Unit I

1. Introduction
2. Importance of Reading Skills
3. Techniques
4. Strategies

Unit II

1. Punctuation marks
2. Use of Capital Letters

Unit III

Vocabulary

1. Synonyms
2. Antonyms
3. Affixation
4. Vocabulary in context
5. Proverbs /Collocations
6. One word substitutes
7. Idioms and Phrasal verbs
Unit-IV

1. Creative writing

Unit-V

1. Letter writing
Unit I

1. Introduction
2. Importance of Reading Skills
3. Techniques
4. Strategies

1. INTRODUCTION:

"Reading" is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting meaning from them.
When we read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols (letters, punctuation marks and spaces)
and we use our brain to convert them into words, sentences and paragraphs that communicate
something to us.

Reading can be silent (in our head) or aloud (so that other people can hear).

Reading is a receptive skill - through it we receive information. But the complex process of reading
also requires the skill of speaking, so that we can pronounce the words that we read. In this sense,
reading is also a productive skill in that we are both receiving information and transmitting it (even
if only to ourselves).

Do we need to read in order to speak English? The short answer is no. Some native speakers cannot
read or write but they speak English fluently. On the other hand, reading is something that you can
do on your own and that greatly broadens your vocabulary, thus helping you in speaking (and in
listening and writing). Reading is therefore a highly valuable skill and activity, and it is
recommended that English learners try to read as much as possible in English.

Reading is something many, who are literate, take for granted. But if you think about it and try to
define it, you may have difficulty verbalizing your thoughts. Reading experts have done the
defining job for you.
 2. IMPORTANCE OF READING SKILL

Reading is more important today than it ever was — it is crucial to being an informed citizen, to
succeed in one's chosen career, and to personal fulfillment. Remember when people thought
technology would decrease the need to read? I find I have more access to text than ever, more
specialized magazines, more books being published, more newspapers and more articles to read
on the Internet, just like we are communicating now. But first things first: Children who read well
do better in other subjects and in all aspects of schooling and beyond. As the world becomes more
complex, reading is increasingly important for children trying to find their place in it. This is the
essence of Scholastic's Read for Life campaign: Read for Comfort...Read for Closeness.

Why Is Reading Important?

1. Reading is fundamental to functioning in today's society. There are many adults who cannot
read well enough to understand the instructions on a medicine bottle. That is a scary thought -
especially for their children. Filling out applications becomes impossible without help. Reading
road or warning signs is difficult. Even following a map becomes a chore. Day-to-day activities
that many people take for granted become a source of frustration, anger and fear.

2. Reading is a vital skill in finding a good job. Many well-paying jobs require reading as a part of
job performance. There are reports and memos which must be read and responded to. Poor reading
skills increase the amount of time it takes to absorb and react in the workplace. A person is limited
in what they can accomplish without good reading and comprehension skills.

3. Reading is important because it develops the mind. The mind is a muscle. It needs exercise.
Understanding the written word is one way the mind grows in its ability. Teaching young children
to read helps them develop their language skills. It also helps them learn to listen. Everybody wants
to talk, but few can really listen. Lack of listening skills can result in major misunderstandings
which can lead to job loss, marriage breakup, and other disasters - small and great. Reading helps
children [and adults] focus on what someone else is communicating.
4. Why is reading important? It is how we discover new things. Books, magazines and even the
Internet are great learning tools which require the ability to read and understand what is read. A
person who knows how to read can educate themselves in any area of life they are interested in.
We live in an age where we overflow with information, but reading is the main way to take
advantage of it.

5. Reading develops the imagination. TV and computer games have their place, but they are more
like amusement. Amusement comes from two words "a" [non] and "muse" [think]. Amusement is
non-thinking activities. With reading, a person can go anywhere in the world...or even out of it!
They can be a king, or an adventurer, or a princess, or... The possibilities are endless. Non-readers
never experience these joys to the same extent.

6. In line with the above, reading develops the creative side of people. When reading to children,
stop every once in awhile and ask them what they think is going to happen next. Get them thinking
about the story. When it is finished, ask if they could think of a better ending or anything that
would have improved it. If they really liked the story, encourage them to illustrate it with their own
drawings or to make up a different story with the same characters. Get the creative juices flowing!

7. Reading is fundamental in developing a good self image. Non-readers or poor readers often have
low opinions of themselves and their abilities. Many times they feel as if the world is against them.
They feel isolated [everybody else can read - which isn't true] and behavior problems can surface.
They can perform poorly in other subjects because they cannot read and understand the material.
Often the reader tends to "give up."

8. Why is reading important? Let's keep going... Good reading skills, especially in a phonics
reading program, improve spelling. As students learn to sound out letters and words, spelling
becomes easier. Also, reading helps to expand the vocabulary. Reading new words puts them in
their mind for later use. Seeing how words are used in different contexts can give a better
understanding of the word usage and its definitions rather than just the cold facts of a dictionary.
9. There is an old saying, "The pen is mightier than the sword." Ideas written down have changed
the destiny of men and nations for better or worse. The flow of ideas cannot be stopped. We need
to read and research to build on the good ideas and expose the bad ideas before they bring
destruction. Only by reading can we be armed in this never-ending, life-and-death struggle.

10. The fact of the power of written ideas communicated through reading is a foundational reason
why some governments oppose free and honest communication. Illiterate people are easier to
control and manipulate. They cannot do their own research and thinking. They must rely on what
they are told and how their emotions are swayed. There is a good possibility that this is one of the
main reasons phonics was removed from the schools about 100 years ago.

11. Finally, why is reading important? Reading is important because words - spoken and written -
are the building blocks of life. You are, right now, the result of words that you have heard or read
and believed about yourself. What you become in the future will depend on the words you believe
about yourself now. People, families, relationships, and even nations are built from words. Think
about it.
3. READING TECHNIQUES

One of the first things you learn about teaching is that there are different reading techniques and
the students should be aware of which technique is most suited, depending on the reading task
required by the text or by their teacher.

Training students to know their reading techniques and deduce when best to apply them is indeed
important, especially under exam conditions when time constraints come into play and decisions
need to be made depending on time availability and the importance of the task at hand.

The four main types of reading techniques are the following:

1. Skimming
2. Scanning
3. Intensive
4. Extensive
 1. Skimming
Skimming is sometimes referred to as gist reading. Skimming may help in order to know what the
text is about at its most basic level. You might typically do this with a magazine or newspaper and
would help you mentally and quickly shortlist those articles which you might consider for a deeper
read. You might typically skim to search for a name in a telephone directory.

You can reach a speed count of even 700 words per minute if you train yourself well in this
particular method. Comprehension is of course very low and understanding of overall content very
superficial.

2. Scanning
Picture yourself visiting a historical city, guide book in hand. You would most probably just scan
the guide book to see which site you might want to visit. Scanning involves getting your eyes to
quickly scuttle across sentence and is used to get just a simple piece of information. Interestingly,
research has concluded that reading off a computer screen actually inhibits the pathways to
effective scanning and thus, reading of paper is far more conducive to speedy comprehension of
texts.

Something students sometimes do not give enough importance to is illustrations. These should be
included in your scanning. Special attention to the introduction and the conclusion should also be
paid.

3. Intensive Reading
You need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive reading. Remember this is
going to be far more time consuming than scanning or skimming. If you need to list the chronology
of events in a long passage, you will need to read it intensively. This type of reading has indeed
beneficial to language learners as it helps them understand vocabulary by deducing the meaning
of words in context. It moreover, helps with retention of information for long periods of time and
knowledge resulting from intensive reading persists in your long term memory.
This is one reason why reading huge amounts of information just before an exam does not work
very well. When students do this, they undertake neither type of reading process effectively,
especially neglecting intensive reading. They may remember the answers in an exam but will likely
forget everything soon afterwards.

4. Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading for pleasure. Because there is an element of enjoyment in
extensive reading it is unlikely that students will undertake extensive reading of a text they do not
like. It also requires a fluid decoding and assimilation of the text and content in front of you. If the
text is difficult and you stop every few minutes to figure out what is being said or to look up new
words in the dictionary, you are breaking your concentration and diverting your thoughts.

4. READING STRATEGIES

1. Previewing: Learning about a text before really reading it.

Previewing enables readers to get a sense of what the text is about and how it is
organized before reading it closely. This simple strategy includes seeing what you can
learn from the head notes or other introductory material, skimming to get an overview of
the content and organization, and identifying the rhetorical situation.

2. Contextualizing: Placing a text in its historical, biographical, and cultural contexts.

When you read a text, you read it through the lens of your own experience. Your
understanding of the words on the page and their significance is informed by what you
have come to know and value from living in a particular time and place. But the texts you
read were all written in the past, sometimes in a radically different time and place. To
read critically, you need to contextualize, to recognize the differences between your
contemporary values and attitudes and those represented in the text.

3. Questioning to understand and remember: Asking questions about the content.

As students, you are accustomed (I hope) to teachers asking you questions about your
reading. These questions are designed to help you understand a reading and respond to it
more fully, and often this technique works. When you need to understand and use new
information though it is most beneficial if you write the questions, as you read the text for
the first time. With this strategy, you can write questions any time, but in difficult
 academic readings, you will understand the material better and remember it longer if you
write a question for every paragraph or brief section. Each question should focus on a
main idea, not on illustrations or details, and each should be expressed in your own
words, not just copied from parts of the paragraph.

4. Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values: Examining your personal responses.

The reading that you do for this class might challenge your attitudes, your unconsciously
held beliefs, or your positions on current issues. As you read a text for the first time, mark
an X in the margin at each point where you feel a personal challenge to your attitudes,
beliefs, or status. Make a brief note in the margin about what you feel or about what in
the text created the challenge. Now look again at the places you marked in the text where
you felt personally challenged. What patterns do you see?

5. Outlining and summarizing: Identifying the main ideas and restating them in your own
words.

Outlining and summarizing are especially helpful strategies for understanding the content
and structure of a reading selection. Whereas outlining reveals the basic structure of the
text, summarizing synopsizes a selection's main argument in brief. Outlining may be part
of the annotating process, or it may be done separately (as it is in this class). The key to
both outlining and summarizing is being able to distinguish between the main ideas and
the supporting ideas and examples. The main ideas form the backbone, the strand that
holds the various parts and pieces of the text together. Outlining the main ideas helps you
to discover this structure. When you make an outline, don't use the text's exact words.

Summarizing begins with outlining, but instead of merely listing the main ideas, a
summary recomposes them to form a new text. Whereas outlining depends on a close
analysis of each paragraph, summarizing also requires creative synthesis. Putting ideas
together again -- in your own words and in a condensed form -- shows how reading
critically can lead to deeper understanding of any text.

6. Evaluating an argument: Testing the logic of a text as well as its credibility and emotional
impact.
 All writers make assertions that they want you to accept as true. As a critical reader, you
should not accept anything on face value but to recognize every assertion as an argument
that must be carefully evaluated. An argument has two essential parts: a claim and
support. The claim asserts a conclusion -- an idea, an opinion, a judgment, or a point of
view -- that the writer wants you to accept. The support includes reasons (shared beliefs,
assumptions, and values) and evidence (facts, examples, statistics, and authorities) that
give readers the basis for accepting the conclusion. When you assess an argument, you
are concerned with the process of reasoning as well as its truthfulness (these are not the
same thing). At the most basic level, in order for an argument to be acceptable, the
support must be appropriate to the claim and the statements must be consistent with one
another.

7. Comparing and contrasting related readings: Exploring likenesses and differences between
texts to understand them better.

Many of the authors we read are concerned with the same issues or questions, but approach how
to discuss them in different ways. Fitting a text into an ongoing dialectic helps increase
understanding of why an author approached a particular issue or question in the way he or she
did.

Unit II

1. Punctuation marks
 2. Use of Capital Letters
1. PUNCTUATION MARKS

There are fourteen punctuation marks commonly used in English grammar.

They are the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen,
parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis.

Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence endings. They are the
period, question mark, and exclamation point.

The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to be complete and
after many abbreviations.

 As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market.

 After an abbreviation: Her son, John Jones Jr., was born on Dec. 6, 2008.

Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a sentence.

 When did Jane leave for the market?

The exclamation point (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or add
emphasis.

 Within dialogue: “Holy cow!” screamed Jane.

 To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!

Comma, Semicolon and Colon

The comma, semicolon and colon are often misused because they all can indicate a pause in a
series.

The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the structure of a sentence.
Additionally, it is used in numbers, dates and letter writing after the salutation and closing.

 Direct address: Thanks for all your help, John.

 Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies, and then we went out to lunch.

 Separating lists or elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black, green, and blue dress.

Whether to add a final comma before the conjunction in a list is a matter of debate. This final
comma, known as an Oxford or serial comma, is useful in a complex series of elements or phrases
but is often considered unnecessary in a simple series such as in the example above. It usually
comes down to a style choice by the writer.

The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer relationship between
the clauses than a period would show.

 John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.

A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation,
an example, or a series.

 He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology and economics.

The second is between independent clauses, when the second explains the first, similar to a
semicolon:

 I didn’t have time to get changed: I was already late.

The third use of a colon is for emphasis:

 There was one thing she loved more that any other: her dog.

A colon also has non-grammatical uses in time, ratio, business correspondence and references.

Dash and the Hyphen

Two other common punctuation marks are the dash and hyphen. These marks are often confused
with each other due to their appearance but they are very different.

A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a compound term and is not separated
by spaces. For example, part-time, back-to-back, well-known.
A dash is used to separate words into statements. There are two common types of dashes: en dash
and em dash.

 En dash: Slightly wider than a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (–) that is used in writing or
printing to indicate a range or connections and differentiations, such as 1880–1945 or
Princeton–New York trains.

 Em dash: Twice as long as the en dash, the em dash can be used in place of a comma,
parenthesis, or colon to enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a sentence. For
example, She gave him her answer — No!

Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is, again, a style choice. Just be consistent.

Brackets, Braces and Parentheses

Brackets, braces and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further explanation
or are considered a group.

Parentheses ( ( ) ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying remarks.
However, parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning in most cases.

 John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red hair.

Brackets are the squared off notations ([ ]) used for technical explanations or to clarify meaning.
If you remove the information in the brackets, the sentence will still make sense.

 He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house.

Braces ({ }) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they are
considered as a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing, but can be seen in computer
programming to show what should be contained within the same lines. They can also be used in
mathematical expressions. For example, 2{1+[23-3]}=x.

Apostrophe, Quotation Marks and Ellipsis

The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe, quotation marks and
ellipsis. Unlike previously mentioned grammatical marks, they are not related to one another in
any form.

An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive
case, or the plurals of lowercase letters.Examples of the apostrophe in use include:

 Omission of letters from a word: I've seen that movie several times. She wasn't the only one
who knew the answer.

 Possessive case: Sara's dog bit the neighbor.

 Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's.

It should be noted that, according to Purdue University, some teachers and editors enlarge the
scope of the use of apostrophe, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s), numbers (7's) and capitalized
letters (Q&A's), even though they are not necessary.

Quotations marks (“ ”) are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the beginning and
end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word. They are also used to indicate
meanings and to indicate the unusual or dubious status of a word.

 "Don't go outside," she said.

Single quotation marks (') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.

 Marie told the teacher, "I saw Marc at the playground, and he said to me 'Bill started the
fight,' and I believed him."

The ellipsis is most commonly represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is occasionally

demonstrated with three asterisks (***). The ellipsis is used in writing or printing to indicate an
omission, especially of letters or words. Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to jump
from one phrase to another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning.
Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ
ellipsis to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.
 Omission of words: She began to count, "One, two, three, four…" until she got to 10, then
went to find him.

 Within a quotation: When Newton stated, "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in
motion stays in motion..." he developed the law of motion.

British vs. American English

There are a few differences between punctuation in British and American English. The following
charts details some of those differences:

British English American English

The “ . “ symbol is called A full stop a period

The “ ! “ symbol is called an exclamation mark an exclamation point

The “ ( ) “ symbols are called brackets parentheses

The “ [ ] “ symbols are called square brackets brackets

The punctuation for abbreviations Dr, Mr, Mrs, St, Rd, Ct Dr., Mr., Mrs., St., Rd., Ct.

2. USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

When asked, most of us would likely say we've got a handle on capitalizing words in English.
After all, when you were six and you named your dog Mr. Flufflepants, there was no question in
your mind as to what parts of the name needed to be capitalized, right?
However, it's important to know that, with regard to professional or academic writing,
capitalization in English entails quite a bit more than simply knowing to begin names and titles
with capital letters.

Some capitalization rules

Though there are numerous rules associated with capitalization, our editors highlight a few of the
most common ones they encounter in academic and in ESL writing.

Capitalization rule #1

Capitalize the first word in quotations, provided the quoted material is a complete sentence.

For example:

Ralph Waldo Emerson said, "The only way to have a friend is to be one."

Capitalization rule #2

Use capitals for proper nouns. In other words, capitalize the names of people, specific places, and
things.

For example:

We don't capitalize the word "bridge" unless it starts a sentence, but we must capitalize Brooklyn
Bridge because it is the name of a specific bridge.

OR

The word "country" would not normally be capitalized, but we would have to write China with a
capital "C" because it is the name of a specific country.

OR

The word "state", while not normally capitalized, would be written with a capital if it is in the
name of an organization, such as The State Board of Education.

Capitalization rule #3
Capitalize titles when they are on the signature line of a letter, when the title comes immediately
before a name, or when the title replaces the use of a name (i.e., a title used as a direct address).

Here are some examples:

Sincerely,

Vicky Marquez, President

OR

Ms. Vicky Marquez

OR

Hello, Senator. It's nice to see you again.

Do not capitalize titles when they are not used as a direct address to a person. For example:

The senator will be in town today to inspect the building of the railway.

Capitalization rule #4

Capitalize directions only when they refer to specific regions.

For example:

My favorite place in the world is Northern Ontario.

Do not capitalize "north," "south," "east," and "west" when giving directions:

Drive six blocks north, and then turn right.

Capitalization rule #5

All large words in the titles of movies, books, and other publications should be capitalized, while
all small words (a, an, the, but, and, if, as, or, nor, to name a few) should not be capitalized unless
they are the first or last words in the title:
A Life Less Ordinary (The word "A" would not normally be capitalized, but because it is the first
word in the title, we must capitalize it.)

OR

War of the Worlds (The words "of" and "the" are not capitalized because they are small and are
not at the beginning or end of the title, though exceptions to the "small words" rule do exist.)

Capitalization rule #6

The first word of a salutation should be capitalized, as well as the first word of a closing. For
example:

Dear Billy,

OR

Regards,

John Smith

Capitalization rule #7

Capitalize words derived from proper nouns. For example:

I like English, but math is my favorite subject. (English is capitalized because it is derived from
the proper noun England, while math is not capitalized because it is not derived from a proper
noun.)

Specific course titles should, however, be capitalized. For example:

I don't know what I'm going to do. I have to take Math 101 next year and it looks hard!

Capitalization rule #8

Capitalize when two or more sentences follow a colon.

For example:
We have set this restriction: Do your chores before watching television. That includes washing the
dishes.

Do not capitalize after a colon if you are writing a list, or if there is only one sentence following
the colon:

There are many metals hidden away within the earth's crust: gold, zinc, and lead are just a few
examples.

OR

There is a way to remember test information: study a lot the night before your big midterm!
Unit III

Vocabulary

2. Synonyms
3. Antonyms
4. Affixation
5. Vocabulary in context
6. Proverbs /Collocations
7. One word substitutes
8. Idioms and Phrasal verbs

1. SYNONYMS

Synonyms are words that are similar, or have a related meaning, to another word. They can be
lifesavers when you want to avoid repeating the same word over and over. Also, sometimes the
word you have in mind might not be the most appropriate word, which is why finding the right
synonym can come in handy. Luckily, we do not have to go searching the recesses of our mind to
come up with a list of synonyms; there are numerous online tools providing synonym examples.
Choosing a Synonym
There is a certain skill involved in choosing the most appropriate synonym, as not all are created
equal. It is important to consider the connotation of the word because some synonyms can inject a
different meaning than the one intended.
For example, one synonym of sad is "gloomy" however, this word carries quite a negative
connotation. Depending on the circumstance you can use it, but in this instance, if you just want
to say that someone is "down," then another synonym such as "blue" or "unhappy" would be more
applicable.
Here are some miscellaneous words and their synonyms:
 Baffle: confuse, deceive
 Hypocrisy: duplicity, falseness
 Pacify: appease, placate
 Recalcitrant: obstinate, stubborn
 Turbulent: disordered, violent
 Valid: authorized, legitimate
 Old: antiquated, ancient, obsolete, extinct, past, prehistoric, venerable, aged
 True: genuine, reliable, factual, accurate, precise, correct, valid, real
 Important: required, substantial, vital, essential, primary, significant, requisite, critical
 Weak: frail, anemic, feeble, infirm, languid, sluggish, puny, fragile
 Annihilation, destruction, carnage, extinction
 Benefit, profit, revenue, yield
 Cunning, keen, sharp, slick
 Destitute, poor, bankrupt, impoverished
 Deterioration, pollution, defilement, adulteration
 Enormous, huge, gigantic, massive
 Fertile, fruitful, abundant, productive
 House, dwelling, abode, domicile
 Intelligent, clever, brilliant, knowledgeable
 Loyal, faithful, ardent, devoted
 Organization, institution, management
 Partner, associate, colleague, companion
 Polite, courteous, cordial, gracious
 Risky, dangerous, perilous, treacherous
 Sleepy, drowsy, listless, sluggish
 Vacant, empty, deserted, uninhabited
Here is a list of adjectives and their synonyms that are commonly used to describe people.
 Beautiful: Attractive, Pretty, Lovely, Stunning
 Fair: Just, Objective, Impartial, Unbiased
 Funny: Humorous, Comical, Hilarious, Hysterical
 Happy: Content, Joyful, Mirthful, Upbeat
 Hardworking: Diligent, Determined, Industrious, Enterprising
 Honest: Honorable, Fair, Sincere, Trustworthy
 Intelligent: Smart, Bright, Brilliant, Sharp
 Introverted: Shy, Bashful, Quiet, Withdrawn
 Kind: Thoughtful, Considerate, Amiable, Gracious
 Lazy: Idle, Lackadaisical, Lethargic, Indolent
 Mean: Unfriendly, Unpleasant, Bad-tempered, Difficult
 Outgoing: Friendly, Sociable, Warm, Extroverted
 Rich: Affluent, Wealthy, Well-off, Well-to-do
 Strong: Stable, Secure, Solid, Tough
 Unhappy: Sad, Depressed, Melancholy, Miserable
 Lucky: Auspicious, Fortunate
 Positive: Optimistic, Cheerful, Starry-eyed, Sanguine
 Bossy: Controlling, Tyrannical

These are just a few examples of synonyms but hopefully you can see that working with synonyms
can make your writing more varied and fun and help you expand your vocabulary.

2. ANTONYMS:

An antonym is a word that is the opposite meaning of another. It comes from the Greek words
“anti” for opposite and “onym” for name. Since language is complex, people may at times, disagree
on what words are truly opposite in meaning to other words.

