Economic geology and mineral

economics
Introduction
Topics
• Course Contents :
• Main rock forming minerals and mineral groups of silicates, oxides,
carbonates.
• Genetic groups and main petrographic characteristics of rocks.
• Basics of ore mineralogy.
• Optical properties and processing-related characteristics of the main ore
mineral types. Application of micro-analytical methods in ore mineralogy.
Major ore forming processes.
• Globally important types of ore deposits in a genetic system.
• Industrial minerals and their application.
• Study Goals: Gaining basic knowledge on the processing-related
mineralogical and geological aspects of ores and industrial minerals.
Text books

• MacKenzie, W. S., Guilford C. (1980): Atlas of Rock-Forming

Minerals in Thin Section. Halsted Press
• Evans, A.M. (1993): Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals. An
Introduction (Third edition). Geoscience Texts Series, Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1–389.
• Bernhard Pracejus (ed.) (2008): The Ore Minerals Under the
Microscope. An Optical Guide. Elsevier.
• Dill, H.G. (2010): The „chessboard” classification scheme of
mineral deposits: Mineralogy and geology from aluminium to
zirconium. Earth-Science Reviews, 100, 1–420.
– Moon C.J., Whatley M.K.G. and Evans A.M., (eds.). 2006.
Introduction to Mineral Exploration. 2.ed.
– Robb L. 2005, Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes
– Reading materials given in the MyCourses
Applications of geology in mining

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Economic geology

• Economic geology studies earth materials that can be

used for economic and/or industrial purposes.
• Precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals, construction-
grade stone, (petroleum minerals, coal, and water).
• The term commonly refers to metallic mineral deposits and mineral
resources.
• Aims to understand how deposits are formed, describe
their characteristics and how this information can be
used in exploitation of an ore deposit.
– Common techniques to geochemistry, mineralogy, geophysics,
petrology, structural geology
Ore classifications (genetic process-based)
• Robb L:
– Magmatic
– Magmatic-hydrothermal
– Hydrothermal
– Sedimentary
– Surficial and supergene processes

– Gradational, e.g. Magmatic and magmatic-hydrothermal or

hydrothermal
– Incomple: does not consider metamorposis as an ore forming process
– ”metamorphism does not represent a fundamental process whereby
ore deposits are formed”
– Other opinions can be justified as well!
Terminology
• Syngenetic
– Ore formed with the host rock
• Epigenetic
– Ore formed later that host rock
• Hypogene
– Ore formed by up-rising fluids
• Supergene
– Desceding fluids
• For hydrothermal ore
– Epithermal 50-200 oC, typically in depths < 1500 m
– Mesothermal 200-400 oC, 1500-4500 m
– Hypothermal 400-600 oC, >4500 m
Definitions
– Mineralization
• A mineral deposit
• A process by which valuable minerals are introduced to
rock
– Ore
• An economic concept
– Ore body
• A geometric concept
– Mineral resources
• Mineral deposit that may eventually become available
for extraction
– Ore reserves
• Part of the deposit that can be excavated with profit
Economic geology and a life
of a mine

Exploration and
Scoping studies typically carried
out by exploration (oriented
economic) geologists of
geophysicists
Pre-feasibility/feasibility studies by
mining geologists/engineers

Operation and optimization of the

beneficiation

Closure of the mine

Civil engineers end
environmental geologist (with ore
geology experience)
http://goldinvestingnews.com/16967/the-life-cycle-of-a-
mine-resource-definition-and-the-feasibility-study.html

Heikki Niini, HUT, 1998

Mineral exploration
• Mineral exploration:
• From the discovery of a mineral deposit to the feasibility assessment
• Study and selection of exploration strategy
– Assessment of the demand, supply, commodity prices, trends, available markets,
exploration costs and financing
• Reconnaissance of target areas
– Review of literature, remote sensing data, geological mapping and prospecting,
geochemical and geochemical surveys, limited drilling
• Target testing/detailed mapping (geological, geochemistry, geophysics),
• Discoveries: an order-of-magnitude-study or conceptual study/scoping study
– Potential technical problems that need to be studied further
• Pre-feasibility
– Major sampling and test work, mineralogical examination, pilot plant testing to assess the
viability of selected mineral processing option and recoverability, environmental impacts
• Feasibility
– Continued drilling and pilot processing, test mining, engineering tests and economic
evaluation. Technical and financial feasibility.
– Go/NoGo decision
The resource definition phase

