height. If required,
it can also be swivelled around the column to the intended working position. A whopping
majority of worktables have slots, holes and other structures and other work holding
accessories. Certain tables can also be rotated around the horizontal axis.
Head: The “head” portion houses the spindle, quill, pulleys and the motor. The V-belt attached
to the motor, drives a pulley in the front part of the head, and that in turn drives the spindle,
which turns the drill. The speeds on a stepped V-shaped pulley drive are altered by periodically
changing the position of the aforementioned V-belt. The speed on a variable-speed drive
mechanism is controlled or reined by a hand wheel situated on the head; and it’s essential for
the spindle to keep spinning at the time this action is carried out.

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Chuck and Sleeve: The drill chuck, the focal point of the machine, secures the cutting device
or drill bit, to the end of the spindle protruding from the end of the sleeve.

Feed Lever: The feed lever is the "hands-on" part of the drill press. It's located on the right side
of the head, and looks like a wheel with spokes and knobs. The operator grasps one of the round
knobs with one hand, and pulls the wheel down to lower the bit into the wood. When the bit is
finished drilling, the operator pushes the wheel back up to raise the bit.

Operations performed by Drilling machine

Drilling

Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth by
removing metal by the rotating edge of a cutting tool called drill. Drilling is one of the simplest
methods of producing a hole. Drilling does not produce an accurate hole in a workpiece.
Reaming

The size of hole made by drilling may not be accurate and the internal surface will not be
smooth. Reaming is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has been previously
drilled by a multi-point cutting tool known as reamer. The surface obtained by reaming will be
smoother and the size accurate. The speed of the spindle is made half that of drilling. Reaming
removes very small amount of metal.

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Boring
Boring is the operation enlarging the diameter of the previously made hole. It is done for the
following reasons. To enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting This is done when a
suitable sized drill is not available or the hole diameter is so large that is cannot be ordinarily
drilled.

 To finish a hole accurately and bring it to the required size.

 To machine the internal surface of the hole already produced in casting.
 To correct out of roundness of the hole.
 To correct the location of the hole as the boring tool follows independent path with respect
to the hole.

Counter boring
Counter boring is the operation of enlarging the end of the hole cylindrically. The enlarged
hole forms a square shoulder with the original hole. This is necessary in some cases to
accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins. The tool used for counter boring is known as
counter bore.

Tapping
Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads by means of a cutting tool called ‘tap’.
Tapping in a drilling machine may be performed by hand or by power. When the tap is screwed
into the hole, it removes metal and cuts internal threads which will fit into external threads of
the same size.

Material addition or joining process

The term joining is usually used for welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding, which
in general form a permanent joint between the parts which cannot easily be separated. Even a
simple product may be impossible to manufacture as a single piece. After reviewing all of the
manufacturing processes, one would conclude that manufacturing the product in one piece
would be more or less impossible or uneconomical. Various properties may be desirable for
functional purposes of the product.

 Welding
 Brazing
 Soldering

Welding
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining
techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal. In addition to

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melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten
material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than the base material.

1. Arc welding
Introduction

 Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create
enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool result in a binding of the
metals.
 It is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between
an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point.
 They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes.
 The welding region is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapour, or slag. Arc
welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated.

Components of arc welding processes

1. Arc welding power source

Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding process,
each having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators
driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For AC
welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all arc welding where mains
electricity supply is available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts)
to the normally open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts).

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2. Welding cables
Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the workpiece and back to the welding power source. These are
insulated copper or aluminium cables.
3. Electrode holder

Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting current to it. These
are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn matched to the amperage output of
the arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to 500 Amps.
4. Welding Electrodes

An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is
set up between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into the following
types
Consumable Electrodes

 Bar Electrodes
 Coated Electrodes
Non-consumable Electrodes

 Carbon or Graphite Electrodes

 Tungsten Electrodes
Consumable electrodes are made up of different metals and their alloys. The end of this
electrode starts melting when the arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus
consumable electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy
wire without any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts
melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many functions
like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.

Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure
tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But
practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of
oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during welding. The materials of non-
consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated
or zirconated tungsten.

5. Chipping hammer
Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.

6. Wire brush
Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

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7. Hand Screen
Hand screen is used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.

8. Protective clothing
The operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to protect the body from the exposure
of direct heat to the body.

