SKELETAL SYSTEM

 forms the bony framework of the body

 the principal means of support and attachment
for the muscles
 Composed of 206 bones, the number does not
include the Wormian and Sesamoid bones.
Sesamoid bones – small flat bone developed in a
tendon, which move over a bony surface. ex patella
Wormian bones (Sutural bones) – is small, irregular
bones in the sutures between the bones of the skull.
They formed as a result of Intramembranous
ossification of the cranial bones

Components of the skeletal system:

1. Cartilage – a specialized connective tissue that
provides site for muscular attachment, support
aids in movement at joints.
2. Bones – a specialized connective tissue that
provides a point of attachment for muscles and
transmits the force of muscle contraction

Functions of the skeletal system: Classifications of skeletal system:

1. Provides protection for internal sense organs 1. according to shapes
2. Serves a lever for movement and locomotion 2. according to development and formation
3. Storage of minerals like, Calcium & potassium 3. according to histological structure
4. for blood formation (hemopoeisis) 4. according to location
5. prevents the loss of body fluids (carapace, plastron and feathers)

I. According to shapes

1. Long bones 3. Flat bones

- Cylindrical in shape, that is longer than wide - Sheet like in shape but usually curved rather
- consists of narrow elongated shaft (diaphysis), than absolutely flat
and expanded ends (epiphyses) containing a - consists of 2 thin plates of compact bone
marrow cavity (medullary canal). enclosing a layer of spongy bone known as
Ex. Humerus, femur ‘diploe’
Ex. Bones of the skull, ribs, pelvic bones
2. Short bones
- Cuboidal in shape 4. Irregular bones
- consists of spongy core within compact bone - Various or no definite shapes
Ex. Carpal, tarsal Ex. Vertebrae

II. According to development and formation

- Ossification (bone formation) took place in 2 ways
1. Intramembranous ossification
- Bone development is from membrane and develops immediately into a hard bone
- giving rise to a ‘membrane bone’ ex. Flat bones of skull and face (only the bones of the cranium or skull form by
this process).

2. Endochondral ossification
- Bone development is from the cartilage, from which there is a conversion of cartilage into bone
- This is the process in which cartilage is the environment in which the bone cells develop
- giving rise to a ‘replacement bone’, ex. All the other bones of the body

Note: at birth, ossification is not complete; completion is from 19-25th year of life, earlier in females than in males

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Bone growth:
- by means of a process known as ‘apposition’ (external addition)

1. length
- by continual thickening of epiphyseal cartilage followed by ossification
2. diameter

- Osteoclasts (bone dissolving cells)

destroy bone surrounding the marrow
cavity, thereby enlarging the cavity and
at the same time the

- Osteoblasts (bone producing cells)

add new bones around its outer
surface.

III. According to histological appearance

1. Spongy (Cancellous) bone – located at the ends of long bones and forms the center of all other bones; it is
made up bony spicules (trabeculae) within the marrow cavity; it has many open spaces, giving it a spongy
appearance. Trabeculae give strength to the bone.

2. Compact (dense) bone – made up of compactly arranged concentric bony lamellae, covered by dense
fibrous membrane called periosteum.

IV. According to location (position)

1. Axial skeleton 2. Appendicular skeleton
- Bones located at the center or axis of the - Bones located laterally or attached to the
body axis of the body
- consists of 80 bones - consists of 126 bones

BONES OF THE AXIAL SKELETON

A. Skull – the skeleton of the head, consists of 29 bones

- With 2 parts - the cranium and the facial bones

1. Cranium – the brain box, consists of 8 bones

- They protect and enclose the brain and special sense organs

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a. Frontal bone – forms the anterior third of the cranium, corresponding to the forehead
- articulates with the parietal bones by coronal suture
b. Parietal bones – 2 large quadrangular bones, forming the greater part of the vault of the cranium.
- articulate with each other at the center by sagittal suture.
c. Occipital bone – forms the posterior portion of the
cranial dome
- articulates with the parietal bones by the
lambdoid suture
d. Temporal bones – paired bone found at the lower
sides and base of the cranium.
- articulates with the parietal bones by the
squamous suture
e. Sphenoid bone – a butterfly or bat shaped bone
that forms the anterior portion and base of the skull.
- it acts as an anchor binding all of the
cranial bones together.
f. Ethmoid bone – forms the middle portion of the
anterior cranial floor, extending inferiorly between the
orbits. It is the lightest of the cranial bones.