• Steps of investigations
• Reconnaissance reporting
http://goldinvestingnews.com/16967/the-life-cycle-of-a-
• Scoping study mine-resource-definition-and-the-feasibility-study.html
• Pre-feasibility study
• Feasibility study
• (Bank-able feasibility study)

• Accumulating analysis of the size and grade of the mineral deposit

• Delineation of mineral resources and ore reserves
• Uses engineering and geotechnical studies to evaluate the mining
method
• At early state “known” data from literature, later site specific tests
• Estimation of how much extraction of the ore will cost
• All above depend on the geology of the deposit.
Example

• Geological processes
effect the shape,
grade and tonnage of
ore bodies
– Cutoff values depend
on costs of mining and
markets
– Economic volatility
indirectly associated
with ore type
 Geological factors to be considered

• Origin • Size • Extractability

• Metamorphosis • Shape of ore body
• Excavation
(recrystallization) • Fabrics and texture
• Grade: content of metals • Beneficiation
– Possibly several in ore minerals (minerals • Environmental
stages that can be beneficiated) impacts
– Complex P-T history• Mineralogy
– Paragenesis/mineral
• Amount of
• Deformation and strain association wastes
– Ductile/brittle • ore
• AMD
• gangue
– Multiple phases – Texture • Recycling
– Grain-size distribution
• Weathering and alteration Wall/waiste rocks
– Wall rock
• Tailings
Geological processes determine mineral assembly and grain-size
distribution. In additon, mineral microtexture play a key role in the
beneficiation processes and effects also many mining
engineering properties..
a) Sutured mineral contacts
b) Euhedral (idiomorphic) grains
c) Anhedral (allotriomorphic) grains
d) Micrographic intergrowth (two
different minerals)
e) Fluid inclusion bands
f) Exsolution structures (one
mineral forms two)
g) Concentric fluid inclusion bands
h) Zonal crystallization
i) Cataclastic texture
(fragmentation)
j) Alteration/replacement
k) Fracture fill/vein
l) Porfyroblast
Interlocking textures and liberation

Ore microscopy and ore petrography - 2nd ed.

James R. Craig, David J. Vaughan (1994) i-xiv + 434 pages. ISBN 0-471-
55175-9.
http://www.minsocam.org/msa/openaccess_publications/#Ore
Mineral interlocking

• Environmental impacts
From
http://technology.infomine.com/enviromine/ard/mi
neralogy/Size%20&%20Liberation.htm#Size%20
Distribution (site visited 10/2010)
Refractive minerals

• E.g. Refractive gold

• Fine grained interlocked minerals may require too fine
grinding to be economical
• E.g. presence of graphite can lead to preg-robbing
– Cyanide will leach gold, but subsequently absorbed by graphite
Example: mineralogical changes after
ore emplacement
• Source: GTK,
reportfile N:O
4538, Kärkkäinen
et al. 1996
• Primary and
metamorphic
• Growth of exsolution
lamelli and
inclusions/intergrowths ”Ohutlamellinen ilmenomagnetiitti, jossa on ilmeniittilamellien paksunnoksia ja lamellie
yhdistymistä rakeiksi. Nikolit osittain ristissä.
• Recrystallization R372-87.40 (9.49 % TiO2, 19.8 % magnetiittia. Polarisaattorit osittain ristissä. Valokuv
H. Appelqvist.”

Thinly laminated ilmeno-magnetite

Thickening of ilmenite lamelli
and growth of ilmenite grains
(inclusions and intergrowths)
• Source: GTK, reportfile
N:O 4538, Kärkkäinen et
al. 1996
• Secondary changes
– Alteration of ilmenite and
martitization of magnetite
– Growth of hornblende

”Rapautunut ilmeniittimalmi. Osittain muuttunut ilmeniitti (I) ja martiittiutunut magnetiitti (M),

R373, 35.40. Ilmeniitin ruskeat laikut ovat muuttumatonta ainesta ja vaaleat alueet
mikrorakoja pitkin muuttunutta ilmeniitiä. Magnetiitissa valkoista martiittia (hematiittia)
oktaedripintojen suunnassa ja osittain sulkeumina olevat harmaat puikot ovat
ilmeniittilamelleja, joiden ympäriltä, magnetiittirakeen ulkopuolella, rautaoksidi on muuttunut
sarvivälkkeeksi. Polarisaattorit osittain ristissä. Valokuva H. Appelqvist. ”
Structural geology