Working of arc welding

First of all, metal pieces to be weld are thoroughly cleaned to remove the dust, dirt, grease, oil,
etc. Then the work piece should be firmly held in suitable fixtures. Insert a suitable electrode
in the electrode holder at an angle of 60 to 80° with the work piece.
Select the proper current and polarity. The spot are marked by the arc at the places where
welding is to be done. The welding is done by making contact of the electrode with the work
and then separating the electrode to a proper distance to produce an arc.

When the arc is obtained, intense heat so produced, melts the work below the arc, and forming
a molten metal pool. A small depression is formed in the work and the molten metal is deposited
around the edge of this depression. It is called arc crator. The slag is brushed off easily after
the joint has cooled. After welding is over, the electrode holder should be taken out quickly to
break the arc and the supply of current is switched off.

2. Gas welding

Introduction
Metal joining process in which the ends of pieces to be joined are heated at their interface by
producing coalescence with one or more gas flames (such as oxygen and acetylene), with or
without the use of a filler metal.

Construction

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Working procedure

 The oxyacetylene welding process uses a combination of oxygen and acetylene gas to
provide a high temperature flame.
 OAW is a manual process in which the welder must personally control the torch movement
and filler rod application.
 The term oxyfuel gas welding outfit refers to all the equipment needed to weld. Cylinders
contain oxygen and acetylene gas at extremely high pressure.
 The temperature generated during the process is 33000c, when the metal is fused, oxygen
from the atmosphere and the torch combines with molten metal and forms oxides, results
defective weld.
 Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides, Common fluxes used are made of
sodium, potassium, Lithium and borax.
 Flux can be applied as paste, powder, liquid, solid coating or gas.

Gases used

 Oxygen extracted from air and compressed into cylinders at high pressure. Cylinder is
black. Oil should never be brought into contact and should not be used on fittings.
 Acetylene (C2H2) is a fuel gas. Cannot be compressed directly as explodes at high
pressures. Cylinders are packed with porous material which is filled with acetone. Acetone
absorbs acetylene. Cylinder colour coded maroon. Acetylene is extremely unstable in its
pure form at pressure above 15 PSI. Acetone is also present within the cylinder to stabilize
the acetylene. .
 Gas welding equipment: Equipment’s use for gas welding process are- Pressure Gauges,
Hoses, Welding torch, Check valve, Non return valve.

3. Spot welding
Introduction

 Spot welding (SW) is a process in which contacting metal surface points are joined by the
heat obtained from resistance to electric current.
 It is a subset of electric resistance welding. Work-pieces are held together under pressure
exerted by electrodes.
 Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets
are in the 0.5 to 3 mm (0.020 to 0.118 in) thickness range.
 The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current into a
small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together.

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Construction

Working of Spot welding

 Spot welding involves three stages; the first of which involves the electrodes being brought
to the surface of the metal and applying a slight amount of pressure. The current from the
electrodes is then applied briefly after which the current is removed but the electrodes
remain in place for the material to cool. Weld times range from 0.01 sec to 0.63 sec
depending on the thickness of the metal, the electrode force and the diameter of the
electrodes themselves.
 The equipment used in the spot welding process consists of tool holders and electrodes.
The tool holders function as a mechanism to hold the electrodes firmly in place and also
support optional water hoses that cool the electrodes during welding. Tool holding methods
include a paddle-type, light duty, universal, and regular offset. The electrodes generally are
made of a low resistance alloy, usually copper, and are designed in many different shapes
and sizes depending on the application needed.
 The two materials being welded together are known as the workpieces and must conduct
electricity. The width of the workpieces is limited by the throat length of the welding
apparatus and ranges typically from 5 to 50 inches (13 to 130 cm). Workpiece thickness
can range from 0.008 to 1.25 inches (0.20 to 32 mm).[6]
 After the current is removed from the workpiece, it is cooled via the coolant holes in the
center of the electrodes. Both water and a brine solution may be used as coolants in spot
welding mechanisms.

Brazing
Introduction

 Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting
point than the adjoining metal.

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 Brazing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting the work pieces and from
soldering in using higher temperatures for a similar process, while also requiring much
more closely fitted parts than when soldering.
 The filler metal flows into the gap between close-fitting parts by capillary action. The filler
metal is brought slightly above its melting (liquidus) temperature while protected by a
suitable atmosphere, usually a flux.
 It then flows over the base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled to join the work
pieces together.
 A major advantage of brazing is the ability to join the same or different metals with
considerable strength.