Antonym Examples
Achieve – Fail
Idle – Active
Afraid – Confident
Ancient – Modern
Arrive – Depart
Arrogant – Humble
Ascend – Descend
Attack – Defend
Blunt – Sharp
Brave – Cowardly
Cautious – Careless
Complex – Simple
Compliment – Insult
Crazy – Sane
Crooked – Straight
Decrease – Increase
Demand – Supply
Destroy – Create
Divide – Unite
Drunk – Sober
Expand – Contract
Freeze - Boil
Full – Empty
Generous – Stingy
Giant – Dwarf
Gloomy – Cheerful
Guilty – Innocent
Hire – Fire
Include – Exclude
Individual – Group
Innocent – Guilty
Knowledge – Ignorance
Liquid – Solid
Lonely – Crowded
Major – Minor
Marvelous – Terrible
Mature – Immature
Maximum - Minimum
Noisy – Quiet
Optimist - Pessimist
Ordinary – Extraordinary
Partial – Complete
Passive – Active
Permanent – Unstable
Plentiful – Sparse
Positive – Negative
Powerful – Weak
Praise – Criticism
Private – Public
Problem – Solution
Professional – Amateur
Profit – Loss
Quality – Inferiority
Random – Specific
Rigid – Flexible
Segregate – Integrate
Shame – Honor
Simple - Complicated
Single – Married
Stiff – Flexible
Strength – Weakness
Sturdy – Weak
Sunny - Cloudy
Superb – Inferior
Temporary – Permanent
Timid – Bold
Toward – Away
Tragic – Comic
Transparent - Opaque
Triumph – Defeat
Union – Separation
Unique – Common
Upset – Relaxed
Urge – Deter
Vacant – Occupied
Vague – Definite
Vertical – Horizontal
Villain – Hero
Visible - Invisible
Wax - Wane
Wealth – Poverty
These are just a few examples of antonyms but hopefully you can see that working with antonyms
can make your writing more varied and fun and help you expand your vocabulary.

Working with Antonyms

Sometimes you need to take two steps to enlarge your findings when doing antonym research:
Step 1:
Search for the antonyms for a word.
Here is an example of antonyms for the word "good":
bad, badly, badness, evil, evilness, ill, malevolent, malicious, poorly, wicked
Step 2:
Search for synonyms of the antonyms identified in step one.
If you take the first antonym listed, “bad,” and search for synonyms, you would be shown 73
synonyms for “bad.” That would give you a lot of antonyms to choose from when looking for that
perfect antonym for good, including words such as: awful, dreadful, hard, hopeless, inferior, lousy,
painful, rotten, severe, stale, terrible, and tough.
Categories of Antonyms
There are three categories of antonyms:
 Graded antonyms - deal with levels of the meaning of the words, like if something is not
“good”, is may still not be “bad.” There is a scale involved with some words, and besides
good and bad there can be average, fair, excellent, terrible, poor, or satisfactory.
  Complementary antonyms - have a relationship where there is no middle ground. There
are only two possibilities, either one or the other.
Relational antonyms - are sometimes considered a subcategory of complementary
antonyms. With these pairs, for there to be a relationship, both must exist.
The chart below shows examples of all three categories of antonyms.
Adding a Prefix
Sometimes, an antonym can be easily made by adding a prefix.
Examples of antonyms that were made by adding the prefix “un” are:
 Likely and unlikely
 Able and unable
 Fortunate and unfortunate
 Forgiving and unforgiving
By adding the prefix “non” you can make these pairs:
 Entity and nonentity
 Conformist and nonconformist
 Payment and nonpayment
 Combatant and noncombatant
Lastly, adding the prefix “in” can make the following pairs:
 Tolerant and intolerant
 Decent and indecent
 Discreet and indiscreet
 Excusable and inexcusable
If you want to find the perfect antonym, a thesaurus or antonym dictionary can be very helpful.
These reference sources will give definitions and parts of speech, has lists of anonyms, synonyms,
and sometimes will even show similar sounding words, homophones, rhymes, and will show
examples from literature.
 3. AFFIXATION

In English grammar and morphology, affixation is the process of adding a morpheme or affix to
a word to create either a different form of that word or a new word with a different meaning;
affixation is the most common way of making new words in English.

The two primary kinds of affixation are prefixation, the addition of a prefix, and suffixation, the
addition of a suffix, while clusters of affixes can be used to form complex words.

A large majority of new words in the English language today are either a result of blending
mashing two words or partial words together to form a new one or affixation.

USES OF AFFIXES

Simply put, an affix is a word element of English grammar used to alter the meaning or form of a
word and comes in the form of either a prefix or a suffix. Prefixes include examples like "un-"
"self-" and "re-" while suffixes come in the form of ending elements like "-hood" "-ing" or "-ed."

While prefixes typically maintain the word class (noun, verb, adjective, etc) of the word it's
modifying, suffixes oftentimes change the form entirely, as is the case with "exploration"
compared to "explore" or "highlighter" compared to "highlight."

Further, one can use multiple iterations of the same affixation to modify a word like grandmother
to mean an entirely different person — as in "great-great grandmother," who would be your
mother's mother's mother's mother or a "re-re-re-make of a film" wherein this film would be the
fourth iteration of its kind.

The same can be applied to different prefixes and suffixes being used on the same word. For
instance, the word nation means a country, but national means "of a nation," nationalize means "to
make part of a nation," and "denationalization" means "the process of making something no longer
part of a nation." This can continue ad nauseam, but becomes increasingly odd — especially in
spoken rhetoric — the more affixes one uses them on the same base word.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AFFIXATION AND BLENDING

One form of word alteration and invention that is commonly mistaken for being an example of
affixation is the process of blending words to form new ones, most notably present in the example
of the marketing term "cranapple," where people naturally assume the root word "cran-" from
"cranberry" is being applied as an affix.

However, affixes must be able to universally be attached to other morphemes and still make sense.
This is not the case with the "cran-" root, which is only seen attached to another morpheme in
marketing examples of juices that also contain cranberry juice like "crangrape" and "cranapple."
Instead of being a stand-alone morpheme which conveys "of cranberry," the suffix "cran-" can
only make sense when applied to other juices and is therefore considered a blend of two reduced
words (cranberry and apple).

Though some words and prefixes can be both stand-alone morphemes or parts of blended words,
meaning the phrases aren't necessarily mutually exclusive, most often words that are products of
blending do not contain any actual productive affixes.

Affix Examples:
 stem word: like
 with affix (prefix): unlike
 stem word: like
 with affix (suffix): likely
Different Types of Affixes
The two most common types of affixes are prefixes and suffixes.
What are Prefixes?
Prefixes are a type of affix. Prefixes are “pre” (before) “fix”ed (attached) to a root or stem to create
a new word with a new meaning.
Prefixes themselves are not words. They must be attached to a root or a stem in order to create new
words.

Here is a list of common prefixes and their use in sentences:

 pre- (before)
  The outcome was predetermined.
 The outcome was determined before
 mis- (wrong)
 That word is misspelled.
 The word is spelled wrong
 non- (not)
 The noise was nonstop.
 The noise did not stop.
 un- (not)
 His work was unsatisfactory.
 His work was not satisfactory
 dis- (lack of, not)
 They were displeased.
 They were not pleased.
 in- (not)
 The work was incredible.
 The work was not believable
NOTE: This example uses the prefix to attach to the root “cred” (believe). A suffix “-ible” (able
to) is also attached to the root.

Common Prefixes

Prefix Definition Examples

anti- against anticlimax

de- opposite devalue

dis- not; opposite of discover

en-, em- cause to enact, empower

 fore- before; front of foreshadow, forearm

in-, im- in income, impulse

in-, im-, il-, indirect, immoral, illiterate,

not
ir- irreverent

inter- between; among interrupt

mid- middle midfield

mis- wrongly misspell

non- not nonviolent

over- over; too much overeat

pre- before preview

re- again rewrite

half; partly; not

semi- semifinal
fully

sub- under subway

super- above; beyond superhuman

trans- across transmit

un- not; opposite of unusual

under- under; too little underestimate

What are Suffixes?

Suffixes are a type of affix. Suffixes are “suf” (under/after) “fix”ed (attached) to a root or stem to
create a new word with a new meaning.
Suffixes themselves are not words. They must be attached to a root or a stem in order to create
new words.
Here is a list of common suffixes and their use in sentences:
 -ly (like)
 She was wonderfully
 She was striking like wonder
 -able (able to)
 The part is adaptable.
 The part is able to adapt
 -ible (able to)
 The writing was incomprehensible.
 The writing was not able to be comprehended.
 -er (noun, someone who)- (not)
 His work was unsatisfactory.
 His work was not satisfactory
 -ful (full of)
 The flower is beautiful.
 The flower is full of beauty
 -less (without)
 The old television was worthless.
 The old television was without worth

Common Suffixes

Suffix Definition Examples

affordable,
-able, -ible is; can be
sensible
-al, -ial having characteristics of universal, facial

past tense verbs; the dog walked,

-ed
adjectives the walked dog

-en made of golden

one who;
-er, -or teacher, professor
person connected with

-er more taller

-est the most tallest

-ful full of helpful

-ic having characteristics of poetic

verb forms;
-ing sleeping
present participles

-ion, -tion, - submission,

ation, act; process motion,
-tion relation, edition

-ity, -ty state of activity, society

active,
-ive, -ative,
adjective form of noun comparative,
-itive
sensitive

-less without hopeless

-ly how something is lovely

-ment state of being; act of contentment

 -ness state of; condition of openness

riotous,
-ous, -eous, -
having qualities of courageous,
ious
gracious

-s, -es more than one trains, trenches

-y characterized by gloomy

4. VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT

Vocabulary in context refers to the sentences or the whole paragraph surrounding an unfamiliar
word. Context clues are used to make a good guess at the word’s meaning. There are six different
types of context clues:

 definition/restatement

 example

 synonym

 comparison

 contrast

 Cause and effect.

Vocabulary in Context Practice 1

Reading comprehension is one of the most difficult things to master on a standardized test. The
test-makers evaluate skills like finding the main idea, inferences, determining the author's purpose,
and understanding vocabulary words, some of which you may have never been introduced to you
before.
The good news? You can understand vocabulary words based on the context of the passage - the
words, clauses and phrases around the unknown vocabulary word.

You don’t have to memorize all the vocabulary words in the dictionary!

VOCABULARY WORDS IN CONTEXT EXAMPLE

You might not understand the word, acerbity, by itself, but this sentence, “The acerbity of the
lemon caused the little girl to spit out the bite she had just taken” helps you understand that the
general meaning of acerbity must be “bitter or sour”. The context clues "lemon" and "spitting out
the bite," which provide more information in the sentence, help you understand what the
vocabulary word means.

A question on a standardized test may look something like this:

After the first day on the job, the bank’s new manager realized he would be busier than he had
been led to believe. Not only was he assisting the bank tellers with their work, but his new boss
had decided to inundate him with other tasks like creating security systems, managing the bank’s
deposits and refunds, securing loans, and maintaining the daily operations. The new manager was
exhausted as he locked the bank up for the night.

The word “inundate” from the passage is closest in meaning to

1. overload

2. provide

3. assault

4. underwhelm

Hint: A way to figure out if your choice is correct is by putting the answer choice in the sentence
in place of the vocabulary word. Which one fits the intended meaning the best?

You're right. It's "overload." The first choice is the best pick, although "assault" is a close second.

The only way that one would work is if the tone of the passage had been more negative.
UNDERSTANDING VOCABULARY WORDS IN CONTEXT EXERCISE

Try to determine the meanings of the following italicized vocabulary words, based on the context
clues in the sentences.

1. Pablo always showed animosity toward his teachers by throwing spitballs and mouthing
off, but his sister Mary was kind and sweet.

2. The little girl was showing signs of ocular problems - she squinted to read the blackboard
and complained of headaches after working on the computer for too long.

3. The crowd rewarded the singer with plaudits, or extreme praise, by clapping and cheering
during a standing ovation.

4. Elena’s repudiation of Jerry’s bad table manners was obvious to everyone at dinner as she
dropped her napkin and left the table.

5. From the far past to the present day, the moon has been thought to cause lunacy. Some
studies have shown that this momentary insanity does have some association to the moon's
phases.

6. The old man’s hair was sparse rather than thick and full like it was when he was young.

7. Janie was as devout as the Pope himself.

8. My sister Kimmy shows a great abhorrence for crowds, whereas my little brother Michael
loves to be the center of attention.

