Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
net
BIOLOGY-ZOOLOGY
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
II
CONTENTS
BIOLOGY-ZOOLOGY Page No
UNIT I
Chapter 1 Reproduction in Organisms 1
Chapter 2 Human Reproduction 13
Chapter 3 Reproductive Health 34
UNIT II
Chapter 4 Principles of Inheritance and Variation 47
Chapter 5 Molecular Genetics 63
Chapter 6 Evolution 93
UNIT III
Chapter 7 Human Health and Diseases 111
Chapter 8 Microbes in Human Welfare 142
UNIT IV
Chapter 9 Applications of Biotechnology 155
UNIT V
Chapter 10 Organisms and Population 171
Chapter 11 Biodiversity and its Conservation 193
Chapter 12 Environmental Issues 214
III
New life for woolly mammoth DNA-researchers can now re-create the
genes of mammoth and study the proteins they encoded
IV
Prospects of Biology-Zoology
National and International Biology Olympiad Exam
Who can participate? : Secondary and Higher Secondary students
Five stages of Exam
stage I : National Standard Examination in Biology
stage II : Indian National Biology Olympiad
stage III : Orientation cum Selection Camp in Biology
stage IV : Pre-departure Training Camp for
International Biology Olympiad
(IBO) (for 4 members)
stage V : Participation in IBO.
Weblink: https://www.entrancei.com
Institutes
Institutes affiliated
affiliated to Dr. M.G.R.
to Dr. M.G.R. Medical
Medical University,
University, Chennai.
Chennai.
Occupation Therapy Colleges:
• College of Occupational Therapy, Christian Medical College, Vellore
Physiotherapy Colleges:
• Govt. College of Physiotherapy, Trichy
• Govt. Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine, Chennai
• College of Physiotherapy, Christian Medical College, Vellore
• Tamilnadu Paramedical Institutions College of Physiotherapy, Chennai
Siddha Colleges:
• Govt. Siddha Medical College, Chennai
• Govt. Siddha Medical College, Tirunelveli
• National Institute of Siddha, Chennai
V
Prospects of Biology-Zoology
Pharmacy Colleges:
Homeopathy Colleges:
• Coimbatore Medical College, Coimbatore
• Govt. Homoeopathic Medical College
• College of Pharmacy, Madras Medical
and Hospital, Tirumangalam
College, Chennai
• Tamil Nadu Homoeopathy Medical
• College of Pharmacy, Madurai Medical
College, Salem
College, Madurai
• Thanjavur Medical College, Thanjavur Dental Colleges:
• College of Allied Medical Sciences, • Tamilnadu Govt. Dental College,
Madurai Chennai
• Department of Pharmacy, Annamalai
Ayush Institutions In Tamilnadu
University, Cuddalore
• Ayurveda College, 242-B, Trichy Road,
Nursing Colleges: Sulur, 215 Pathanjalipuri (POST),
• College of Nursing, Madras Medical Coimbatore – 641402
College, Chennai • Venkataramana Ayurveda College, 216
• College of Nursing, Madurai Medical 596,A1&A2,31st St. TNHB Colony,
College, Madurai Periyar Nagar, Korattur, Chennai
Medical Colleges: • Sri Sai Ram Ayurvedic Medical College
• Cancer Institute, College of Oncological & 217 Research Centre, Saileo Nagar,
Sciences, Chennai Poonthandalam Village, Sriperumbudur,
Chennai – 600044
• Chengalpattu Medical College,
Chengalpattu • Dharma Ayurvedic Medical College and
Hosp, 48 218 Grand West Trunk Road,
• Christian Medical College, Vellore
Sriperumbudur, Kanchipuram, 602 105
• Coimbatore Medical College, Coimbatore
• Sri Sankara College of Ayurveda,
• Government Dharamapuri Medical
Sannasipatti, 219 Poolankulathupatti
College, Dharampuri
Post Trichy-620009
• Kanyakumari Govt. Medical College,
Kanyakumari
• Kilpauk Medical College, Chennai
• Madras Medical College and Research List of Tamilnadu Veterinary
Institute, Chennai colleges affiliated to Tamilnadu
• Madurai Medical College, Madurai Veterinary University
• Stanley Medical College, Chennai
• Thanjavur Medical College, Thanjavur • Tamilnadu Veterinary University,
• Theni Government Medical College, Chennai
Theni • Veterinary College and Research
• Thoothukudi Govt. Medical College, Institute, Namakkal
Thoothukudi • Fishery College and Research Institute,
• Tirunelveli Medical College, Tirunelveli Thoothukudi
• Vellore Govt. Medical College, Vellore
VI
Prospects of Biology-Zoology
IFS Service
IFS (Indian Forest (IndianExamination)
Forest Service)Examination
Examination
• Conducting authority - UPSC
• Educational - B.Sc. in any one degree like Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology,
Qualification: Agriculture, Maths, Geology, or B.E or B.V.Sc.
• Age - Minimum 21, Maximum 32 Yrs.
• Weblink - https://upsconline.nic.in
VII
VIII
1
UNIT - I
Reproduction
in Organisms
CHAPTER
L iving organisms show a life cycle in the reproductive process involving two
involving birth, growth, development, types of gametes (ova and sperm), it is called
maturation, reproduction and death. sexual reproduction.
Reproduction is the fundamental feature of
all living organisms. It is a biological process 1.2. Asexual reproduction
by which organisms produce their young Asexual reproduction is wide spread
ones. The young ones grow and mature to among different organisms. It is common in
repeat the process. Thus reproduction results members of Protista, Bacteria, Archaea and
plane of fission, binary fission is of the axis of the organism (Fig 1.3). In flagellates, the
Nucleus
following types Hyaline area flagellum is retained usually by one daughter cell.