Elements of brazing

Flux

 Unless brazing operations are contained within an inert or reducing atmosphere

environment (i.e. a vacuum furnace), a flux such as borax is required to prevent oxides
from forming while the metal is heated.
 The flux also serves the purpose of cleaning any contamination left on the brazing surfaces.
Flux can be applied in any number of forms including flux paste, liquid, powder or pre-
made brazing pastes that combine flux with filler metal powder.
 Flux can also be applied using brazing rods with a coating of flux, or a flux core. In either
case, the flux flows into the joint when applied to the heated joint and is displaced by the
molten filler metal entering the joint.
 Excess flux should be removed when the cycle is completed because flux left in the joint
can lead to corrosion, impede joint inspection, and prevent further surface finishing
operations.

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Filler materials
A variety of alloys are used as filler metals for brazing depending on the intended use or
application method. In general, braze alloys are made up of 3 or more metals to form an alloy
with the desired properties.
Some of the more common types of filler metals used are

 Aluminium-silicon
 Copper
 Copper-silver
 Copper-zinc (brass)
 Copper-tin (bronze)
 Gold-silver
 Nickel alloy
 Amorphous brazing foil using nickel, iron, copper, silicon, boron, phosphorus, etc.

Soldering

Introduction
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point.
Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.

Working of soldering process

 The soldering filler metal is called solder.

 The most commonly used solder is lead and tin alloy containing tin ranging from 5 to 70%
and lead 95 to 30%. Higher the contents of tin, lower the melting point of alloy.
 Other filler metal are tin-antimony solder (95% tin and 5% antimony), tin-silver solder (tin
96% and silver 4%), lead-silver solder (97% lead, 1.5 tin and 1.5 silver), tin-zinc solder (91
to 30% tin and 9 to 70% zinc), cadmium-silver solder (95% cadmium and 5% silver).

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 These are available in the form of bars, solid and flux cored wires, preforms, sheet, foil,
ribbon and paste or cream.
 Fluxes used in soldering are ammonium chloride, zinc chloride, rosin and rosin dissolved
in alcohol.
 Various soldering methods are soldering with soldering irons, dip soldering, torch
soldering, oven soldering, resistance soldering, induction soldering, infra-red and
ultrasonic soldering.
 Soldering iron being used for manual soldering, consists of insulated handle and end is
fitted with copper tip which may be heated electrically or in coke or oil/gas fired furnace.
Solder is brought to molten state by touching it to the tip of the soldering iron so that molten
solder can spread to the joint surface.
 Soldering flux residues of rosin flux can be left on the surface of joint, however, activated
rosin flux and other flux residues require proper treatment. If rosin residues removal is
required then alcohol, acetone or carbon tetrachloride can be used.

Comparison between Welding, Brazing and Soldering

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Sheet metal working
Introduction
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms
used in metal working, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless
everyday objects are constructed of the material.

Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or
leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.

Sheet metal forming processes

 Shearing: processes which apply shearing forces to cut, fracture, or separate the material.
 Forming: processes which cause the metal to undergo desired shape changes without
failure, excessive thinning, or cracking. This includes bending and stretching.
 Finishing: processes which are used to improve the final surface characteristics.

Shearing Process
1. Punching
Punching is a metal forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch,
through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing. The punch often passes through the work
into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process.

Initial workpiece Punching operation Final sheet

2. Blanking
Blanking is a metal fabricating process, during which a metal workpiece is removed from the
primary metal strip or sheet when it is punched. The material that is removed is the new metal
workpiece or blank.

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3. Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet.

4. Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces.

5. Notching: removing pieces from the edges.

6. Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material.

Forming processes
1. Bending
Bending along a straight line is the most common of all sheet forming processes; it can be done
in various ways such as forming along the complete bend in a die, or by wiping, folding or
flanging in special machines, or sliding the sheet over a radius in a die.

1.1 V – Bending

1.2 U – Bending

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1.3 V – Bending

2. Coining
Coining is a cold working process which is similar to forging which takes place at an elevated
temperature. It uses a great force to deform a workpiece plastically. More concisely, it is the
squeezing of metal while it is confined in a closed set of dies.