1. When you admonish someone, you point out his or her errors; an example would be
scolding a child for misbehaving.

2. The sorcerer’s minions, or devoted followers, were willing to perform any sorcery he could
conjure.

3. Ninety-seven pairs is a superfluous number of shoes.

4. The spy was hung at the gallows of his homeland for his perfidious deeds.
 5. “Busy as a bee” and “quiet as a mouse” are hackneyed phrases – they’re used all the time.

6. Amelia was as pretentious as a princess when she arrived to the party. She tossed her coat
to the hostess and grabbed a drink out of a nearby guest’s hand.

7. We always listen to my great-aunt because she is venerable, but we ignore my niece’s

advice because she’s only six.

PRACTICE VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT

Click the link for even more practice with this skill. Trust me, you'll need to master it for your next
standardized test!

UNDERSTANDING VOCABULARY WORDS IN CONTEXT ANSWERS

1. hatred; extreme dislike

2. related to the eye

3. extreme praise (the definition was right in the sentence)

4. denial; refutation; negation

5. insanity; madness; psychosis

6. thin; spare; light; meager

7. pious; religious; sincere

8. hatred; loathing; disgust

9. reprove; caution; reprimand

10. crony; underling; follower

11. extra; surplus; redundant

12. disloyal; treacherous; deceitful

13. trite; clichéd; worn out

1. showy; pompous; exaggerated

2. respected; esteemed; revered

Unit-IV

Creative writing:

Creative writing is writing that expresses the writer’s thoughts and feelings in an imaginative, often
unique, and poetic way. You might have heard it called different things. Traditionally referred to as
literature, creative writing is an art of sorts - the art of making things up. It's writing done in a way that is
not academic or technical but still attracts an audience. Though the definition is rather loose, creative writing
can for the most part be considered any writing that is original and self-expressive. A news article, for
example, cannot be considered creative writing because its main goal is to present facts and not to express
the feelings of the writer. While a news article can be entertaining, its main purpose is to present the facts.

The purpose of creative writing is to both entertain and share human experience, like love or loss.
Writers attempt to get at a truth about humanity through poetics and storytelling. If you'd like to
try your hand at creative writing, just keep in mind that whether you are trying to express a feeling
or a thought, the first step is to use your imagination.

“Creative writing is considered to be any writing, fiction, poetry, or non-fiction, that goes outside
the bounds of normal professional, journalistic, academic, and technical forms of literature. Works
which fall into this category include novels, epics, short stories, and poems. Writing for the screen
and stage, screenwriting and playwriting respectively, typically have their own programs of study,
but fit under the creative writing category as well.
Creative writing is written to entertain and educate. We enjoy reading novels and stories, not
because they are necessary to read or helpful for us, just because we get a certain pleasure from
reading them, the pleasure which can’t be got from reading technical writing.

Creative writing has so many genres and sub-genres that they deserve a whole section of an article
for themselves. It sometimes follows a given set of rules, and sometimes throws caution to the
winds and breaks all of them. Either way, talent is somewhat of a necessary ingredient if you want
to write creatively. Of course, writing can be improved by practice. But if you don’t have the
necessary talent, your writing would not give pleasure to anyone. Skills and talent both make up
creative writing. Hence, they are its constituents. Technical writing is wholly written to inform and
sometimes to trigger the person reading into making an action beneficial to the one of the writer

Types of creative writing include:

 Poetry
 Plays
 Movie and television scripts
 Fiction (novels, novellas, and short stories)
 Songs
 Speeches
 Memoirs
 Personal essays

Techniques used in creative writing include:

 Character development
 Plot development
 Vivid setting
 Underlying theme
 Point of view
 Dialogue
 Anecdotes
 Metaphors and similes
  Figures of speech
 Imaginative language
 Emotional appeal
 Heavy description

How to get started

Many people think that just because they’ve read a lot of stories (or even if they haven’t!) they
should be able to write one. But as Nigel Watts writes:

There is a common belief that because most of us are literate and fluent, there is no need to serve
an apprenticeship if we want to become a successful wordsmith. … That’s what I thought until I
tried to write my first novel. I soon learnt that a novel, like a piece of furniture, has its own set of
requirements, laws of construction that have to be learnt. Just because I had read plenty of novels
didn’t mean I could write one, any more than I could make a chair because I had sat on enough of
them.
(Nigel Watts, Teach Yourself Writing a Novel)

By all means, if you’re keen, jump straight in and have a go: but don’t be too disappointed if your
first efforts aren’t as good as you’d hoped. To extend Watts’ metaphor, you may find that these
early attempts have wonky legs and an unsteady seat. There are lots of great books aimed at new
fiction writers, and I’d strongly recommend buying or borrowing one of these:

 Wannabe a Writer? (Jane Wenham-Jones)

 Teach Yourself … Writing a Novel (Nigel Watts)
 How to Write Fiction (and Think About It) (Robert Graham)
 On Writing (Stephen King)

I’d also recommend starting small. Rather than beginning with an epic fantasy trilogy, a family
saga spanning five generations, or an entire adventure series … have a go at a short story or a
poem.
And if you end up chewing your pen and staring at a sheet of paper, or gazing at a blank screen for
hours, try kickstarting your writing with a short exercise. Don’t stop to think too much about it …
just get going, without worrying about the quality of the work you produce.

Tips and tricks for beginners

 Do some short exercises to stretch your writing muscles – if you’re short of ideas, read
the Daily Writing Tips article on “Writing Bursts”. Many new creative writers find that
doing the washing up or weeding the garden suddenly looks appealing, compared to the
effort of sitting down and putting words onto the page. Force yourself to get through these
early doubts, and it really will get easier. Try to get into the habit of writing every day,
even if it’s just for ten minutes.
 If you’re stuck for ideas, carry a notebook everywhere and write down your
observations. You’ll get some great lines of dialogue by keeping your ears open on the
bus or in cafes, and an unusual phrase may be prompted by something you see or smell.
 Work out the time of day when you’re at your most creative. For many writers, this is
first thing in the morning – before all the demands of the day jostle for attention. Others
write well late at night, after the rest of the family have gone to bed. Don’t be afraid to
experiment!
 Don’t agonize over getting it right. All writers have to revise and edit their work – it’s
rare that a story, scene or even a sentence comes out perfectly the first time. Once you’ve
completed the initial draft, leave the piece for a few days – then come back to it fresh, with
a red pen in hand. If you know there are problems with your story but can’t pinpoint them,
ask a fellow writer to read through it and give feedback.
 HAVE FUN! Sometimes, we writers can end up feeling that our writing is a chore,
something that “must” be done, or something to procrastinate over for as long as possible.
If your plot seems wildly far-fetched, your characters bore you to tears and you’re
convinced that a five-year old with a crayon could write better prose … take a break. Start
a completely new project, something which is purely for fun. Write a poem or a 60-word
“mini saga”. Just completing a small finished piece can help if you’re bogged down in a
longer story.
 Story writing:

To some extent, the process for writing a story is different each time. In the introduction
to American Gods, Neil Gaiman quotes Gene Wolfe, who told him, “You never learn how to write
a novel. You only learn to write the novel you’re on.”

Requirements to Writing a Short Story

But before we begin, let’s quickly discuss three things you’ll need to write your short story. If you
don’t have these, you should think twice before you begin:

 Approximately ten to twenty hours of time. We all write at different paces, and
depending on the length of your story (e.g. 200 word flash fiction vs. 5,000 word traditional
short story) it might take five hours or fifty. But I’ve found that most short stories in the
3,000 to 5,000 word range take ten to twenty hours. Let me know how long yours take in
the comments.
 An idea. This guide assumes you already have an idea for a story, even if it’s just a basic
sliver of an idea. If you’re still looking for an idea though, check out our top 100 story
ideas.
 Writing devices or utensils. Okay, it’s obvious you need something to write with to finish
a short story, but I needed a third point! (By the way, I recommend Scrivener for writing
short stories. Here’s my review.)

7 Steps to Write a Short Story

Ready to get writing? Here are seven steps on how to write a short story:

1. First, Write the Basic Story in One Sitting

It may seem silly to begin a list of steps on how to write a short story with a tip to “write the story,”
but let me explain.

There are really two different kinds of stories. There is the art form, “short stories,” which comes
complete with characters, plot, description, and style.
Then there’s the story, the funny, amusing, crazy story you’d tell a friend over a meal.

The story and the short story are not the same thing. The former is just a story, we tell them all the
time. The latter is an art.

The first step to writing a short story is to write the former, the story, that version of the story that
you would tell a friend.

And when you write it, be sure to write it in one sitting. Just tell the story. Don’t think about it too
much, don’t go off to do more research, don’t take a break. Just get the story written down.
Whenever I break this rule it takes me FOREVER to finish writing the story.

2. Next, Find Your Protagonist

After you’ve written the basic story, take a step back. You may feel extremely proud of your story
or completely embarrassed. Ignore these feelings, as they bear no relation to how good or bad your
story actually is or, more importantly, how good it will be.

The next step is to read through your story to find the protagonist.

Now, you may think you already know who your protagonist is, but depending on your story, this
can actually be more tricky than you might think.

Your protagonist isn’t necessarily the narrator, nor is she necessarily the “good guy” in the story.
Instead, the protagonist is the person who makes the decisions that drive the story forward.

Your protagonist centers the story, drives the plot, and his or her fate gives the story its meaning.
As you move forward in the writing process, it’s important to choose the right protagonist.

Learn more about how to create a protagonist in a story.

3. Then, Write the Perfect First Line

Great first lines have the power to entice your reader enough that it would be unthinkable to set
your story down. If you want to hook your reader, it starts with writing the perfect first line.
We’ve written a full post about how to write the perfect first line, but here are five quick tips:

 Like the opening of a film, invite us into the scene.

 Surprise us.
 Establish a voice.
 Be clear.
 See if you can tell the entirety of your story in a single sentence.

4. Break the Story into a Scene List

Every story is composed of a set of scenes which take place in a specific place and time. A scene
list keeps track of your scenes, helping you organize your story and add detail and life at each step.

Scene lists do two main things:

 Provide structure to your story

 Show you which parts need more work

You don’t have to follow your scene list exactly, but they definitely help you work through your
story, especially if your writing over multiple sittings.

For more about how to create a scene list, check out our guide here.

5. Only Now Should You Research

If you’re like me, you want to start researching as soon as you get an idea so that you can pack as
much detail into the story as possible. The problem is that if you research too soon, what you find
will distort your story, causing it to potentially break under the weight of what you’ve learned.

Other writers never research, which can leave their story feeling fuzzy and underdeveloped.

By waiting until your story is well on its way, you can keep it from getting derailed by the research
process, and by this point you’ll also be able to ask very specific questions about your story rather
than following tangents wherever they take you.
So go fill in that scene list with some hard, cold facts!

6. Write/Edit/Write/Edit/Write/Edit

It’s time to get some serious writing done.

Now that you know who your protagonist is, have the perfect first line, have created your scene
list, and have done your research, it’s time to finally get this story written.

We all write differently. Some write fast in multiple drafts, others write slow and edit as they go.
I’m not going to tell you how you should be writing. Whatever works for you, just get it done.

For a thorough process on editing your story, check out my guest post on Positive Writer.

7. Publish!

I firmly believe publishing is the most important step to becoming a writer. That’s why I’ll tell
you that once your story is finally written, it’s not finished until it’s published.

Now, you don’t necessarily need to get published by Glimmer Train or Narrative. Instead, what if
you got feedback from a writing friend or even by our Becoming Writer community?

If you want your short story to be as good as it can be, get feedback—first from a small group of
friends or other writers, and then from a larger community of readers.

The worst thing you can do for your story is to hide it away out of fear or even feigned indifference.

Now, go get your story out into the world.