Chromosomes
Nuclear
Contractile
membrane
vacuole
Nucleus
Hyaline area
Chromosomes
Contractile
vacuole Daughter amoebae
Fig. 1.1 Irregular simple binary fission in Amoeba
Macronucleus
New oral
groove
forming
A B C D E
Fig. 1.2 Transverse binary fission in Paramecium
Reproduction in Organisms 2
Longitudinal furrow
Daughter
Euglena
Chromosomes
Nucleus
Nucleoli
Nucleus
A B C D E
Rupturing
Schizont Daughter nuclei schizont wall Merozoites
3 Reproduction in Organisms
Pseudopodiospores
Ruptured
Three cyst wall
layered
cyst wall
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Daughter
nuclei
Daughter nuclei Pseudopodiospores Young
cyst formation formation amoebae
A B C D
Tentacles
Tentacles
Mouth
Manubrium
Manubrium
Mouth
Ephyrae Early Ephyra
budding (side view)
Inter radial
canal Per radial
canal
Mouth
Stomach Sense
organ
Stalk Manubrium
Stolon Marginal
lappet Bifid arm
Adhesive
disc
Young Adult Early Ephyra
strobila strobila (oral view)
Fig. 1.6 Strobilation in Aurelia
often do not separate immediately from a nuclear membrane, becomes surrounded by
each other e.g. Aurelia. Plasmotomy is the cytoplasm and develops a spore-case around
division of multinucleated parent into many it (Fig. 1.7). When conditions become
multinucleate daughter individuals with the favourable, the parent body disintegrates and
division of nuclei. Nuclear division occurs the spores are liberated, each hatching into a
later to maintain normal number of nuclei. young amoeba.
Plasmotomy occurs in Opalina and Pelomyxa In budding, the parent body produces one
(Giant Amoeba). or more buds and each bud grows into a young
During unfavourable conditions Amoeba one. The buds separate from the parent to lead
multiplies by sporulation without encystment. a normal life. In sponges, the buds constrict
Nucleus breaks into several small fragments and detach from the parent body and the bud
or chromatin blocks. Each fragment develops develops into a new sponge (Fig. 1.8).
Reproduction in Organisms 4
D Cytoplasm
5 Reproduction in Organisms
regenerated
regenerated
parts
parts
Immature
proglottids old part
Mature
regenerated
proglottids parts regenerated
longitudinal incision parts
old part
old part
old part
Gravid
proglottids
regenerated
parts Regeneration in Hydra
Fig. 1.12regenerated
parts
old part
Reproduction in Organisms 6
7 Reproduction in Organisms
Natural
parthenogenesis are of
different types:
a) Arrhenotoky: In
this type only males are produced by
parthenogenesis. eg: honey bees
b) Thelytoky: In this type of
parthenogenesis only females are
produced by parthenogenesis.eg: Fig. 1.14 Oviparous-Hen with Eggs
Solenobia
c) Amphitoky: In this type
parthenogenetic egg may develop into
individuals of any sex. Eg: Aphis.
Reproduction in Organisms 8
amphibians (eggs are not covered by hard further divided into binary fission, multiple
calcareous shells but covered by a membrane). fission, sporulation and strobilation.
Viviparous (Fig 1.15) (L., Vivus - alive, Parere According to the plane of fission different
- to produce) animals give rise to young ones. kinds of binary fission have been identified
Viviparity is a type of development in which in different organisms. They are simple
the young ones are born alive after being irregular binary fission, transverse binary
nourished in the uterus through the placenta. fission, longitudinal binary fission and
Majority of mammals including human oblique binary fission. Multiple fission is
beings are viviparous. In Ovoviviparous the division of the parent into many small
animals, the embryo develops inside the egg daughter cells simultaneously. Budding is
and remains in the mother’s body until they another mode of asexual reproduction. The
are ready to hatch (Fig 1.16). This method of parent body produces one or more buds; each
reproduction is similar to viviparity but the bud grows into a young one and may separate
embryos have no placental connection with from the parent to lead a normal life. When
the mother and receive their nourishment many buds are formed on the outer surface of
from the egg yolk. Ovoviviparity is seen in the parent, it is known as exogenous budding.
fishes like shark. Hundreds of buds are formed inside the
cytoplasm and remain within the body of
the parent, this process is called endogenous
budding. Fragmentation is another mode
of asexual reproduction. In fragmentation
the body of the parent breaks into fragments
(pieces). Each fragment has the potential to
develop into a new individual. Regeneration
is the development of the whole body of an
organism from a small fragment. It is of two
types namely restorative regeneration and
reparative regeneration.
Various modes of sexual reproduction
The viviparous lemon shark gives birth is seen in animals. In syngamy the fusion of
to a young one, which is still attached by two haploid gametes takes place to produce
its placental cord. a zygote. The following kinds of syngamy
is prevalent among the living organism.
Summary They are autogamy, exogamy, hologamy,
Reproduction is a process by which the paedogamy, merogamy, isogamy, anisogamy
living beings propagate or duplicate their and conjugation. Parthenogenesis is the
own kind. Reproduction can be broadly special type of sexual reproduction seen
classified into asexual reproduction and in animals. It is of two main types namely
sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction natural parthenogenesis and artificial
fusion of gametes are not involved, but in parthenogenesis.
sexual reproduction the formation and According to the development of the
fusion of gametes occur. Different modes of embryo, animals may be oviparous, viviparous
asexual reproduction are fission, budding, and ovoviviparous.
fragmentation and regeneration. Fission is
9 Reproduction in Organisms
Evaluation Reason: Asexual
reproduction
1. In which type of involves only mitosis and no meiosis.
parthenogenesis are A B C D
only males produced? III. Assertion: Viviparous animals give
a) Arrhenotoky better protection to their offsprings.
b) Thelytoky R
eason: They lay their eggs in the
c) Amphitoky d) Both a and b safe places of the environment.
A B C D
2. Animals giving birth to young ones:
a) Oviparous b) Oviviviparous 6. Name an organism where cell division is
c) Viviparous d) Both a and b itself a mode of reproduction.
7. Name the phenomenon where the female
3. The mode of reproduction in bacteria is
gamete directly develops into a new
by
organism with with an avian example.
a) Formation of gametes
b) Endospore formation 8. What is parthenogenesis? Give two
c) Conjugation examples from animals
Reproduction in Organisms 10
Concept Map
Simple irregular fission
Transverse fission
Binary fission
Longitudinal fission
Oblique fission
Strobilation
Exogenous budding
Budding
Asexual Endogenous budding
Fragmentation
Restorative
Regeneration
Reparative
External fertilization
Autogamy
Reproduction Sexual Conjugation
Exogamy
Automixis
Hologamy
Paedogamy
Oviparous Merogamy
Ovoviviparous Isogamy
Anisogamy
Viviparous
Natural
Complete parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis Artificial
Incomplete parthenogenesis
Paedogenesis
11 Reproduction in Organisms
ICT CORNER
Reproduction in Organisms
Procedure :
Step -1 Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page
Step -2 Click “Mitosis” and “Meiosis” on the left panel to go through the animations
plays on clicking “START” AND “NEXT”.
Step -3 Click “Work of a Vaccine” to know the process of it.