• Bending of drill holes

– Differences between mechanical
competence
• Continuation of folded and faulted
rocks
• Location of mineralization
• Thickness and continuation of ore
mineraliztion
• Regional geology: presence of satellite
ores
Outokumpu ore bodies

• Exsample of complex and multistage

ore forming process

• Information on structural geology has

played a role in

– Targeting exploration satellites and

continuation of ore bodies
• Ores are located on limb of a regional monocline

• _ Selecting mining methods

• Stability and ore dilution

from Nurmi, Eilu ja Vuori, 2009, s. 64

Metamorphosis and mineral deposits

• Recrystallization tend to increase grain sizes (regional

metamorphosis, increasing pressure (P) and
temperature (T)
– Can be a critical factor for economic beneficiation
• New mineral assemblages (skarn deposits)
• Possibly segregation, mobilization and concentration of
ore minerals
Deformation and ore bodies

• Deformation is closely associated with metamorphosis

• Folding and faulting affect also the economics
– Shape of the ore body, attitude (dip), contacts
• Ductile and brittle deformation zones
– Grain size changes (mylonitization)
– Fracturing (micro-to megascale)
– Movement of fluids: secondary processes including gangue
minerals and trace minerals with adverse effects to beneficiation
(clays, mica)
Terminology associated with shape

• Discordant ore bodies • Concordant ore

– Regularly shaped bodies
– Tabular, tubular – According the host:
– Irregular – Sedimentary,
– (Disseminated) – Volcanic
– (Replacement – Plutonic
deposits) – Metamorphic
• Stratabound/stratiform
Shape and dimensions of ore body
• Decision on mining technique
and mine lay out
Mining methods
• Steeply dipping
deposits >50 degrees
– Sublevel open stoping
– Bighole stoping
– Shrinkage stoping
– Vertical crater retreat
– Cut and fill mining
– Sublevel caving
– Block caving
• stable rock in both hanging wall and footwall,
• competent ore and host rock;
• regular ore boundaries
• comparatively stable ore and sidewall characteristics;
regular ore boundaries;
• ore unaffected by storage = insignificant (acid and) heat
generation by oxidation
• in strata with good to moderate stability,
• A comparatively high-grade mineralization,
• preferred for orebodies with irregular shape and scattered
•
mineralization,
High-grade sections can be mined separately, and low-
grade rock left in the stopes
• Large orebodies, with steep dip and continuity at depth.
Sublevel footwall drifts have to be stable,
• Hangingwall has to fracture and collapse, following the
cave, and subsidence of the ground surface above the
orebody has to be tolerated.
• Caving requires a rock mass where both orebody and
host rock fracture un-der controlled conditions.
• Large scale production mining method
• Low-grade, massive orebodies, breaking into blocks of
manageable size; and a ground surface which is allowed
to subside: iron ores, porphyry copper, kimberlites
Mining methods
• Flat, bedded deposits of limited thickness. Examples are
sedimentary deposits, like copper shale, limestone or
sandstone containing lead, coal seams, salt and potash
layers, limestone and dolomite.
• Flat lying or genttly
• a crossbreed of room and pillar and cut and fill mining.
dipping deposits <<50 • in horizontal slices, starting from a bottom slice,
advancing upwards
degrees • adapts the inclined orebody footwall for efficient use of
trackless equipment
– Room and Pillar • in tabular deposits with thickness from 2 m to 5 m and dip
ranging from 15 to 30 degrees.
– Post pillar mining • Stopes and haulageways cross the dip of the orebody in
a polar coordinate system, orienting the stopes at angles
– Step room and pillar across the dip that can comfortably be travelled by
trackless vehicles.

mining • Applies to thin, bed-ded deposits, with uniform thickness

and large horizontal extension. Typical deposits are coal
– Longwall mining seams, potash layers or conglomerates, and gold reefs.
GEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Mining as a system

Mining comprises a
system– that is, as a set
of interacting parts that
function as a whole.
What is the role of
geological processes?
System analysis and geology