Precise-writing:
A precise is a summary. Precise writing is an exercise in compression. A precise is the gist of a
passage expressed in as few words as possible. A precise should give all essential points so that
anyone reading it will be able to understand the idea expressed in the original passage.
Note that precise writing is different from paraphrasing. In a paraphrase you should give all the
details: you should not leave out any details. A paraphrase will be at least as long as and sometimes
longer than the original. A precise, on the other hand, must always be shorter than the original. It
should express only the main theme that too as briefly as possible.

Uses of precise writing

Most people read carelessly and fail to fully comprehend the meaning of the passage. Precise
writing forces them to pay attention to what they read because no one can write a summary of a
passage unless they read it carefully. So summarizing teaches one to read with concentration.

Precise writing also improves your overall writing skills. It teaches you how to express your
thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. You learn to choose your words carefully and construct
your sentences in a logical and concise manner.

A Precise is a summary. Precise-Writing is a very useful exercise. Most of us read carelessly.

Writing precise gives training in careful reading. Precise-writing is regarded as a very important
kind of composition because it develops one's capacity to discriminate between the essential and
the non-essential.
A Precise is a shortening, in your own words, of a text of written work. You are to describe as
accurately and briefly as possible the substance or main ideas contained in a text.
To write an effective précis, read the passage several times for a full understanding. Note key
points. It may, in fact, be helpful to underline these words. Do not use abbreviations or
contractions. When writing about history, use the past tense.
Finally, check your précis against the original to be sure that it is exact and retains the order,
proportions, and relationships of the original.

Techniques of Précis – Writing

There three kinds of work to be done in producing a clear and successful precise. They are (1)
Reading, (2) Writing and (3) Revision.

1. Reading
Read the passage carefully

If one reading is not enough to give you a general idea of its meaning, then read it second time. As
you read, find out the subject or the theme of the passage and what is said about the subject.

It will be a good thing if you find out the lead or the topic sentence. The lead sentence will help
you to see the subject clearly. It will also help you to think of a title.

Now comes the process of selection. The writer of the précis writing passages has to decide what
facts or ideas in the passage are essential and what are of secondary or no importance. Taking the
main ideas of the passages as your point of reference, it should not be too difficult to write out the
important points in the original in a corner of your writing work sheet.

2. Writing

You should first prepare a draft of the précis, keeping in mind, the need to reduce the original to
one-third its length. The main thoughts expressed in the passage, the ideas it contains, the opinions
presented and the conclusion arrived at should figure in the rough draft. Unimportant things like
the names of people and places and dates should not figure in it.

It may so happen that your first draft is too long or that it sounds rather jerky. Shorten it if necessary
and write out a careful second draft. Sometimes you may need to work out three or even four
drafts, but with reasonable care and concentration, you should normally succeed in producing good
précis writing by the second draft.

3. Revision

When you have made your second (or final) draft, carefully revise it before writing out the fair
copy. Look for any mistakes or slips in grammar or spelling and correct them. Don’t forget to give
your précis a title.

Write a précis of the following passage to one-third of its length and also give a suitable title-

Today there are 3000 million people in the world. Fifty years ago only about 2000 million people
lived in it. If earth’s population were evenly distributed over its land surface, there would be about
550 persons to the square mile. But Earth has vast areas of forest, mountains and desert which are
almost totally inhabited. On the other hand, it has great cities each with millions of people living
in a few square miles.
To feed the fast growing population of our earth, scientists and planners have to discover new ways
to produce more. One possible way is to bring more land not under cultivation. This can be done
only in places where there is lot of land not used for productive purposes. In many places there is
no longer possible all the arable land is already cultivated. A second way is to make use of new
types of seeds to produce more. Already a number of new strains of paddy and wheat have been
developed in different parts f the world. India is one of the countries where a lot of useful work
has been done in the field of agriculture research.

Title: World Population and Food Production

Précis: During the last fifty years, the world population has increased from 2000 to 3000 million.
It is unevenly distributed with millions of people living in a few big cities. Scientists in India and
abroad are, therefore, busy with agriculture research to find out new methods of increased food
production to feed them all and they have already developed many new strains of paddy and wheat.

Unit IV

Letter writing
Letters are used as mode of communication for several decades. It is been super speed internet
days and even then we write letter. But the usage of letter has become less these days and not
compact able as it has got strict rules to be followed. The letters has pre fixed format to be written
and must follow the same pattern. A very people write letter for personal formats as it takes a lot
of time to send the message. Letters are mostly used these days for writing official letters. To write
an official letter it is exclusively formal letter and has certain pre defined rules and regulation to
be followed.

Here is a sample of letter inviting a friend to your birthday party:

For writing a letter we need to follow certain regulations such as punctuation, sentence framing,
appropriate spelling and perfect grammar usage. A good letter must consist of introduction,
body and conclusion. The matter must be presides and highly sweet and short. Inviting friend to
a party can be written in two formats such as formal and informal letter. Pattern of Informal
letter:
Inviting your school best friends to your party:

Format of Informal letter

Your address
________________,
________________,
Date: ________________.
Greetings,
Introduction:
______________________________________________________________________________
_______
______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Body:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________
Conclusion:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________.

Sinning off: Yours friendly,

Name: _______________.
To address of your friend on envelop:
____________________________,
_____________________________,
_____________________________.
Sample letter of inviting a friend to birthday party:

N. Satya Sesha,
HNo: 7-8-9-0,
Fairy land,
Famous city,
Andhra Pradesh.
Dear Sharon,
Hi, how are you? I am fine. Hope is everything is also fine with you. How is your preparation
going on for your exams? In your last letter you wrote that you won a prize in science fair. My
hearty congratulations to you baby. It is been ages we spoke to each other.
I am writing this letter to inform to that this weekend there is my birthday party in my farm
house and I was to inherit the pleasure of your presence in the wonderful movement of that
important day. You are one of my best friends that I would never like to loose and hope you will
make yourself free and attend my birthday party this weekend. I promise you ultimate fun and
enjoyment on that weekend. It will be a reunion kind a thing and you can glace all the old
memory at once after the party is done. Hope you attend the function and make me happy and
grounded with your presence.
Convey my regards to your parents and visit Hyderabad for sure on my birthday. Make sure you
have sufficient time with me for shopping and all.
Yours Friendly,
Sesha.
Sharon,
Tirupati,
Andhra Pradesh.

The same letter can be written in BLOCK FORMAT:

Format is different but the matter same. Block format indicates that the complete letter is on left
side.
Format:
Form address
_______________,
________________.
Date:
________________.
Greeting,
Introduction:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____.
Body:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
Conclusion:
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________.
Singing off: _____________,
Name: ________________.
TO address;
_________________________,
_________________________.
Note:
1)Do not use your lovingly as a singing off in a letter to a friend as it is used for family
only.

2)Don’t prefer block format as it is not taught to many people.

3)Make sure that your introduction and conclusion are shorter than body.

Formal letter of inviting a business client to your birthday

party:
Place: ____________,
Date:_____________.
From
________________________,
________________________.
To
________________________,
_________________________.
Greeting,
Reasons for writing letter: ________________________.
Body:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________.
Comprehensive close,

Singing off:_________________,
Name: _________________________.
To
__________________________,
__________________________.

Sample letter:

Hyderabad,
12th February, 2014.
N. Satya Sesha,
HNo: 7-8-9-0,
Fairy land,
Andhra Pradesh.

To
Manogyna,
Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh.

Respected Madam,
I am writing this letter to invite you to my birthday party.
Hello madam, I am N. Satya Sesha your are my business client and I this weekend they is my
birthday party which is going to be organized in my farm house located in ECIL X Road and I
wish you to attend the function with your family. Your presence will make our moments more
and more delightful. I will also send a route map attached to this and hope you attend the
birthday party and accept our return gifts with pleasure. The party start 7 pm and dinner is served
from 8’o clock on wards. Apart from this, there is a DJ in the party and anyone interested can
dance on stage, this goes on till 11:00 pm in night. Hope you will come and your presence will
give me loads of happiness and we will have nice time together.

Thanking you,
Yours Truly,
Sesha.
To
Manogyna,
Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh.
You can also write this letter in block format too and format is quite similar to the block format
of writing a informal letter and it is written on left side and nothing will be return on the right
side of the letter.

Unit-V

Listening skills

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process.
Listening is key to all effective communication. Without the ability to listen effectively, messages
are easily misunderstood. As a result, communication breaks down and the sender of the message
can easily become frustrated or irritated. If there is one communication skill you should aim to
master, then listening is it.

Here are 10 tips to help you develop effective listening skills.

Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.

Talking to someone while they scan the room, study a computer screen, or gaze out the window is
like trying to hit a moving target. How much of the person's divided attention you are actually
getting? Fifty percent? Five percent? If the person were your child you might demand, "Look at
me when I'm talking to you," but that's not the sort of thing we say to a lover, friend or colleague.
In most Western cultures, eye contact is considered a basic ingredient of effective communication.
When we talk, we look each other in the eye. That doesn't mean that you can't carry on a
conversation from across the room, or from another room, but if the conversation continues for
any length of time, you (or the other person) will get up and move. The desire for better
communication pulls you together.

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Do your conversational partners the courtesy of turning to face them. Put aside papers, books, the
phone and other distractions. Look at them, even if they don't look at you. Shyness, uncertainty,
shame, guilt, or other emotions, along with cultural taboos, can inhibit eye contact in some people
under some circumstances. Excuse the other guy, but stay focused yourself.

Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.

Now that you've made eye contact, relax. You don't have to stare fixedly at the other person. You
can look away now and then and carry on like a normal person. The important thing is to be
attentive. The dictionary says that to "attend" another person means to:

 be present
 give attention
 apply or direct yourself
 pay attention
 remain ready to serve

Mentally screen out distractions, like background activity and noise. In addition, try not to focus
on the speaker's accent or speech mannerisms to the point where they become distractions. Finally,
don't be distracted by your own thoughts, feelings, or biases.

Step 3: Keep an open mind.

Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the things she tells you. If what she
says alarms you, go ahead and feel alarmed, but don't say to yourself, "Well, that was a stupid
move." As soon as you indulge in judgmental bemusements, you've compromised your
effectiveness as a listener.

Listen without jumping to conclusions. Remember that the speaker is using language to represent
the thoughts and feelings inside her brain. You don't know what those thoughts and feelings are
and the only way you'll find out is by listening.

Don't be a sentence-grabber. Occasionally my partner can't slow his mental pace enough to listen
effectively, so he tries to speed up mine by interrupting and finishing my sentences. This usually
lands him way off base, because he is following his own train of thought and doesn't learn where
my thoughts are headed. After a couple of rounds of this, I usually ask, "Do you want to have this
conversation by yourself, or do you want to hear what I have to say?" I wouldn't do that with
everyone, but it works with him.

Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying.

Allow your mind to create a mental model of the information being communicated. Whether a
literal picture, or an arrangement of abstract concepts, your brain will do the necessary work if you
stay focused, with senses fully alert. When listening for long stretches, concentrate on, and
remember, key words and phrases.

When it's your turn to listen, don’t spend the time planning what to say next. You can't rehearse
and listen at the same time. Think only about what the other person is saying.

Finally, concentrate on what is being said, even if it bores you. If your thoughts start to wander,
immediately force yourself to refocus.

Step 5: Don't interrupt and don't impose your "solutions."

Children used to be taught that it's rude to interrupt. I'm not sure that message is getting across
anymore. Certainly the opposite is being modeled on the majority of talk shows and reality
programs, where loud, aggressive, in-your-face behavior is condoned, if not encouraged.

Interrupting sends a variety of messages. It says:

  "I'm more important than you are."
 "What I have to say is more interesting, accurate or relevant."
 "I don't really care what you think."
 "I don't have time for your opinion."
 "This isn't a conversation, it's a contest, and I'm going to win."

We all think and speak at different rates. If you are a quick thinker and an agile talker, the burden
is onyouto relax your pace for the slower, more thoughtful communicator—or for the guy who has
trouble expressing himself.