Step – 4 Click “Recombinant DNA Technology” and click “START VIRTUAL LAB” to go
through the process of it.
Step 4
Reproduction in Organisms 12
2
UNIT - I
Human
Reproduction
CHAPTER
13
Human Reproduction 14
CRYPTORCHISM The failure of one or both testes to descend down into the scrotal sacs is
known as cryptorchism (crypto – hidden + orchis – testicle). It occurs in 1 – 3 percent of new
born males. A surgical correction at a young age can rectify the defect, else these individuals
may become sterile and are unable to produce viable sperms.
androgens namely the testosterone hormone bulbourethral glands also called Cowper’s
which initiates the process of spermatogenesis. gland and a single prostate gland. The seminal
These cells are endocrine in nature and vesicles secrete an alkaline fluid called seminal
are characteristic features of the testes of plasma containing fructose sugar, ascorbic acid,
mammals. Other immunologically competent prostaglandins and a coagulating enzyme called
cells are also present.
The accessory ducts associated Ureter
15 Human Reproduction
vesiculase which enhances sperm motility. The region (Fig. 2.3 a). These parts along with the
bulbourethral glands are inferior to the prostate mammary glands are integrated structurally and
and their secretions also help in the lubrication of functionally to support the process of ovulation,
the penis. The prostate encircles the urethra and fertilisation, pregnancy, child birth and child
is just below the urinary bladder and secretes a care.
slightly acidic fluid that contains citrate, several Ovaries are the primary female sex organs
enzymes and prostate specific antigens. Semen that produce the female gamete, ovum. The
or seminal fluid is a milky white fluid which ovaries are located one on each side of the lower
contains sperms and the seminal plasma (secreted abdomen. The ovary is an elliptical structure
from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and the about 2-4 cm long. Each ovary is covered by a
bulbourethal glands). The seminal fluid acts as a thin cuboidal epithelium called the germinal
transport medium, provides nutrients, contains epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma.
chemicals that protect and activate the sperms The stroma is differentiated as the outer cortex and
and also facilitate their movement. inner medulla. Below the germinal epithelium is
The penis is the male external genitalia a dense connective tissue, the tunica albuginea.
functioning as a copulatory organ. It is made The cortex appears dense and granular due
of a special tissue that helps in the erection of to the presence of ovarian follicles in various
penis to facilitate insemination. The enlarged stages of development. The medulla is a
end of the penis called glans penis is covered loose connective tissue with abundant blood
by a loose fold of skin called foreskin or vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerve fibres.
prepuce. The ovary remains attached to the pelvic
wall and the uterus by an ovarian ligament
The female reproductive system is far more
called mesovarium.
complex than the male because in addition
to gamete formation, it has to nurture the The fallopian tubes (uterine tubes or
developing foetus. The female reproductive oviducts), uterus and vagina constitute the
system consists of a pair of ovaries along with female accessory organs. (Fig. 2.3 b) Each
a pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and fallopian tube extends from the periphery
the external genitalia located in the pelvic of each ovary to the uterus. The proximal
part of the fallopian tube bears a
funnel shaped infundibulum. The
8WHULQH
WXEH edges of the infundibulum have
2YDU\ many finger like projections called
)LPEULDH
fimbriae which help in collection
8WHUXV &HUYL[
of the ovum after ovulation. The
8ULQDU\ 5HFWXP infundibulum leads to a wider
EODGGHU
8UHWKUD 9DJLQD
&OLWRULV Female
/DELXP $QXV
PLQRUD uterus
/DELXP contains
PDMRUD one of the
Fig. 2.3 (a) Female pelvis showing reproductive system strongest muscles of the
human body.
Human Reproduction 16
8WHUXV
The Bartholin’s glands
,VWKPXV (also called greater
$PSXOOD )DOORSLDQ vestibular glands) are
WXEH
,QIXQGLEXOXP located posterior to
the left and right of the
)LPEULDH
(QGRPHWULXP 2YDU\
opening of the vagina.
0\RPHWULXP
&HUYL[ They secrete mucus to
3HULPHWULXP
&HUYLFDOFDQDO lubricate the vagina and
9DJLQD are homologous to the
bulbourethral glands of
Fig. 2.3 (b) Diagrammatic view of female reproductive system the male. The Skene’s
glands are located on
central portion called ampulla. The last part the anterior wall of the vagina and around
of the oviduct is the isthmus which is short the lower end of the urethra. They secrete a
and thick walled connecting the ampulla and lubricating fluid and are homologous to the
infundibulum to the uterus. prostate gland of the males.
The uterus or womb is a hollow, thick-walled, The external opening of the vagina is
muscular, highly vascular and inverted pear partially closed by a thin ring of tissue called
shaped structure lying in the pelvic cavity the hymen. The hymen is often torn during
between the urinary bladder and rectum. The the first coitus (physical union). However
major portion of the uterus is the body and the in some women it remains intact. It can be
rounded region superior to it, is the fundus. The stretched or torn due to a sudden fall or jolt
uterus opens into the vagina through a narrow and also during strenuous physical activities
cervix. The cavity of the cervix called the such as cycling, horseback riding, etc., and
cervical canal communicates with the vagina therefore cannot be considered as an indicator
through the external orifice and with the uterus of a woman’s virginity.
through the internal orifice. The cervical canal The mammary glands are modified sweat
along with vagina forms the birth canal. glands present in both sexes. It is rudimentary
The wall of the uterus has three layers of in the males and functional in the females. A
tissues. The outermost thin membranous pair of mammary glands is located in the
serous layer called the perimetrium, thoracic region. It contains glandular tissue
the middle thick muscular layer called and variable quantities of fat with a median
myometrium and the inner glandular layer nipple surrounded by a pigmented area called
called endometrium. The endometrium the areola. Several sebaceous glands called the
undergoes cyclic changes during the areolar glands are found on the surface and
menstrual cycle while myometrium exhibits they reduce cracking of the skin of the nipple.
strong contractions during parturition. Internally each mammary gland consists of
Vagina is a large fibromuscular tube that 2-25 lobes, separated by fat and connective
extends from the cervix to the exterior. It is tissues. (Fig. 2.4) Each lobe is made up of
the female organ of copulation. The female lobules which contain acini or alveoli lined
reproductive structures that lie external to by epithelial cells. Cells of the alveoli secrete
the vagina are called as the external genitalia milk. The alveoli open into mammary
or vulva comprising of labia majora, labia tubules. The tubules of each lobe join to form
minora, hymen and clitoris. a mammary duct. Several mammary ducts
17 Human Reproduction
2.2 Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is the process of formation
of gametes i.e., sperms and ovary from the
6XVSHQVRU\
OLJDPHQW primary sex organs in all sexually reproducing
$GLSRVHWLVVXH organisms. Meiosis plays the most significant
/REH
role in the process of gametogenesis (Fig.2.5).