• Mineral systems analysis - understanding the combination of geological processes that are
required to form and preserve ore deposits at all scales (cf.Wyborn et al., 1994) - is being
increasingly adopted in the study of the genesis and distribution of ore deposits in space and
time.
– effective exploration targeting systems,
– targeting models and target ranking methodologies.
• Geoenvironmental models of mineral deposit
– Adopted to planning and implementation of mitigation actions
– Prediction of environmental impacts (already in Pre-feasibility assessment)
• Geometallurgy is described as an integration of fundamental economic geology and deposit
mineralogy into the process of designing successful mine plans and resource recovery
schemes.
• Engineering geology
• Synthesis of fragmentary data based on genetic understanding.
– The delineation of comprehensive geological models requires the synthesis of diverse, highly fragmentary data from
geological and geomorphological evidence and from geotechnical and geophysical site investigations. Such synthesis is
carried out best against the background of a genetic understanding of the site geology. Engineering geologists, like other
geologists, are familiar with the genesis of geological materials, structures, processes and landforms
– Rocks and over-consolidated soils constitute materials which are intrinsically fractured. Such fractures are indicators of past
and current geological processes, e.g. jointing, faulting and ageing (weathering). They have significant effects on the
mechanical behavior of soils and rocks.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN
MINING
Drilling rate and wear of equipmet
• NTNU
• https://sites.google.com/site/minin
ginfosite/miner-s-toolbox/blasting
– the Drilling Rate Index (DRI) and
the Bit Wear Index (BWI).
– The DRI describes how fast a
particular drill steel can penetrate.
• Includes measurements of
brittleness and drilling with a
small, standard rotating bit into a
sample of the rock.
JL1

Weathering
• Particluarly sulphide ores are
susceptible to weathering
• In Finland: bedrock is in most
outcrops practically unweathered or
only slightly weathered (few
millimetes to a few centimeters)
However, some suphide ores have
been found to be weathered over the
depth of 100 m from the surface!
• This has effected beneficiation and
excavation at the early stage of
mining!!!!
• E.g Pyhäsalmi mine GTK:n kuva-arkisto

Page 35
Slide 35

JL1 Jussi; 4.8.2015

Hydrothermal processes

• Can alter the mineralogy of rocks in regional scale

– Clay, mica, baryte, calcite
– Rock mechanical properties
• Can be related to the ore forming processes but more
commonly are off secondary origing resulting from later
tectonic processes
 Engineering geological investigations of fracture zones
Regional
interpretation Electrical tomography
- aerogeophysics
- aerial photos
- satellite data

Detailed interpretation
- seismic refraction
- electrical tomography
- other methods

fracture zones

5 km Aeromagnetic map
Engineering geological aspects

• Rock fracturing and brittle

deformation structures
• Alteration and weathering
products
– Reduce mechanical stability
– Ore dilution and rock stability

– Introduce minerals with

adverse effect of mineral
processing
Geological systems analysis
– Assessment of mineral resources must be based on
conservative estimates
– In scoping and prefeasibility studies particularly the data is
limited/fragmented
• Expert judgements
• Comparisons to similar cases
• Predictions based on limited data
• Assessment of uncertainty
• Distinction of interrelation between processes
– Assesment are not only limited to technical and economic
feasibility of mining and beneficiation
• Environmental and social impact
• Markets
Economic geologists

• An economic geologist studies mineral deposits and the

processes leading to their formation.

• This information is extremely useful to mining

companies as it helps them to locate and understand
the nature of the resource they are mining.

Economic geologists apply geological principles to solve

practical problems in the mining industry.
Resources and Reserves
Increasing level of confidence
• Confirmation of geological boundaries of ore body
– Consistency with structural geology, geological observations
and data
• Drilling density
• Statistics and geostatistics
– QA/QC of geochemistry and assaying
• Geophysical investigations
– Soundings and borehole investigations
– Size of deposit, (volume and tonnage)
– Continuity and correlation between boreholes
Reporting and valuation code
• Quidelines for geological database
– Transparency
– Materiality
– Competence

• Geological model
– Investors
– Mining engineers

• Resource and Reserve estimations

– Different classes
A competent person

• Different codes
Mine specific ore classifications/
subdivisions of ore bodies
• Mining operation require development of one or more of
this
– Operational classifications/subdivision of ore bodies
• E.g Cu-, Zn-, pyrite-ore etc. jne.
– Economic classification
• Ore, minimum mining grade, mineralised rock,
– Mineral processing based classification
• Compact ore, disseminated ore, hard ore, soft ore, oxidized ore etc.
– Classification based on degree of confidence (e.g JORC)
Duties of Mining Geologists
Delineation of mineral resources and ore reserves
Planning of excavation (contribution to)
Ore grade control
monitoring, designing of ore feed
Ore dilution minimization
wall rock and internal dilution by gangue
Acquisition of information supporting
excavation/rock engineering
beneficiation processes
Exploration of satellite ores
RTD
Environmental management/mining closure
Data acquisition in operational efficiency
• Today more or less subsequent processes
– surveying (positioning) , ore grade control, and excavation and
loading
– Failures in communication leads to reduced profit and
multiplication of wasted energy