When listening to someone talk about a problem, refrain from suggesting solutions. Most of us
don't want your advice anyway. If we do, we'll ask for it. Most of us prefer to figure out our own
solutions. We need you to listen and help us do that. Somewhere way down the line, if you are
absolutely bursting with a brilliant solution, at least get the speaker's permission. Ask, "Would you
like to hear my ideas?"

Step 6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.

When you don't understand something, of course you should ask the speaker to explain it to you.
But rather than interrupt, wait until the speaker pauses. Then say something like, "Back up a
second. I didn't understand what you just said about…"

Step 7: Ask questions only to ensure understanding.

At lunch, a colleague is excitedly telling you about her trip to Vermont and all the wonderful things
she did and saw. In the course of this chronicle, she mentions that she spent some time with a
mutual friend. You jump in with, "Oh, I haven't heard from Alice in ages. How is she?" and, just
like that, discussion shifts to Alice and her divorce, and the poor kids, which leads to a comparison
of custody laws, and before you know it an hour is gone and Vermont is a distant memory.

This particular conversational affront happens all the time. Our questions lead people in directions
that have nothing to do with where they thought they were going. Sometimes we work our way
back to the original topic, but very often we don't.
When you notice that your question has led the speaker astray, take responsibility for getting the
conversation back on track by saying something like, "It was great to hear about Alice, but tell me
more about your adventure in Vermont."

Step 8: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.

If you feel sad when the person with whom you are talking expresses sadness, joyful when she
expresses joy, fearful when she describes her fears—and convey those feelings through your facial
expressions and words—then your effectiveness as a listener is assured. Empathy is the heart and
soul of good listening.

To experience empathy, you have to put yourself in the other person's place and allow yourself to
feel what it is like to be her at that moment. This is not an easy thing to do. It takes energy and
concentration. But it is a generous and helpful thing to do, and it facilitates communication like
nothing else does.

Step 9: Give the speaker regular feedback.

Show that you understand where the speaker is coming from by reflecting the speaker's feelings.
"You must be thrilled!" "What a terrible ordeal for you." "I can see that you are confused." If the
speaker's feelings are hidden or unclear, then occasionally paraphrase the content of the message.
Or just nod and show your understanding through appropriate facial expressions and an occasional
well-timed "hmmm" or "uh huh."

5. Proverbs

Proverbs are the traditional (historic) sayings of a country. They are short, clever sentences that
usually offer life advice. Native English speakers often use them in conversation without even
realizing it.

Proverbs can teach you more about a country’s culture than any textbook. They show what’s
important to the group of people, what is considered good behavior and what is bad behavior.
Proverbs can also tell you the history of a place. For example, proverbs from farming towns will
use a lot of farming language, and fishing villages will talk about the sea.

1. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.

The grass is always greener” is a proverb that teaches us it’s not good to be jealous (to want what
other people have). It may seem like everyone around you has “greener grass,” meaning nicer cars,
better jobs, etc.

But your neighbor probably thinks you have greener grass too, which means that your friends and
other people think that you have better looks, a happier family, etc. So instead of thinking about
what everyone else has, this proverb wants you to be thankful for what you have.

2. Don’t judge a book by its cover.

Things are not always what they seem. This proverb teaches you not to make judgments about
other people because of how they look or dress. A book with a boring or plain cover could be
amazing. The same is true with people. A person might look like an athlete or fool, but there is
probably a lot more to them than clothes suggest.

3. Strike while the iron is hot.

This old expression comes from the days of blacksmiths (people who work with metal). To shape
the metal, the blacksmith would have to beat it with a hammer. Iron is easier to work with when
it’s hot. This proverb means you should take advantage of the moment. If an opportunity presents
itself to you, take it! Take action because the chance may not come again.

4. Too many cooks spoil the broth.

Or as it’s more commonly said, “Too many cooks in the kitchen.” This is a well known
experience—a lot people all trying to work in a kitchen around a small table or stovetop will make
a mess and ruin the food. This proverb talks about the trouble of too many people trying to do the
same thing at once.

5. You can’t have your cake and eat it too.

If you eat your cake, you won’t have it anymore, will you? So you can’t do both. This proverb is
about having two opposite desires, and how it’s impossible to get both. Its meaning is similar to
the proverb, “You can’t have the best of both worlds.”

6. Many hands make light work.

If a lot of people carry a heavy object, it does not feel heavy. That is the general meaning of this
proverb. If everyone works together to complete something—like cleaning, painting or group
projects—then each person has less to do. More importantly, the job will be completed much more
quickly.

7. When in Rome, do as the Romans do

When you are a visitor somewhere away from home, you should act like everyone else. It is polite
to do so, and could keep you from getting into trouble. This proverb is from the ancient days of
the Roman Empire when the capital city had visitors from all over the world. Cultures were very
different between cities in those times. But while in Rome, one would behave like a Roman, no
matter where you came from.

8. Don’t cross the bridge until you come to it.

This proverb tells you not to worry so much! Problems will certainly come in the future. But what
can be done about that now? It’s better to think about what you are doing right now—without
worrying about the unknown—and take care of issues when they happen.

9. Honesty is the best policy.

Lying a lot can be difficult, because you might forget your lies. Soon enough, someone will find
out you are lying. Then, you are in trouble. Or even if no one ever finds out, you will feel guilty
for not telling the truth. But if you are honest and tell the truth, people will believe you and respect
you. You will earn their trust and sleep well at night.

10. Practice makes perfect.

It would be amazing if the first time you picked up a guitar you could play it like a rock star. Or if
the first time you got in a car, you could drive like a professional. Or if you could speak English
perfectly after one lesson. Everything is difficult when you are a beginner. But if you stick with it,
if you keep practicing, you can master anything.

11. Where there’s a will, there’s a way.

This proverb is said to encourage people who want to give up. Sometimes, we face problems that
seem impossible. But if you want it bad enough, nothing can stand in your way. That is what this
proverb means—if you have the will to meet the problems that are in front of you, there is a way
to overcome them.

12. Look before you leap.

Don’t rush into things! Make sure you know what is going to happen next. You would not jump
off a cliff without first checking how far the ground is below or what there is to land on. You
should wait a few moments and make sure it’s a good idea to jump from that cliff. So when making
a big “jump” in life, make sure you’ve looked at the situation and really understand it before you
take a big action.

13. Beggars can’t be choosers.

If someone gives you free things or offers to help you do something, you can’t ask for a different
color or choose the perfect time in your schedule. When you receive free help or goods, you should
accept what you’re offered—you can’t be picky (a “chooser”) because you’re not paying!

14. Don’t make a mountain out of an anthill.

People sometimes get very upset over small problems. This proverb reminds you to take a moment
and see how important (or not important) the issue is. Messing up your laundry or being late for
work is not very important when you consider your entire life. So it’s important to stay calm and
not get angry about tiny problems.

15. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

An apple is full of Vitamin C, which keeps you healthy. However, the “apple” in this proverb
means eating healthy in general. If you eat well and your diet includes a lot of fruits and vegetables,
there will be no need to visit the doctor.

16. The early bird catches the worm.

This proverb is a lot like the phrase “first come, first served.” It simply means that it’s usually best
to be early. If you arrive earlier—whether it’s to a clothing store, restaurant, conference, etc.—you
will have the best options to choose from. If you come later, though, the best clothes could have
sold out, the restaurant could be full and have a long waiting time, etc.

17. Better late than never.

While being the early bird is the best, even latecomers may get something for coming. It would be
a lot worse if they never came at all. This proverb is said about ending fights with people. It’s
better to apologize and make up years later, than to never resolve your fight at all.

18. The cat is out of the bag.

This proverb means that a secret has been told. It comes from the Middle Ages and was common
advice given in the market. You may have thought you purchased a tasty pig, but the seller put a
simple cat in the bag instead. To “let the cat out of the bag” was to reveal the seller’s trick.

19. Two wrongs don’t make a right.

If somebody insults you or harms you (“a wrong”), doing the same to them (“two wrongs”) will
not make everything okay. It will most likely cause a back-and-forth fight without end. If
somebody is mean to you, don’t be mean to them in return because it’s not right to do so.

20. Always put your best foot forward.

When you are starting on a project or a journey, it’s best to start with a good attitude and a lot of
energy. First impressions (what people think about you when they meet you for the first time) can
last for a long time. That’s why this proverb is also used when meeting new people or for job
interviews. Having a positive attitude—your “best foot”—is the best way to make a good
impression.

21. Rome wasn’t built in a day.

Rome is a great city. However, it took many years to be completed. The builders did not rush to
complete their work and neither should you. If you wish to create something wonderful and long-
lasting, you will have to spend more than a day working on it. You will probably have to spend
several days, weeks or even months to do a good job. Take your time and do it right!

22. It’s better to be safe than sorry.

Do everything possible to keep bad things from happening to you. It only takes a second to put on
a seatbelt or to check that you locked the door. But if you’re not safe, the bad results can last a
lifetime. So it’s best for you to be careful, otherwise you’ll be sorry.

23. Don’t bite the hand that feeds you.

This proverb warns against acting mean to those who provide for you or who do nice things for
you. If you were to bite the hand that gave you food, that hand probably won’t come back to feed
you again. Then what would you eat? So you should be kind and thankful to those who care for
you.

24. The squeaky wheel gets the grease.

If you have a problem but never talk about it, no one will help you. How could they? But if you
tell someone, things will get better. This proverb is about someone who complains a lot (the
“squeaky wheel”) because they get more attention (“the grease”). For example, a child who cries
a lot will get more attention from his mother than his silent brothers and sisters.

25. Don’t bite off more than you can chew.

If you take a bite of food that’s too big, you won’t be able to chew! Plus you could choke on all of
that extra food. It’s the same if you take on more work or responsibility than you can handle—you
will have a difficult time. So it’s best not to get involved in too many projects, because you won’t
be able to focus and get them all done well.

26. You made your bed, now you have to lie in it.

No one likes sleeping in a poorly made bed. If you make your bed with the sheets all tangled and
blankets facing the wrong way, you can’t switch with someone else. You have to sleep in that bed.
This proverb uses bed-making to describe any bad situation in which you may find yourself. You
can’t trade places with anyone else. You must live with the results of your actions, so make good
choices.

27. Actions speak louder than words.

The Greek philosopher Plato once said that action is character. People are not defined by what they
say because a lot of talk does not mean anything. People are judged by the things they do. Your
actions are more important than what you say.

28. It takes two to tango.

This proverb is often said during a fight in which one person is putting all of the blame on the other
person, when both people were actually responsible. Just as one person can’t tango (a Spanish
dance with two people) alone, two people are responsible for some situations, so you can’t just
blame one person.

29. Don’t count your chickens before they hatch.

This proverb warns against being too eager. Just because you have five eggs, does not mean you
will have five chickens. It is not a good idea to make plans based on expectations (what you think
will happen). Wait for all things to come true before building up your dreams. Or worse, your
promises. Things may not happen like you thought they would and that could get you in trouble.

30. Its no use crying over spilled milk.

Milk is easy to get. You may get in trouble for spilling the milk, you shouldn’t cry because it isn’t
a big deal. Also, crying won’t solve anything. This proverb advises you to stay calm during such
small problems. Don’t waste time worrying about little things that cannot be changed. Clean up
the mess and go buy some more milk.

5. Collocations:

In the English language, collocation refers to a natural combination of words that are closely
affiliated with each other. Some examples are "pay attention" ,"fast food", "make an effort", and
"powerful engine". Collocations make it easier to avoid overused or ambiguous words like "very",
"nice", or "beautiful", by using a pair of words that fits the context better and has a more precise
meaning. Skilled users of the language can produce effects such as humor by varying the normal
patterns of collocation. This approach is especially popular with poets, journalists and advertisers.

Collocations may seem natural to natural writers and speakers, but are not obvious to non-native
English speakers. For instance, the adjective "dark" collocates with "chocolate", but not with tea.