$UHROD
1LSSOH
Spermatogenesis
/DFWLIHURXVGXFW
0DPPDU\DPSXOOD
Spermatogenesis is the sequence of
0DPPDU\GXFW events in the seminiferous tubules of the
/REXOHFRQWDLQLQJ testes that produce the male gametes, the
DOYHROL
0DPPDU\WXEXOHV sperms. During development, the primordial
germ cells migrate into the testes and become
immature germ cells called sperm mother
Fig. 2.4 Mammary gland cells or spermatogonia in the inner surfaces
of the seminiferous tubules (Fig. 2.6 a). The
join to form a wider mammary ampulla spermatogonia begin to undergo mitotic
which is connected to the lactiferous duct in division at puberty and continue throughout
the nipple. Under the nipple, each lactiferous life.
duct expands to form the lactiferous sinus In the first stage of spermatogenesis, the
which serves as a reservoir of milk. Each spermatogonia migrate among sertoli cells
lactiferous duct opens separately by a minute towards the central lumen of the seminiferous
pore on the surface of the nipple. tubule and become modified and enlarged
Normal development of the breast to form primary spermatocytes which are
begins at puberty and progresses with diploid with 23 pairs i.e., 46 chromosomes.
changes during each
menstrual cycle. 6SHUPDWRJHQHVLV 2RJHQHVLV
In non-pregnant
0XOWLSOLFDWLRQ
OLIH
structure is largely 0LWRWLFGLYLVLRQ 0LWRWLFGLYLVLRQ
underdeveloped and 3ULPDU\ Q 3ULPDU\RRF\WH
the breast size is VSHUPDWRF\WH Q
*URZWK
0HLRVLV,FRPSOHWHG
of fat deposits. The 6HFRQGDU\ )LUVW
Q
SULRUWRRYXODWLRQ
VSHUPDWRF\WH Q Q SRODU
size of the breast does ERG\
Q 6HFRQGDU\RRF\WH
not have an influence 0HLRVLV,,
$GXOW
XOW
on the efficiency of 6SHUPDWLG Q Q Q Q UHSURGXFWLYH
OLIH
lactation. 6SHUPLRJHQHVLV &RPSOHWLRQ
0DWXUDWLRQ
6HFRQG RIPHLRVLV,,
SRODU
3KDVH
6SHUPDWR]RD Q Q Q Q Q
ERG\
Q 2YXP
Spermatid
Spermatogonia
Sertoli cells
Interstitial cell
19 Human Reproduction
Human Reproduction 20
&RURQDUDGLDWD
=RQD3HOOXFLGD
9LWHOOLQH
PHPEUDQH
&RUSXV 1XFOHXV
DOELFDQV *HUPLQDOYHVLFOH
2RSODVP
&RUSXV
OXWHXP
0DWXUH 6HFRQGDU\
JUDDILDQ RFF\WH
IROOLFOH Fig. 2.8 (b) Diagrammatic view of the
human ovum
Fig. 2.8 (a) Sectional view of the ovary
21 Human Reproduction
Lutenizing hormone(LH)
Progesterone
Oestrogen
(c) Events in the endometrium of the uterus Highly proliferated and vascularized endometrium
(menstruation)
endometrium
Days 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 17 19 21 23 25 27 28
Human Reproduction 22
23 Human Reproduction
7KHQXFOHXVDQGRWKHU &RUWLFDOJUDQXOHVIRUPDEDUULHU
FRPSRQHQWVRIWKHVSHUP FDOOHGIHUWLOL]DWLRQPHPEUDQH
HQWHUWKHHJJ ZKLFKQRZIXQFWLRQVDVDEORFN
WRSRO\VSHUP\
%UHDNGRZQRIWKH]RQD
SHOOXFLGDE\WKHVHHQ]\PHV
DOORZVWKHVSHUPWRUHDFK
WKHSODVPDPHPEUDQHRIWKH
HJJ
7KLVELQGLQJLQGXFHVWKH )ROOLFOHFHOOV
DFURVRPHUHDFWLRQLQZKLFKWKH &RUWLFDO
VSHUPUHOHDVHVK\DOXURQLGDVH 6SHUP JUDQXOH
LQWRWKH]RQDSHOOXFLGD QXFOHXV
=RQDSHOOXFLGD
7KHVSHUPPLJUDWHVWKURXJK
WKHFRDWRIIROOLFOHFHOOVDQGELQGV (JJSODVPD
WRUHFHSWRUPROHFXOHVLQWKH]RQD
PHPEUDQH
SHOOXFLGDRIWKHHJJ
$FURVRPH (JJ
F\WRSODVP
Human Reproduction 24
between the epiblast and the endoderm form surrounded by sinuses that contain maternal
the mesoderm. Thus the transformation of the blood. The chorionic villi and the uterine
blastocyst into a gastrula with the primary germ tissues form the disc-shaped placenta. Placenta
layers by the movement of the blastomeres is is a temporary endocrine organ formed during
called gastrulation. Each germ layer gives rise pregnancy and it connects the foetus to the
to specific tissues, organs and organ systems uterine wall through the umbilical cord. It is
during organogenesis. the organ by which the nutritive, respiratory
The extra embryonic membranes namely and excretory functions are fulfilled. The
the amnion, yolk sac, allantois and chorion embryo’s heart develops during the fourth week
protect the embryo from dessication, mechanical of pregnancy and circulates blood through the
shock and help in the absorption of nutrients umbilical cord and placenta as well as through
and exchange of gases (Fig. 2.12). The amnion its own tissues.
is a double layered translucent membrane filled The primary germ layers serve as the
with the amniotic fluid. It provides a buoyant primitive tissues from which all body organs
environment to protect the developing embryo develop. The ectoderm gives rise to the central
from injury, regulates the temperature of the nervous system (brain and spinal cord),
foetus and provides a medium in which the peripheral nervous system, epidermis and
foetus can move. The yolk sac forms a part of its derivatives and mammary glands. The
the gut and is the source of the earliest blood connective tissue, cartilage and bone, muscles,
cells and blood vessels. organs of urinogenital system (kidney, ureter
3ODFHQWDO and gonads) arise from the mesoderm. The
YLOOL 3ODFHQWD
endodermal derivatives are epithelium of
gastrointestinal and respiratory tract, liver,
$OODQWRLV
8PELOLFDO pancreas, thyroid and parathyroids.