• NEW METHODS
– Integration of today separate steps to one
– Geometallurgical approach
– Better mining technical design
– Control of the quality of ore feed to beneficiation processes 3D-distribution of ore metals in a bench
– Classification of waste rock for further use (mineral
carbonation/AMD) and block model for blasting/loading

Mining geologist: 3D-

mapping/grade control

Mining engineer: Process Ongoing loading of explosives

blasting, engineer: in Kittilä gold mine
crushing, Beneficiation
hoisting, Crushing
grinding

Metso: Crushing and screening

handbook
JL2
JL3

Summary
• ”Geology” that is origin/geologic history of the ore body
defines directly:
– Shape, structures, dimensions, continuation of ore grade,
gangue minerals and their contents

And also
Extractability of ore
excavation (method, size)
beneficiation
Environmental impacts
amount and type of waste
hydrogeological impacts
Slide 47

JL2 Jussi; 5.8.2015

JL3 Jussi; 5.8.2015

Thank you!

Lets continue after the brake with

“engineering requirements” set to the ore
investigations
ENGINEERING
REQUIREMENTS
Internationally recognized standards

• E.g.
– Canadian National Instrument 43-101
– Australasian Code for Reporting of Mineral Resources and Ore
Reserves - prepared by the Joint Ore Reserve Committee
(JORC)
– U.S. Securities & Exchange Commission Industry Guide 7
– The 2005 SME Guide for Reporting Exploration Results, Mineral
Resources and Mineral Reserves.
Different levels of engineering studies

• Conceptual
• Prefeasibility
• Feasibility

• Standards do not defined specific numerical criteria for

”sufficient” minimum measures such as drilling density
• In general the level of reliability of resources estimates
increases
– Low level (+/- 50 %)->+/- 25 %-> less than 15 %
Conceptual studies
Delineation of the mineral resource with the data available
and identification of
– Technical parameters requiring additional examination or test
work
– General features and parameters of the proposed project
– Magnitude of capital and operating cost estimates
– Level of effort for project development
• A tool to determine if subsequent engineering studies
are warranted.
• Not valid for economic decision making
• Not sufficient for reserve reporting
Ohjectives of prefeasibility (and
feasibility)
• Resources/reserves
• Mine and mill extraction methods
• Mine and mill production rates
• Environmental issues and permitting requirements
• Development period and mine life
• Product(s) recovery rates
• Product(s) marketability
• Capital cost estimates
• Operating cost estimates
• Economic analysis with sensitivity
Prefeasibility study
• An intermediate step in the engineering process to evaluate a mining
project
• Adequate geology and mine engineering work has been conducted to
define a resource and a reserve (reserves at this stage depend on
reporting jurisdiction).
• Sufficient test work to develop mining and processing parameters for
equipment selection, flow sheet development, and production and
development scheduling.
• Capital and operating cost estimates are derived from preliminary test
work, assumed factors and some vendor quotes
• The economic analysis of a prefeasibility study is of sufficient accuracy to
assess various development options and the overall project viability.
• Not sufficient accuracy for final decision making or bank financing
Feasibility study

• most detailed step in the engineering process for

evaluating a mining project
• a “go/no-go” decision
• Principal parameters for a feasibility study are based on
sound and complete engineering and test work.
• Same objectives as for prefeasibility studies
– the level of detail and accuracy for each objective are more
stringent
– Detail depends of source of financing (company/fiancial
institutes)
• Bankable studies less stringent than in company financed projects
– Detailed geologic and mine engineering work to define a
resource and reserve.
– Detailed test work to develop all mining and processing
parameters for
• Pit slope design,
• Hydrological and geotechnical designs
• Flow sheet development,
• Equipment selection and sizing,
• Consumables and power consumption, material balance,
• General arrangement drawings,
• Production and development schedules,
• Capital and operating cost estimates
– From vendor quotes and take- offs
Furthermore