Compare:

natural English unnatural English

the fast train the quick train

fast food quick food

a quick shower a fast shower

a quick meal a fast meal

Some collocations are fixed, or very strong; for example, "take a photo", where no vocabulary
other than "take" collocates with "photo" to give the same sense. Many collocations are more open,
where several different words might be used to give the same meaning, as an example keep to or
stick to the rules.

A collocation is made up of two or more words that are commonly used together in English. Think
of collocations as words that usually go together. There are different kinds of collocations in
English. Strong collocations are word pairings that are expected to come together. Good
collocation examples of this type of word pairing are combinations with 'make' and 'do'. You make
a cup of tea, but you do your homework.

Collocations are very common in business settings when certain nouns are routinely combined
with certain verbs or adjectives. For example, draw up a contract, set a price, conduct negotiations,
etc.

Collocation Examples

Here are a number of common collocations in English:

make the bed -> I need to make the bed every day.
do the homework -> My son does his homework after dinner.
take a risk -> Some people don't take enough risks in life.
give someone advice -> The teacher gave us some advice on taking tests.

Here are some business collocations. These collocations are used for specific situations in
business.

open an account -> Would you like to open an account at our bank?
forgive a debt -> Do you think the bank would forgive a debt?
land a deal -> We landed a deal worth $3 million.
receive a discount -> If you buy three computers you'll receive a discount.

Verb Collocations

Some of the most common collocations involve verb + noun collocations used in everyday
situations.

Here are some examples of the types of verb collocations you will need to learn as you continue
learning English.:

to feel free
to come prepared
to save time
to find a replacement
to make progress
to do the washing up

Please feel free to take a seat and enjoy the show.

Make sure to come prepared for the test tomorrow.
You'll save time if you turn off your smart phone and concentrate on the lesson.
We need to find a replacement for Jim as soon as possible.
We're making progress on the project at work.
I'll do the washing up and you can put Johnny to bed.

Business Collocations

Collocations are often used in business and work settings. There are a number of forms including
adjectives, nouns and other verbs that combine with keywords to form business expressions. Here
are some of the collocation examples you will find on these pages:

to key in a PIN
to deposit a check
hard-earned money
to close a deal
write up a contract
counterfeit money

Just key in your PIN at the ATM and you can make a deposit.
I'd like to deposit this check for $100.
Once you get a job, you'll know what hard-earned money really is.
I closed a deal on a new account last week.
Let's write up your contract.
Be on the lookout for counterfeit money in circulation.

Here are two pages that provide a wide range of collocations include examples.

 Collocations with Money

 Collocations with Equipment

Common Expressions

Collocations are often used as short expressions to describe how someone feels about a situation.
In this case, collocations can be used in the adjective form, or also as emphatic expressions using
an intensifier and a verb. Here are a few examples using some of common business collocations:

positively encourage someone to do something

deeply regret the loss of someone / something
to be in an utter fury over something
to go to great lengths to do something

We'd like to positively encourage you to buy this stock.

I deeply regret the loss of your loved one.
Tom's in an utter fury over the misunderstanding with his wife.
He went to a great length to explain the situation.

Learn more of these common expressions.

  Common Adjective Collocations

When describing physical objects, you can use a wide variety of adjectives such as large, big, tiny,
minuscule, small, etc. However, when describing nouns that are not physical (e.g. joy, anger,
wealth) you need to pay careful attention to the choice of intensifying adjectives. This feature
provides a guide to the use of the most common intensifying adjectives for non-physical nouns.

Absolute / Complete / Total / Utter

Absolute, complete, total and utter are used to express strong feelings, extreme situations, and
other events - especially negative experiences.

 absolute agony
 complete astonishment
 total bliss
 (an) utter catastrophe
 absolute despair
 total ecstasy
 utter fury
 a complete idiot
 utter loathing
 total madness

Big

Big tends to describe a happening or a type of person. It is not usually used with uncountable
nouns.

Happenings

 a big decision
 a big disappointment
 a big improvement
 a big mistake
  a big surprise

Types of Persons

 a big eater
 a big dreamer
 a big drinker
 a big spender
 a big talker

Great

Great usually describes nouns which express feelings or qualities.

 great admiration
 great anger
 in great detail
 (a) great disappointment
 great enjoyment
 great excitement
 a great failure
 great fun
 great happiness
 great joy
 at great length
 a great number (of)
 great power
 great pride
 a great quantity (of)
 great sensitivity
 great skill
 great strength
 great understanding
  great wealth

Large

Large is often used with nouns concerning numbers and measurements. It is not usually used with
uncountable nouns.

 a large amount
 a large number (of)
 a large population
 a large proportion
 a large quantity
 a large scale

Common Adjective Collocations

A collocation is a word pair, in this case an adjective and a noun, that always goes together.

There are no specific rules for these collocations, however, it is important to learn some of
the standard collocations. Here is a guide to collocations with deep, heavy, high (low) and strong.

Deep

 deep depression
 deep devotion
 a deep feeling
 deep pockets
 deep sleep
 in deep thought
 in deep trouble

Heavy

 a heavy drinker
  heavy rain
 a heavy sleeper
 a heavy smoker
 heavy snow
 heavy traffic

High - Low

Notice that a number of nouns (but not all) which take 'high' also take 'low'.

 high - or low - cost

 high - or low - density
 high - or low - energy
 high - or low - esteem
 a high - or low - expectation (of)
 a high - or low - level (of)
 a high - or low - opinion (of someone or something)
 high - or low - pressure
 a - or low - high price
 high quality
 high speed

Strong

 strong criticism
 strong denial
 a strong feeling
 a strong opinion (about something)
 a strong sense (of)
 a strong smell
 a strong taste

6. One Word Substitutes

1. Audience – a number of people listening to a lecture
2. Altruist – one, who considers the happiness and well-being of others first
3. Atheist – a person who does not believe in God
4. Anthropologist – one, who studies the evolution of mankind
5. Autocracy – government by one person
6. Autobiography – the life history of a person written by himself
7. Amputate – to cut off a part of a person's body which is infected
8. Arsenal – a place for ammunition and weapons
9. Archives – a place where government or public records are kept
10. Amateur – a man who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession .
11. Aristocracy – government by the nobles
12. Aquatic – animals/plants ere which live in water
13. Amphibian – animals which live both on land and sea
14. Ambidexter – one, who can use either hand with ease
15. Alimony – allowance paid to wife on legal separation
16. Anthology – a collection of poems
17. Abdication – voluntary giving up of throne in favour of someone
18. Arbitrator – a person, appointed by two parties to solve a dispute
19. Astronomer – a person, who studies stars, planets and other heavenly bodies
20. Astrologer – a person who studies the influence of heavenly bodies on human beings
21. Anthology – a collection of poems
22. Axiom – a statement which is accepted as true without proof
23. Agenda – a list of headings of the business to be transacted at a meeting
24. Anarchist – one, who is out to destroy all governance, law and order
25. Almanac – an annual calender with positions of stars
26. Bigamy – the practice of having two wives or husbands at a time
27. Bibliophile – a lover and collector of books
28. Bouquet – a collection of flowers
29. Bureaucracy – government by the officials
30. Belligerent – a person, nation that is involved in war
31. Biennial – an event which happens once in two years
32. Blasphemy – the act of speaking disrespectfully about sacred things
33. Creche – a nursery where children are cared for while their parents are at work
34. Cosmopolitan – a person who regards whole world as his country
35. Chauffeur – one, who is employed to drive a motor car
36. Curator – a person incharge of a museum
37. Carnivorous – one, who lives on flesh
38. Cannibal – one, who feeds on human flesh
39. Contemporaries – belonging to or living at the same time
40. Cloak room – a place for luggage at railway station
41. Cynosure – centre of attraction
42. Connoisseur – a critical judge of any art and craft
43. Crusade – a religious war
44. Choreographer – one, who teaches dancing
45. Cacographist – a person, who is bad in spellings
46. Calligraphist – a person, who writes beautiful handwriting
47. Cynic – one, who sneers at the aims and beliefs of his fellow men
48. Convalescent – one, who is recovering health
49. Cavalry – soldiers, who fight on horse back
50. Cardiologist – a person, who is specialist in heart diseases
51. Cartographer – one, who draws maps
52. Dormitory – the sleeping rooms with several beds especially in a college or institution
53. Drawn – a game that results neither in victory nor in defeat
54. Elegy – a poem of lamentation
55. Epitaph – words which are inscribed on the grave or the tomb in the memory of the buried
56. Ephemeral – lasting one day
57. Effeminate – a person who is womanish
58. Emigrant – a person who leaves his own country and goes to live in another
59. Edible – fit to be eaten
60. Egotism – practice of talking too much about oneself
61. Encyclopaedia – a book that contains information on various subjects
62. Epicure – one, who is devoted to the pleasure of eating and drinking
63. Florist – one, who deals-in flowers
64. Fastidious – one, who is very -selective in one's taste
65. Fanatic or Bigot – one, who is filled with excessive and mistaken enthusiasm in religious
matters
66. Fatal – causing death
67. Fatalist – one, who believes in fate
68. Facsimile – an exact copy of handwriting, printing etc
69. Fauna – the animals of a certain region
70. Flora – the plants of a particular region
71. Fratricide – murder of brother
72. Fugitive – one, who runs away from justice or the law
73. Fragile – easily broken
74. Feminist – one, who works for the welfare of the women
75. Granary – a place for grains
76. Genocide – murder of race
77. Gregarious – animals which live in flocks
78. Hangar – a place for housing aeroplanes
79. Hive – a place for bees
80. Horticulture – the art of cultivating and managing gardens
81. Homicide – murder of man
82. Hearse – a vehicle which is used to carry a dead body
83. Hedonist – one, who believes that pleasure is the chief good (sensual)
84. Horizon – a line at which the earth and the sky seem to meet
85. Honorary – holding office without any remuneration
86. Heretic – one, who acts against religion
87. Herbivorous – one, who lives on herbs
88. Insolvent/Bankrupt – a person who is unable to pay his debts
89. Inaudible – a sound that cannot be heard
90. Inaccessible – that cannot be easily approached
91. Incorrigible – incapable of being corrected
92. Irreparable – incapable of being repaired
93. Illegible – incapable of being read
94. Inevitable – incapable of being avoided
95. Impracticable – incapable of being practised
96. Immigrant – a person who comes to one country from another in order to settle there
97. Invincible – one, too strong to be overcome
98. Indelible – that cannot be erased
99. Incognito – travelling under another name than one's own
100. Indefatigable – one, who does not tire easily
101. Infallible – one, who is free from all mistakes and failures
102. Invigilator – one, who supervises in the examination hall
103. Itinerant – one, who journeys from place to place
104. Infirmary – a home or room used for ill or injured people
105. Infanticide – murder of an infant
106. Infantry – soldiers, who fight on foot
107. Inflammable – liable to catch fire easily
108. Interregnum – a period of interval between two reigns or governments
109. Kennel – a place for dogs
110. Lunatic asylum – a home for lunatics
111. Lexicographer – one, who compiles a dictionary
112. Loquacious – one, who talks continuously
113. Linguist – one, who is skilled in foreign languages
114. Lapidist – one, who cuts precious stones
115. Misanthrope – a hater of mankind
116. Misogamist – one, who hates marriage
117. Mortuary – a place, where dead bodies are kept for post mortem
118. Mercenery – working only for the sake of money
119. Matricide – murder of mother
120. Martyr – one, who dies for a noble cause
121. Maiden speech – the first speech delivered by a person
122. Mint – a place where coins are made
123. Misogynist – a hater of womankind
124. Morgue – a place, where dead bodies are kept for identification
125. Mammals – animals which give milk
126. Monogamy – the practice of marrying one at a time
127. Missionary – a person, who is sent to propagate religion
128. Numismatics – the study of coins
129. Namesake – a person having same name as another
130. Nostalgia – a strong desire to return home, home sickness
131. Novice or Tyro – one, new to anything, inexperienced
132. Narcotic – a medicine for producing sleep
133. Optimist – a person who looks at the brighter side of things
134. Orphan – one, who has lost parents
135. Omnipresent – one, who is present everywhere
136. Omnipotent – one, who is all powerful
137. Omniscient – one, who knows everything
138. Opaque – that which cannot be seen through
139. Obituary – an account in the newspaper of the funeral of the one deceased
140. Orphanage – a home for orphans
141. Obstetrician – one, who is skilled in midwifery
142. Ostler – one, who looks after horses at an inn
143. Omnivorous – one, who eats everything
144. Pessimist – a person who looks at the darker side of things
145. Potable – fit to drink
146. Post mortem – an examination of dead body
147. Philanthropist – a lover of mankind
148. Patricide – murder of father
149. Philatelist – one, who collects stamps
150. Plagiarism – literary theft or passing off an author's original work as one's own