FRUG
)DOORSLDQ
WXEH Human pregnancy lasts for about 280
)RHWXV 8WHUXV days or 40 weeks and is called the gestation
&KRULRQ
$PQLRWLF period. It can be divided for convenience into
IOXLG $PQLRQ
three trimesters of three months each. The first
trimester is the main period of organogenesis,
the body organs namely the heart, limbs,
lungs, liver and external genital organs are well
Fig. 2.12 Human foetus within the uterus
developed. By the end of the second trimester,
The allantois forms a small out pocketing the face is well formed with features, eyelids and
of embryonic tissue at the caudal end of the yolk eyelashes, eyes blink, body is covered with fine
sac. It is the structural base for the umbilical hair, muscle tissue develops and bones become
cord that links the embryo to the placenta and harder. The foetus is fully developed and is
ultimately it becomes part of the urinary bladder. ready for delivery by the end of nine months
The chorion is the outermost membrane which (third trimester).
encloses the embryo and all other membranes During pregnancy, the placenta acts as
and also helps in the formation of the placenta. a temporary endocrine gland and produces
The trophoblast cells in the blastocyst large quantities of human Chorionic
send out several finger like projections called Gonadotropin (hCG), human Chorionic
chorionic villi carrying foetal blood and are Somatomammotropin (hCS) or human
Placental Lactogen (hPL), oestrogens and
25 Human Reproduction
progesterone which are essential for a normal Relaxin is a hormone secreted by the
pregnancy. A hormone called relaxin is also placenta and also found in the corpus luteum.
secreted during the later phase of pregnancy It promotes parturition by relaxing the pelvic
which helps in relaxation of the pelvic ligaments joints and by dilatation of the cervix with
at the time of parturition. It should be noted that continued powerful contractions. The amnion
hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced only during ruptures and the amniotic fluid flows out
pregnancy. In addition, during pregnancy the through the vagina, followed by the foetus. The
level of other hormones like oestrogen and placenta along with the remains of the umbilical
progesterone, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., cord called “after birth” is expelled out after
is increased several folds in the maternal blood. delivery.
These hormones are essential for supporting Lactation is the production of milk by
foetal growth. mammary glands. The mammary glands show
changes during every menstrual cycle, during
A female uterus is pregnancy and lactation. Increased level of
normally about 3 inches oestrogens, progesterone and human Placental
Lactogen (hPL) towards the end of pregnancy
long and 2 inches wide
stimulate the hypothalamus towards prolactin
but can expand 20 times
– releasing factors. The anterior pituitary
during pregnancy.
responds by secreting prolactin which plays a
major role in lactogenesis.
2.6 Parturition and lactation Oxytocin causes the “Let-Down” reflex-
Parturition is the completion of pregnancy the actual ejection of milk from the alveoli
and giving birth to the baby. The series of of the mammary glands. During lactation,
events that expels the infant from the uterus oxytocin also stimulates the recently emptied
is collectively called “labour”. Throughout uterus to contract, helping it to return to pre -
pregnancy the uterus undergoes periodic pregnancy size.
episodes of weak and strong contractions.
Colostrum
These contractions called Braxter-Hick’s
contractions lead to false labour. As the Colostrum, a nutrient rich
pregnancy progresses, increase in the oestrogen fluid produced by the human female
concentration promotes uterine contractions. immediately after giving birth, is loaded
These uterine contractions facilitate moulding with immune, growth and tissue repair
of the foetus and downward movement of factors. It acts as a natural antimicrobial
the foetus. The descent of the foetus causes agent to actively stimulate the maturation
dilation of cervix of the uterus and vaginal of the infant’s immune system. No artificial
canal resulting in a neurohumoral reflex called feed can substitute the first milk, with all
Foetal ejection reflex or Ferguson reflex. This its natural benefits and therefore should be
initiates the secretion of oxytocin from the definitely fed to the baby after birth.
neurohypophysis which in turn brings about
the powerful contraction of the uterine muscles The mammary glands secrete a yellowish
and leads to the expulsion of the baby through fluid called colostrum during the initial
the birth canal. This sequence of events is called few days after parturition. It has less lactose
as parturition or childbirth. than milk and almost no fat, but it contains
more proteins, vitamin A and minerals.
Human Reproduction 26
STAGES OF
FOETAL DEVELOPMENT
20 Weeks
Length of foetus increases
Hair on the head and
eyebrows. Skin becomes
covered with
16 Weeks sebaceous gland 24 Weeks
Lower limbs reach final Lungs are well developed
development. Rapid eye movements
Movements are seen begin. Foetus starts
gaining weight
12 Weeks 28 Weeks
Eyes and ears are well Immune system starts
defined. Ossification of developing. Central
long bones are seen nervous system
Urine formation begins developed. Retina is
well developed
8 Weeks 32 Weeks
Limbs and digits fully formed. Body weight increases
Movements start taking rapidly. Skin is smooth
place. Neck appears between due to deposition of
head and thorax. External genitalia subcutaneous fat
show sex differences
4 Weeks 36 Weeks
Formation of foregut, midgut and Blood vessels are
hindgut. Heart starts functioning. completely developed.
Forebrain is most prominent. Baby is positioned into
Upper limbs appears as the pelvis in head
paddle-shaped buds down position
40 Weeks
Baby is fully formed.
Ready to be born
any day
27 Human Reproduction
CAESAREAN When normal vaginal delivery is not possible due to factors like position of
the baby and nature of the placenta, the baby is delivered through a surgical incision in the
woman’s abdomen and uterus. It is also termed as abdominal delivery or Caesarean Section or
‘C’ Section.
Colostrum is also rich in IgA antibodies. This cervix, vagina and external genitalia. The male
helps to protect the infant’s digestive tract reproductive system consists of a pair of testes,
against bacterial infection. Breast milk is the a pair of duct system, accessory glands and
ideal food for infants as it contains all the external genitalia called penis.
constituents in suitable concentration and is The process of formation of gametes in
easily digestible. It is fully sufficient till about the male is called spermatogenesis and in the
6 months of age and all infants must be breast female is called oogenesis. The reproductive
fed by the mother to ensure the growth of a cycle in females is called menstrual cycle and
healthy baby. it is initiated at puberty. The ovum released
during the menstrual cycle is fertilized by the
Summary sperm and the zygote is formed.