Upped die Lower Die Billet

Coining Process Final billet

3. Drawing
Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch metal or glass. As the
metal is drawn (pulled), it stretches thinner, into a desired shape and thickness.

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4. Roll forming
Roll forming is a process by which a metal strip is progressively bent as it passes through a
series of forming rolls.

Finishing Operations
1. Trimming
This operation consists of cutting unwanted excess of material from the periphery of a
previously formed component.

2. Shaving
The edge of a blanked part are generally rough, uneven and un square. Accurate dimensions of
the part are obtained by removing a thin strip of metal along the edges.

3. Slitting
It refers to the operation of making incomplete holes in a work piece.

4. Lancing
This is a cutting operation in which a hole is partially cut and then one side is bent down to
form a sort of tab. Since no metal is actually removed and there will be no scrap.

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5. Nibbling
The nibbling operation, which is used for only small quantities of components, is designed for
cutting out flat parts from sheet metal. The flat parts from simple to complex contours. This
operation is generally substituted for blanking. The part is usually moved and guided by hand
as the continuously operating punch cutting away at the edge of the desired contour.

Applications of sheet metal working

 Automotive industry (e.g. doors, hoods, fenders)

 Aircraft industry (e.g. wings, fuselage)
 Home appliance industry (e.g. sinks, cooker hoods, freezers)
 Food industry (e.g. cooking pots, canned goods)

Smithy

Introduction

 Smithy or Forging is an oldest shaping process used for the producing small articles for
which accuracy in size is not so important. The parts are shaped by heating them in an open
fire or hearth by the blacksmith and shaping them through applying compressive forces
using hammer.

Components used in smithy

 Anvil
 Hammer
 Tongs
 Swage block
 Chisels
 Punches

Anvil Hammer Tongs

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 Swage block Chisels Punches

Operations performed by smithy

1. Drawing-down:
Drawing is the process of stretching the stock while reducing its cross-section locally. Forging
the tapered end of a cold is an example of drawing operation.

2. Upsetting:
It is a process of increasing the area of cross-section of a metal piece locally, with a
corresponding reduction in length. In this, only the portion to be upset is heated to forging
temperature and the work is then struck at the end with a hammer. Hammering is done by the
smith (student) himself, if the job is small, or by his helper, in case of big jobs, when heavy
blows are required with a sledge hammer.

3. Fullering:
Fullers are used for necking down a piece of work, the reduction often serving as the starting
point for drawing. Fullers are made of high carbon steel in two parts, called the top and bottom
fullers. The bottom tool fits in the hardy hole of the anvil. Fuller size denotes the width of the
fuller edge.

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4. Swaging:
Swages like fullers are also made of high carbon steel and are made in two parts called the top
and swages. These are used to reduce and finish to round, square or hexagonal forms. For this,
the swages are made with half grooves of dimensions to suit the work.

5. Bending:
Bending of bars, flats, etc., is done to produce different types of bent shapes such as angles,
ovals, circles etc. Sharp bends as well as round bends may be made on the anvil, by choosing
the appropriate place on it for the purpose.

6. Punching:
It is a process of producing holes in motel plate is placed over the hollow cylindrical die. By
pressing the punch over the plate the hole is made.

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Applications of smithy or forging

 Automotive industries: axle beams, wheel spindles, shafts, kings pin, torsion bars, ball
studs, pitman arms, idler arms, and steering arms.
 Valves and fittings: valve bodies and stems, flanges, tees, saddles, elbow reducers, and
other fittings.
 Hand tools and Hardware: Wrenches, pliers, hammers, garden tools, sledges, wire-
rope clips, sockets, nut and bolts, hooks, turnbuckles.
 Machinery and equipment: steel, paper, textile, power generation and transmission,
chemical and refinery industries.
 Defence: Missiles, heavy tanks, armoured carriers, shells and other heavy weapons.
 Construction machinery: excavator bucket teeth, etc.
 Mining industry: ground foundation bits, auger bits, etc.
 Agriculture: gears, shafts, spike harrow teeth, tie rod ends, etc.
 Aerospace: bulkheads, wing roots and spars, engine mounts, hinges, brackets, shafts,
beams, landing gear cylinders and struts, wheels, brake carriers and arresting hooks. In
jet turbine engines, superalloy (iron-base nickel-base and cobalt-base) are forged into
components such as buckets, discs, blades, couplings, rings, manifolds, chambers and
shafts.

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