7. Idioms: is a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of
the individual words (e.g. over the moon, see the light).
A hot potato
Speak of an issue (mostly current) which many people are talking about and which is
usually disputed
A penny for your thoughts
A way of asking what someone is thinking
Actions speak louder than words
People's intentions can be judged better by what they do than what they say.
Add insult to injury
To further a loss with mockery or indignity; to worsen an unfavorable situation.
At the drop of a hat
Meaning: without any hesitation; instantly.
Back to the drawing board
When an attempt fails and it's time to start all over.
Ball is in your court
It is up to you to make the next decision or step
Barking up the wrong tree
Looking in the wrong place. Accusing the wrong person
Be glad to see the back of
Be happy when a person leaves.
Beat around the bush
Avoiding the main topic. Not speaking directly about the issue.
Best of both worlds
Meaning: All the advantages.
Best thing since sliced bread
A good invention or innovation. A good idea or plan.
Bite off more than you can chew
To take on a task that is way to big.
Blessing in disguise
Something good that isn't recognized at first.
Burn the midnight oil
To work late into the night, alluding to the time before electric lighting.
Can't judge a book by its cover
Cannot judge something primarily on appearance.
Caught between two stools
When someone finds it difficult to choose between two alternatives.
Costs an arm and a leg
This idiom is used when something is very expensive.
Cross that bridge when you come to it
Deal with a problem if and when it becomes necessary, not before.
Cry over spilt milk
When you complain about a loss from the past.
Curiosity killed the cat
Being Inquisitive can lead you into an unpleasant situation.
Cut corners
When something is done badly to save money.
Devil's Advocate
 To present a counter argument
Don't count your chickens before the eggs have hatched
This idiom is used to express "Don't make plans for something that might not happen".
Don't give up the day job
You are not very good at something. You could definitely not do it professionally.
Don't put all your eggs in one basket
Do not put all your resources in one possibility.

Every cloud has a silver lining

Be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to better days.
Feel a bit under the weather
Meaning: Feeling slightly ill.
Give the benefit of the doubt
Believe someone's statement, without proof.
Hear it on the grapevine
This idiom means 'to hear rumors' about something or someone.
Hit the nail on the head
Do or say something exactly right
In the heat of the moment
Overwhelmed by what is happening in the moment.
It takes two to tango
Actions or communications need more than one person
Jump on the bandwagon
Join a popular trend or activity.
Keep something at bay
Keep something away.
Kill two birds with one stone
This idiom means, to accomplish two different things at the same time.
Last straw
The final problem in a series of problems.
Let sleeping dogs lie
Meaning - do not disturb a situation as it is - since it would result in trouble or
complications.
Let the cat out of the bag
To share information that was previously concealed
Miss the boat
This idiom is used to say that someone missed his or her chance
Not a spark of decency
Meaning: No manners
Not playing with a full deck
Someone who lacks intelligence.
Once in a blue moon
Meaning: Happens very rarely.
Picture paints a thousand words
A visual presentation is far more descriptive than words.
Piece of cake
 A job, task or other activity that is easy or simple.
Put wool over other people's eyes
This means to deceive someone into thinking well of them.
See eye to eye
This idiom is used to say that two (or more people) agree on something.
Sit on the fence
This is used when someone does not want to choose or make a decision.
Taste of your own medicine
Whole nine yards
Everything. All of it.

Your guess is as good as mine

To have no idea, do not know the answer to a question

7. Phrasal verbs: an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another element, typically
either an adverb, as in break down, or a preposition, for example see to, or a combination of both,
such as look down on.

blow up explode The terrorists tried to blow up the railroad station.

My mother brought up that little matter of my prison record

bring up mention a topic
again.

bring up raise children It isn't easy to bring up children nowadays.

call off cancel They called off this afternoon's meeting

do over repeat a job Do this homework over.

fill out complete a form Fill out this application form and mail it in.

fill up fill to capacity She filled up the grocery cart with free food.

My sister found out that her husband had been planning a

find out discover
surprise party for her.

give give something to

The filling station was giving away free gas.
away someone else for free

give My brother borrowed my car. I have a feeling he's not about

return an object
back to give it back.
submit something
hand in The students handed in their papers and left the room.
(assignment)
 put something on hook or
hang up She hung up the phone before she hung up her clothes.
receiver

I hate to hold up the meeting, but I have to go to the

hold up delay
bathroom.

hold up Three masked gunmen held up the Security Bank this

rob
(2) afternoon.

You left out the part about the police chase down Asylum
leave out omit
Avenue.

The lawyers looked over the papers carefully before

look over examine, check
questioning the witness. (They looked them over carefully.)
look up search in a list You've misspelled this word again. You'd better look it up.

She knew she was in trouble, so she made up a story about

make up invent a story or lie
going to the movies with her friends.

He was so far away, we really couldn't make out what he

make out hear, understand
was saying.

There were three men in the line-up. She picked out the guy
pick out choose
she thought had stolen her purse.

lift something off The crane picked up the entire house. (Watch them pick it
pick up
something else up.)

As we drove through Paris, Francoise pointed out the major

point out call attention to
historical sites.

We put away money for our retirement. She put away the
put away save or store
cereal boxes.
We asked the boss to put off the meeting until tomorrow.
put off postpone
(Please put it off for another day.)

put on put clothing on the body I put on a sweater and a jacket. (I put them on quickly.)

The firefighters put out the house fire before it could

put out extinguish
spread. (They put it out quickly.)

I read over the homework, but couldn't make any sense of

read over peruse
it.

My wife set up the living room exactly the way she wanted
set up to arrange, begin
it. She set it up.
take These are your instructions. Write them down before you
make a written note
down forget.

take off remove clothing It was so hot that I had to take off my shirt.

We have serious problems here. Let's talk them over like

talk over discuss
adults.

throw
discard That's a lot of money! Don't just throw it away.
away

put clothing on to see if it

try on She tried on fifteen dresses before she found one she liked.
fits

try out test I tried out four cars before I could find one that pleased me.

turn
lower volume Your radio is driving me crazy! Please turn it down.
down

turn He applied for a promotion twice this year, but he was

reject
down (2) turned down both times.

turn up raise the volume Grandpa couldn't hear, so he turned up his hearing aid.

turn off switch off electricity We turned off the lights before anyone could see us.

turn off
repulse It was a disgusting movie. It really turned me off.
(2)

turn on switch on the electricity Turn on the CD player so we can dance.

The gang members used up all the money and went out to
use up exhaust, use completely
rob some more banks.
Inseparable Phrasal Verbs (Transitive)
With the following phrasal verbs, the lexical part of the verb (the part of the phrasal verb
that carries the "verb-meaning") cannot be separated from the prepositions (or other
parts) that accompany it: "Who will look after my estate when I'm gone?"

Verb Meaning Example

call on ask to recite in class The teacher called on students in the back row.

The old minister continued to call on his sick

call on (2) visit
parishioners.

recover from sickness or I got over the flu, but I don't know if I'll ever get over
get over
disappointment my broken heart.

The students went over the material before the exam.

go over review
They should have gone over it twice.

They country went through most of its coal reserves

go through use up; consume
in one year. Did he go through all his money already?

My mother promised to look after my dog while I

look after take care of
was gone.

The police will look into the possibilities of

look into investigate
embezzlement.

run across find by chance I ran across my old roommate at the college reunion.

run into meet Carlos ran into his English professor in the hallway.

take after resemble My second son seems to take after his mother.

wait on serve It seemed strange to see my old boss wait on tables.

Three-Word Phrasal Verbs (Transitive)
With the following phrasal verbs, you will find three parts: "My brother dropped out
of school before he could graduate."

Verb Meaning Example

interrupt (a I was talking to Mom on the phone when the operator
break in on
conversation) broke in on our call.

catch up After our month-long trip, it was time to catch up with

keep abreast
with the neighbors and the news around town.

check up The boys promised to check up on the condition of the

examine, investigate
on summer house from time to time.

come up to contribute After years of giving nothing, the old parishioner was
with (suggestion, money) able to come up with a thousand-dollar donation.

cut down We tried to cut down on the money we were spending

curtail (expenses)
on on entertainment.

I hope none of my students drop out of school this

drop out of leave school
semester.

get along have a good I found it very hard to get along with my brother when
with relationship with we were young.

get away Janik cheated on the exam and then tried to get away
escape blame
with with it.

The citizens tried to get rid of their corrupt mayor in

get rid of eliminate
the recent election.

get through
finish When will you ever get through with that program?
with

keep up It's hard to keep up with the Joneses when you lose
maintain pace with
with your job!

look anticipate with I always look forward to the beginning of a new

forward to pleasure semester.

look down It's typical of a jingoistic country that the citizens look
despise
on down on their geographical neighbors.

We were going to look in on my brother-in-law, but

look in on visit (somebody)
he wasn't home.
 Good instructors will look out for early signs of
look out for be careful, anticipate
failure in their students

look up to respect First-graders really look up to their teachers.

make sure Make sure of the student's identity before you let him
verify
of into the classroom.

The teacher had to put up with a great deal of

put up with tolerate
nonsense from the new students.

The runners ran out of energy before the end of the

run out of exhaust supply
race.

My oldest sister took care of us younger children after

take care of be responsible for
Mom died.

The star player talked back to the coach and was

talk back to answer impolitely
thrown off the team.

think back I often think back on my childhood with great

recall
on pleasure.

Her husband walked out on her and their three

walk out on abandon
children.

Intransitive Phrasal Verbs

The following phrasal verbs are not followed by an object: "Once you leave home, you can
never really go back again."

Verb Meaning Example

That old Jeep had a tendency to break down just when I
break down stop functioning
needed it the most.

Popular songs seem to catch on in California first and then

catch on become popular
spread eastward.

Father promised that we would never come back to this

come back return to a place
horrible place.
 They tried to come in through the back door, but it was
come in enter
locked.

regain He was hit on the head very hard, but after several
come to
consciousness minutes, he started to come to again.

come over to visit The children promised to come over, but they never do.

visit without We used to just drop by, but they were never home, so we
drop by
appointment stopped doing that.

When we visited Paris, we loved eating out in the sidewalk

eat out dine in a restaurant
cafes.

Uncle Heine didn't have much money, but he always

get by survive
seemed to get by without borrowing money from relatives.

Grandmother tried to get up, but the couch was too low,
get up arise
and she couldn't make it on her own.

go back return to a place It's hard to imagine that we will ever go back to Lithuania.

He would finish one Dickens novel and then just go on to

go on continue
the next.

The cops heard all the noise and stopped to see what was
go on (2) happen
going on.

grow up get older Charles grew up to be a lot like his father.

remain at a The judge warned the stalker to keep away from his
keep away
distance victim's home.

keep on (with continue with the

He tried to keep on singing long after his voice was ruined.
gerund) same

lose consciousness, He had drunk too much; he passed out on the sidewalk
pass out
faint outside the bar.

demonstrate Whenever he sat down at the piano, we knew he was going

show off
haughtily to show off.

Day after day, Efrain showed up for class twenty minutes

show up arrive
late.

wake up arouse from sleep I woke up when the rooster crowed.