Reproduction is a process which helps in
Zygote undergoes repeated mitotic division
the continuity and maintenance of a species.
and the blastocyst is implanted on the walls of
Human beings are sexually reproducing and
the uterus. It takes about 280 days or 40 weeks
viviparous. The reproductive events include
for the entire development of the human foetus
gametogenesis, insemination, Fertilisation,
and it is delivered out through the process of
cleavage, implantation, placentation,
child birth or parturition. The new born baby is
gastrulation, organogenesis and parturition.
breast fed by the mother.
The female reproductive system consists
of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, uterus,
Human Reproduction 28
INTERESTING FACTS
1. Males are said to be sterile when they fail to produce viable sperms.
2. Azospermia refers to the failure of spermatogenesis.
3. Enlargement of prostate gland is called prostatitis and can lead to difficulty in urination.
4. Castration or surgical removal of testis is known as orchidectomy
5. Spermarche is the first ejaculation of the semen.
Arunachalam Muruganantham
Inventor And Social Entrepreneur
Arunachalam Muruganantham is the man behind the world’s first low cost sanitary napkin
making machine. His mission was to provide sanitary napkins at minimal cost to poor
women across the country, especially in rural areas. The journey began when he was shocked
by the fact that women in India including his wife often used things such as old rags, leaves
and even ash during menstruation. Approximately 70 percent of all reproductive diseases
in India are caused by poor menstrual hygiene. 23 percent of girls drop out of schools once
they attain puberty. He wished to make a social impact by creating more livelihoods and
improving the menstrual hygiene of rural women.
Arunachalam initiated his research in 1999 and almost after 5 years, successfully created
a low cost machine for the production of sanitary napkins. He presented his prototype
to IIT, Madras for a national innovation competition in 2006 and out of 943 entries, his
machine stood first. Arunachalam made 250 machines in 18 months and set out to states in
Northern India namely Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Arunachalam Muruganantham was named one of the Time Magazine’s 100 most
influential people in 2014. He was awarded the Padma Shri in 2016.
29 Human Reproduction
Human Reproduction 30
31 Human Reproduction
32
0DOHUHSURGXFWLYHV\VWHP )HPDOHUHSURGXFWLYHV\VWHP
*DPHWRJHQHVLV
6SHUPDWRJHQHVLV 2RJHQHVLV
=\JRWH
2YXODWRU\
%XOERXUHWKUDO 8WHUXV
9DVGHIHUHQV SKDVH
JODQG ,PSODQWDWLRQ
/XWHDO
)RHWDO 9DJLQD
SKDVH
3HQLV GHYHORSPHQW
3DUWXULWLRQ
/DFWDWLRQ
25-02-2019 19:09:15
www.asiriyar.net
www.asiriyar.net
ICT CORNER
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Procedure:
Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR Code to launch the “Stages of Development before
Birth” activity page.
Step 2: On the right of the window, Click “Video” and view the development of embryo
during that particular stage.
Step 3: Click “Show Features” to know the parts. Click “Heartbeat-Symbol” to hear the
heartbeat of the embryo at that particular stage. Click “Weighing Machine” placed
below to know the weight of the offspring at that stage.
Step 4: Repeat the above steps with the different weeks by clicking the respective week tabs
placed below.
Step 4
33 Human Reproduction
3
UNIT - I
Reproductive
Health
CHAPTER
Safe motherhood begins before conception
with healthy lifestyle and proper nutrition.
Chapter outline
3.1. Need for reproductive health Problems
and strategies
3.2. Amniocentesis and its statutory ban
3.3. Social impact of sex ratio,
R eproductive health represents a society with
people having physically and functionally
normal reproductive organs. Healthy people
female foeticide and infanticide have healthier babies and are able to care for
3.4. Population explosion and birth control their family, and contribute more to the society
3.5. Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) and community. Hence, health is a community
3.6. Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) issue. Reproductive system is a complex system
3.7. Infertility controlled by the neuro-endocrine system,
3.8. Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) hence, it is important to take necessary steps to
3..9. Detection of foetal disorders during early protect it from infectious diseases and injury.
pregnancy
3.1. Need for reproductive health-
Learning objectives Problems and strategies
India is amongst the first few countries
➢ Understands the importance of sex in the world to initiate the ‘Family planning
education and reproductive health. programme’ since 1951 and is periodically
➢ Learns the importance of amniocentesis as assessed every decade. These programmes are
a pre-natal diagnosis. popularly named as ‘Reproductive and Child
➢ Evaluates the effects of Health Care (RCH). Major tasks carried out
maternal and infant under these programmes are:
mortality. • Creating awareness and providing medical
➢ Identifies, compares and assistance to build a healthy society.
explains different types of • Introducing sex education in schools to
contraceptive devices. provide information about adolescence and
➢ Discusses the medical necessity and social adolescence related changes.
consequences of MTP.
• Educating couples and those in the
➢ Explains the reasons of transmission and
marriageable age groups about the
prevention of STDs.
available birth control methods and
➢ Highlights the reasons of infertility.
family planning norms.
➢ Develops a positive and healthy attitude
towards reproductive life.
34
35 Reproductive Health
male whereas in female it is used to cover such as Cu T-380 A, Nova T, Cu 7, Cu T 380
vagina and cervix just before coitus so as to Ag, Multiload 375, etc. release free copper
prevent the entry of ejaculated semen into and copper salts into the uterus and suppress
the female reproductive tract. This can sperm motility. They can remain in the uterus
prevent conception. Condoms should be for five to ten years.
discarded after a single use. Condom also
Hormone-releasing IUDs such as
safeguards the user from AIDS and STDs.
Progestasert and LNG – 20 are often called
Condoms are made of polyurethane, latex
as intrauterine systems (IUS). They increase
and lambskin.
the viscosity of the cervical mucus and thereby
Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults prevent sperms from entering the cervix.
are made of rubber and are inserted into
the female reproductive tract to cover the Non-medicated IUDs are made of plastic
cervix before coitus in order to prevent or stainless steel. Lippes loop is a double
the sperms from entering the uterus. S-shaped plastic device.
c. Hormonal barrier
3. Permanent birth control methods are
It prevents the ovaries from releasing the adopted by the individuals who do not want
ova and thickens the cervical fluid which to have any more children.
keeps the sperm away from ovum.