2. Facial bones – consists of 14 bones

a. Maxillae/ maxillary bones (upper jaw) – support
the face from the eyes down to the mouth
b. Lacrimal bones – the smallest and most fragile
facial bones, forms the anterior part of the medial wall
of the orbit.
c. Palatine bones – a pair of L-shaped bones, join
together at the midline to form the posterior third of the
hard palate, the perpendicular part forms the lateral
wall of the nasal cavity.
d. Zygomatic bones (Malar bone) – forms the cheek
bone of the face and the lateral margin of the orbit
e. Nasal bones – forming the bridge of the nose
f. Vomer – a thin, unpaired flattened bone that forms
the lower portion of the nasal septum that divides the
nasal cavity.
g. Inferior nasal conchae (turbinate bone) – a pair of
thin, scroll like bones that projects horizontally and
medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The
largest of the 3 paired conchae.
h. Mandible (lower jaw) – strongest and longest bone
in the face, the only movable bone in the skull.

B. Hyoid bone – unpaired, u-shaped bone found in the anterior part of the neck and support the tongue; unique part of
the skeleton because it has no articulations with other bones.

C. Ear ossicles – consists of 6 bones; involved in exciting the hearing receptors.

1. Malleus – hammer
2. Incus – anvil
3. Stapes – stirr-up, smallest bone in the body

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Cavities and Sinuses of the Skull :
A. Cavities – protects and surround the brain
1. Cranial cavity 3. Nasal cavity
2. Oral/ buccal cavity 4. Orbital cavity
B. Sinuses – responsible for sound resonance, decrease the weight of the skull, and helps to warm and moistened the
inspired air.
1. Mastoid sinus
2. Paranasal sinuses
a. Maxillary sinus (Antrum of highmore) c. Sphenoidal sinus
b. Frontal sinus d. Ethmoidal sinus

Fetal Skull:
- contains fibrous membranous areas called “fontanels” (little fountain)
1. antero-lateral fontanel (sphenoid) – between sphenoid, temporal, parietal, frontal
2. postero-lateral fontanel (mastoid) – between temporal, parietal, occipital
3. Anterior fontanel (coronal) – between parietal and frontal
4. Posterior fontanel – between parietal and occipital

D. Vertebral Column
- Forms the flexible central pillar found in the posterior part of the body.
- composed of 26 bones, some of which are fused.

Functions of vertebral column:

1. To support the head and upper limbs
2. To provide muscle attachments
3. To protect the spinal cord

Parts of typical vertebrae:

1. Body – large, drum shaped
2. Pedicle/root – short, thick extends
posterior from the body
3. Laminae – projects from the pedicle
4. Processes – arises from the laminae
a. spinous (1) – muscle attachment
b. transverse (2) – prevent twisting of the
vertebrae
c. articular (4) – for articulation

Regions of vertebral column:

1. Cervical – smallest vertebral bones,
Characterized by the presence of transverse foramen
C1 (atlas) – support the head
C2 (axis, epistrophus) – present of odontoid process
(dens), serves as a body
C3-C6 – spinous process is short and bifid
C7 – atypical and forms the vertebral prominence
2. Thoracic – articulating with the 12 pairs of ribs
3. Lumbar – the largest, strongest and heaviest
4. Sacrum – large, triangular bone which articulates
With 2 pelvic bones laterally and lumbar above.
5. Coccyx (tail bone) – forms the lower end of the
vertebral column

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Curvatures of the vertebral column
1. Primary curvature – formed by thoracic and sacro-coccygeal curvatures,
- present since intra-uterine life
2. Secondary curvature – formed by the cervical and lumbar curvatures