• A draft EIS/ EA has been submitted to regulatory

authorities (or is close to being submitted).
• Economic analysis with sensitivities is based on annual
cash flow calculations for the mine life.
• Provided the project is feasible, a proven and probable
reserve statement can be made
Other factors effecting the economic
viability
• Location
– Electric power supply
– Water supply
– Infrastructure: roads, railroads, housing, schools
• Sustainable development
social and environmental impacts
• Taxation
• Political issues
– Predictability/risks for investments
Geological studies and…

• Every mineral deposit has its own unique geologic

characteristics which must considered in the preparation
of engineering studies.
• The amount of required geologic information varies
significantly as a function of the engineering study level
and the complexity of the deposit and mineralogy.
• Geologic features control economic mineralization, and
with the appropriate geologic modeling,
• A reliable grade estimates will be determined using a
combination of geologic controls and geostatistics
Resource estimation

• based on the development of a three-dimensional

model of the deposit with (either manual or) computer
methods
– allows for rapid tabulation of mineral inventory and provides a
basis for all subsequent determinations of reserves, mine design
and planning.
• the most reliable and accurate resource estimate with
available data.
Mining
• Based on geologic interpretation and resource estimate
(model) the mining method is selected.
– the geometry of the deposit and depth of the deposit.
– surface and/or underground
• Optimization analysis as a tool to evaluate sensitivity of
projects and determine impacts of changes in prices,
costs, and recoveries
– “Including inferred resources in an optimization analysis can
help a company determine where to focus exploration drilling to
increase measured and indicated resources.”
• Production rate estimate
Process Engineering

• Processing facilities are typically

• designed to produce marketable products for shipment
directly to the consumers or to subsequent processing
facilities
• Metallurgical test work
• Mineralogical studies
• Consideration of project site conditions
• Selection of processing flow sheet and basis
• Determination of processing design criteria and
description
• Plant processing facilities layout
• Equipment sizes and specifications
• Plant services
Infrastructure

– Access and service

routes
– Process water supply
– Energy (fuel,
electricity)
– Waste disposal
– Municipal services
Environment

– Environmental Impact Statements (EIS)

– Base line studies
– Environmental assessments
– Mine Permitting at the local, state, federal and international
levels
– Mine-waste management design/remediation
– Water management
– Wetlands mitigation/constructiondesign
– Air quality and noise assessment
– Acid-rock drainage assessment and abatement
– Closure planning
Recycling and

MINERAL ECONOMY
• Recycling is commonly introduced in public debate as a
sustainable alternative to mining

– Also recycling has it limitations

• Functionality of products
• Technology and infrastrucuture
– The increase of demand of certain metals cannot be fullfilled by
recycling the products
Long-term trends

• Economic growth
– BRIC-countries
– Criticality of raw material supply
• Sustainable development
– Environmental management
– Social impacts
• Recycling
– Solution for raw material demand?
• Replacing materials
JL4

• World markets and global economy

– Current commodity prices are strongly effected by e.g. the
economy of China (and other BRIC countries)
Slide 70

JL4 Jussi; 6.8.2015

Raw material supply
• Due to the economical growth over the last 15 years,
particularly in so called BRIC-countries, has lead to
previously inconceivable demand for mineral raw
materials.
• Availability of natural resources is becoming a critical
constraint for economics in many countries.
– In 2008 European Union published the raw material initiative
– the aim is to assure sufficient raw material supply to EU,
– to reduce environmental impacts of extractive industries while
promoting their productivity.
– The key objective of the supported R&D activities is decoupling
economic growth, mining and adverse environmental impacts..
Critical raw materials for EU

Supply
risk

Economic importance
• Can recycling replace mining?
 The metal wheel

Reuter and van Schaik, 2012

• Demand of carrier metals makes “the metal
wheel” move
• These are associted with other metals
• Co-products with own infrastructure
• Co-products without ”own infra”
• Residuals& emissions

• Geology plays a role in the availability, the co-

elements and also the quality and quantity of
wastes
JL6

Geochemical classification of elements

• (Goldschmidt classification from Berry& Mason,

Elements of Mineralogy)
• Elements classified according to their tendency to form
chemical components
• Oxides
– (incl. Silicates)
• Sulfides
• Elements
• Gas
Slide 75

JL6 Jussi; 6.8.2015

Complexity of minerals
 Limitations of recycling

Present metallurgical JL5

processes can be used
to recycle metals.
However, a product
based approach
instead of material
based approach will be
needed
• Products need to be
designed to be
recyclable
• ” valuable manmade
minerals from urban
mines”
Slide 77

JL5 Jussi; 6.8.2015

Limitations of functionality