Surgical sterilisation methods are the
Oral contraceptives — Pills are used permanent contraception methods advised for
to prevent ovulation by inhibiting the male and female partners to prevent any more
secretion of FSH and LH hormones. A pregnancies. It blocks the transport of the
combined pill is the most commonly gametes and prevents conception. Tubectomy
used birth control pill. It contains is the surgical sterilisation in women. In this
synthetic progesterone and estrogen procedure, a small portion of both fallopian
hormones. Saheli, contraceptive pill tubes are cut and tied up through a small
by Central Drug Research Institute incision in the abdomen or through vagina.
(CDRI) in Lucknow, India contains This prevents fertilization as well as the entry
a non-steroidal preparation called of the egg into the uterus. Vasectomy is the
centchroman. surgical procedure for male sterilisation. In
d. Intrauterine Devices (IUDs) this procedure, both vas deferens are cut and
Intrauterine devices are inserted by tied through a small incision on the scrotum
medical experts in the uterus through to prevent the entry of sperm into the urethra.
the vagina. These devices are available as Vasectomy prevents sperm from heading off
copper releasing IUDs, hormone releasing to penis as the discharge has no sperms in it.
IUDs and non-medicated IUDs. IUDs
increase phagocytosis of sperm within the 3.5. Medical termination of
uterus. IUDs are the ideal contraceptives pregnancy (MTP)
for females who want to delay pregnancy. Medical method of abortion is a
It is one of the popular methods of voluntary or intentional termination of
contraception in India and has a success pregnancy in a non-surgical or non-invasive
rate of 95 to 99%. way. Early medical termination is extremely
Copper releasing IUDs differ from each safe upto 12 weeks (the first trimester) of
other by the amount of copper. Copper IUDs
37 Reproductive Health
Reproductive Health 38
39 Reproductive Health
• Tight clothing in men may raise the laboratory. One or more fertilized eggs may be
temperature in the scrotum and affect transferred into the woman’s uterus, where they
sperm production. may implant in the uterine lining and develop.
• Under developed ovaries or testes. Excess embryos may be cryopreserved (frozen)
• Female may develop antibodies against for future use. Initially, IVF was used to treat
her partner's sperm. women with blocked, damaged, or absent
fallopian tubes. Today, IVF is used to treat
• Males may develop an autoimmune
many causes of infertility. The basic steps in an
response to their own sperm.
IVF treatment cycle are ovarian stimulation,
egg retrieval, fertilization, embryo culture, and
All women are born with ovaries, but some embryo transfer.
do not have functional uterus. This condition
is called Mayer-Rokitansky syndrome. Egg retrieval is done by minor surgery
under general anesthesia, using ultrasound
guide after 34 to 37 hours of hCG (human
3.8. Assisted reproductive chorionic gonadotropin) injection. The eggs are
technology (ART) prepared and stripped from the surrounding
A collection of procedures, cells. At the same time, sperm preparation is
which includes the handling of done using a special media. After preparing
gametes and/or embryos outside the sperms, the eggs are brought together.
the body to achieve a pregnancy, is 10,000-1,00,000 motile sperms are needed for
known as Assisted Reproductive each egg. Then the zygote is allowed to divide to
Technology. It increases the form 8 celled blastomere and then transferred
chance of pregnancy in infertile couples. ART into the uterus for a successful pregnancy.
includes intra-uterine insemination (IUI), in The transfer of an embryo with more than
vitro fertilization, (IVF) Embryo transfer (ET), 8 blastomeres stage into uterus is called
Zygote intra-fallopian transfer (ZIFT), Gamete Embryo transfer technique.
intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), Intra-cytoplasmic
sperm injection (ICSI), Preimplantation Cryopreservation (or
genetic diagnosis, oocyte and sperm donation freezing) of embryos is
and surrogacy. often used when there
are more embryos than
Intra-uterine insemination (IUI) needed for a single IVF
This is a procedure to treat infertile men
transfer. Embryo cryopreservation can
with low sperm count. The semen is collected
provide an additional opportunity for
either from the husband or from a healthy
pregnancy, through a Frozen embryo
donor and is introduced into the uterus through
transfer (FET), without undergoing
the vagina by a catheter after stimulating the
another ovarian stimulation and retrieval.
ovaries to produce more ova. The sperms swim
towards the fallopian tubes to fertilize the egg,
resulting in normal pregnancy.
Zygote intra-fallopian transfer (ZIFT)
As in IVF, the zygote upto 8 blastomere
In vitro fertilization (IVF) or stage is transferred to the fallopian tube by
Test tube baby laparoscopy. The zygote continues its natural
In this technique, sperm and eggs divisions and migrates towards the uterus
are allowed to unite outside the body in a where it gets implanted.
41 Reproductive Health
Reproductive Health 42
43 Reproductive Health
Reproductive Health 44
(b) B oth statements 1 and 2 are correct 11. Correct the following statements
but statement 2 is not the correct a) Transfer of an ovum collected from
explanation of statement 1. donor into the fallopian tube is called
(c) Statement 1 is correct but statement ZIFT.
2 is incorrect.
b) Transfering of an embryo with more
(d) Both statements 1 and 2 are incorrect. than 8 blastomeres into uterus is
7. Match column I with column II and select the called GIFT.
correct option from the codes given below.
c) Multiload 375 is a hormone releasing
Column I Column II IUD.
A. Copper releasing IUD (i) LNG-20
12. Which method do you suggest the couple
B. Hormone releasing (ii) Lippes loop IUD to have a baby, if the male partner fails to
C. Non medicated IUD (iii) Saheli inseminate the female or due to very low
D. Mini pills (iv) Multiload-375 sperm count in the ejaculate?
(a) A-(iv), B-(ii), C-(i), D-(iii) 13. Expand the following
(b) A-(iv), B-(i), C-(iii), D-(ii) a) ZIFT b) ICSI
(c) A-(i), B-(iv), C-(ii), D-(iii) 14. What are the strategies to be
(d) A-(iv), B-(i), C-(ii), D-(iii) implemented in India to attain total
reproductive health?
8. Select the incorrect action of hormonal
contraceptive pills from the following 15. Differentiate foeticide and infanticide.
(a) Inhibition of spermatogenesis. 16. Describe the major STDs and their
symptoms.
(b) Inhibition of ovulation.
17. How are STDs transmitted?
(c) Changes in cervical mucus impairing
its ability to allow passage and 18. Write the preventive measures of STDs.
transport of sperms. 19. The procedure of GIFT involves the
(d) Alteration in uterine endometrium to transfer of female gametes into the
make it unsuitable for implantation. fallopain tube, can gametes be transferred
to the uterus to achieve the same result?
9. What is amniocentesis? Why a statutory Explain.
ban is imposed on this technique?