E. Thoracic/ rib cage

- form a partially flexible, protective shield for the heart, lungs and other thoracic organs
1. Ribs – thin, narrow, bony arches articulates with the vertebral column
Classification of ribs:
a. true/ sternal (vertebro-sternal) – 1st 7 pairs, directly attached to the sternum
b. false/ asternal (vertebro-chondral) – 8,9,10th pairs, attached to the 7th pair of ribs
c. floating/ vertebral ribs – the 11th and 12th pair of ribs, attached only to the vertebral column, anterior ends
are free.
2. Sternum (breastbone) – a dagger-shaped bone plate consisting of 3 separate bones.
a. manubrium sterni – most superior bone
b. body (gladiolus) – intermediate bone
c. xiphoid process – most inferior bone

BONES OF THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

- composed of 126 bones
- composed of upper and lower extremities

A. Upper extremity – composed of 64 bones

1. Pectoral girdle (Shoulder) – connects the upper extremity with the trunk.
a. Clavicle (collar bone) – 1st bone to ossify, and the b. Scapula (shoulder blade) – wide, flat, triangular
only bony connection between the upper extremity bone covering the postero-lateral portions of the chest
and trunk. Fracture is called the ‘green-stick fracture’. wall from the 2nd – 7th ribs.

2. Humerus (brachium) – longest bone in the arm

3. Ulna – medial and longer bone of the forearm; it is

commonly known as “funny bone”

4. Radius – lateral and shorter bone of the forearm,

fracture is known as ‘dinner-fork deformity’.

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5. Carpal bones (wrist bone) – composed of 8 small
bones arranged in 2 rows of 4 bones:
Proximal row – pisiform, triquetral, lunate, scaphoid
Distal end – hamate, capitate, trapezoid, trapezium

6. Metacarpal bones – forms the framework of the

hand

7. Phalanges – forming the digits or fingers

B. Lower extremity – composed of 62 bones

1. Pelvic girdle (hips) – connects the lower extremity

with the trunk
a. Ilium – largest, uppermost of the pelvic
bone
b. Ischium – prismatic and strongest bone of
the os coxae; situated on posteroinferior
c. Pubis – anterior and lower bone of the
pelvis.

2. Femur (thigh bone) – the largest, longest and

heaviest bone in the body

3. Patella (knee cap) – protects the knee joint and

strengthens the tendon of anterior thigh muscle;
It is the largest Sesamoid bones.

4. Tibia (shinbone) – larger and medial leg bone

5. Fibula (splint bone; calf) – lateral leg bone; the most
slender bone in the body.

6. Tarsal bones (ankle bone) –forming the ankle and

posterior part of the foot.
a. Talus (astragalus) –articulates with tibia
to form ankle joint
b. Calcaneous (os calcis, heel bone) –
largest tarsal bone
c. Navicular (scaphoid) – forms the middle
row of bone
d. Cuboid – forms part of the anterior row
e. Cuneiform – wedge shaped
7. Metatarsal bones – forms the framework of the foot
8. Phalanges – forms the digits or toes

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ARTICULATIONS/ JOINTS
- the place of union or junction between 2 or more bones of the skeleton

Classification of joints:
1. Immovable/ Fibrous joints (Synarthroses)
a. sutures – found only in skull
b. Syndesmoses – held by interrosseous ligaments; ex. Tibia-fibula, radius- ulna
c. gomphoses – occurs in teeth within alveolar process
2. Slightly immovable/ cartilaginous joints (Amphiarthroses)
- allows limited motion in response to twisting or compression
a. symphyses – ex. Intervertebral discs, symphysis pubis
b. synchondroses – joints that have hyaline cartilage between bone segments.
3. Freely movable/ Synovial joints (Diarthroses)
- enclosed by joint capsules containing synovial fluid
- to provide a precise, smooth movements at the same time maintaining stability, strength and rigidity in the body.
a. gliding joint – allows only side-side and back and forth movements ex. Carpal and tarsal joints
b. hinge joint – permits bending in only 1 side ex. Knee joint, elbow joint, between phalanges
c. pivot joint – limited rotation to the central axis ex. Proximal joint of radius and ulna as in turning a door
knob
d. condyloid – permit movements in 2 directions as in up and down, side to side motion ex. Radio-carpal joint
e. ball and socket joint – ex. Hip joint, shoulder joint

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