20. Amnicentesis, the foetal sex determination
10. Select the correct term from the bracket test, is banned in our country, Is it
and complete the given branching tree necessary? comment.
Periodic abstinence
Natural methods B
Coitus interruptus 21. Open Book Assessment
A Condoms, vaults,
Caps etc ‘Healthy reproduction, legally checked
Birth control
methods
Oral contraceptives Pills birth control measures and proper family
Vasectomy planning programmes are essential for
Surgical methods
C
the survival of mankind’ Justify.
IUDs D
45 Reproductive Health
46
7HPSRUDU\ 3HUPDQHQW
PHWKRG 0HWKRG
9DJLQDO
&KHPLFDO 0HFKDQLFDO 2UDO +RUPRQDO 5LQJ
3HULRGLF EDUULHU EDUULHU FRQWUDFHSWLYHV EDUULHU
DEVWLQHQFH 7XEHFWRP\
UK\WKP 1RQ
PHWKRG 6XEFXWDQHRXV PHGLFDWHG
&RQGRP
)RDPLQJWDEOHWV ,PSODQWV ,8'V
PHOWLQJVXSSRVLWRULHV 0LQLSLOOV
&RQWLQXRXV MHOOLHVDQGFUHDPV 6DKHOLFHQWFKURPDQ
9DVHFWRP\
DEVWLQHQFH 3URJHVWDVHUW +RUPRQDOUHOHDVLQJ
'LDSKUDJP /1* ,8'V
&RLWXV
LQWHUUXSWXV &X7$
1RYD7&X &RSSHU
&X7$J UHOHDVLQJ,8'V
/DFWDWLRQDO 0XOWLORDG
$PHQRUUKRHD
25-02-2019 19:12:23
www.asiriyar.net
www.asiriyar.net
4
UNIT - II
Principles of
Inheritance and
Variation
CHAPTER
Table 4.1 Genetic basis of the human ABO 4.3 Genetic control of Rh factor
blood groups
Antigens Antibodies
Fisher and Race hypothesis:
ABO blood Rh factor involves three different pairs of
present on present
Genotype group
red blood in blood alleles located on three different closely linked
phenotype
cell plasma loci on the chromosome pair. This system is
more commonly in use today, and uses the 'Cde'
IAIA Type A A Anti -B nomenclature.
Neither E or e E or e
IAIB Type AB A and B Anti
-A nor
Anti-B Fig. 4.1 Fischer and Race hypothesis – Rh
Blood Type - Homologous Chromosome pair
Anti -A (showing 3 loci and 2 alleles per locus)
Neither
IoIo Type O and anti In the above Fig. 4.1, three pairs of Rh
A nor B
-B alleles (Cc, Dd and Ee) occur at 3 different
loci on homologous chromosome pair-1. The
Rhesus or Rh – Factor possible genotypes will be one C or c, one D or
The Rh factor or Rh antigen is found on d, one E or e from each chromosome. For e.g.
the surface of erythrocytes. It was discovered CDE/cde; CdE/cDe; cde/cde; CDe/CdE etc.,
in 1940 by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander All genotypes carrying a dominant ‘D’ allele
Wiener in the blood of rhesus monkey, will produce Rh+positive phenotype and double
Macaca rhesus and later in human beings. recessive genotype ‘dd’ will give rise to Rh-
The term ‘Rh factor’ refers to “immunogenic negative phenotype.
D antigen of the Rh blood group system. An
individual having D antigen are Rh D positive
Wiener Hypothesis
Wiener proposed the existence of eight
(Rh+) and those without D antigen are Rh D
alleles (R1, R2, R0, Rz, r, r1, r11, r y) at a single Rh
negative (Rh-)”. Rhesus factor in the blood
locus. All genotypes carrying a dominant ‘R
is inherited as a dominant trait. Naturally
allele’ (R1, R2 ,R0 ,Rz) will produce Rh+positive
occurring Anti D antibodies are absent in the
phenotype and double recessive genotypes
plasma of any normal individual. However if
(rr, rr1, rr11, rr y) will give rise to Rh-negative
an Rh- (Rh negative) person is exposed to Rh+
phenotype.
(Rh positive) blood cells (erythrocytes) for
the first time, anti D antibodies are formed
4.3.1 Incompatibility of Rh – Factor –
in the blood of that individual. On the other
Erythroblastosis foetalis
hand, when an Rh positive person receives Rh
Rh incompatability has great significance
negative blood no effect is seen.
in child birth. If a woman is Rh negative and
the man is Rh positive, the foetus may be chromosomes determine the sex of the
Rh positive having inherited the factor from individual in dioecious or unisexual
its father. The Rh negative mother becomes organisms. The chromosomes other than the
sensitized by carrying Rh positive foetus within sex chromosomes of an individual are called
her body. Due to damage of blood vessels, autosomes. Sex chromosomes may be similar
during child birth, the mother’s immune (homomorphic) in one sex and dissimilar
system recognizes the Rh antigens and gets (heteromorphic) in the other. Individuals
sensitized. The sensitized mother produces Rh having homomorphic sex chromosomes
antibodies. The antibodies are IgG type which produce only one type of gametes
are small and can cross placenta and enter the (homogametic) whereas heteromorphic
foetal circulation. By the time the mother gets individuals produce two types of gametes
sensitized and produce anti ‘D’ antibodies, the (heterogametic).
child is delivered.
Usually no effects are associated with
Y CHROMOSOME
exposure of the mother to Rh positive antigen
The human Y chromosome
during the first child birth, subsequent Rh
is only 60 Mb in size with
positive children carried by the same mother,
60 functional genes whereas
may be exposed to antibodies produced by
X chromosomes are 165 Mb in size with
the mother against Rh antigen, which are
about 1,000 genes.
carried across the placenta into the foetal
blood circulation. This causes haemolysis of
foetal RBCs resulting in haemolytic jaundice Chromosomal basis of
and anaemia. This condition is known as sex determination
Erythoblastosis foetalis or Haemolytic
disease of the new born (HDN).
Heterogametic Sex
Determination:
Prevention of Eryhroblastosis foetalis In heterogametic sex
If the mother is Rh negative and foetus determination one of the sexes produces
is Rh positive, anti D antibodies should be similar gametes and the other sex produces
administered to the mother at 28th and 34th dissimilar gametes. The sex of the offspring is
week of gestation as a prophylactic measure. determined at the time of fertilization.
If the Rh negative mother delivers Rh
positive child then anti D antibodies should
Heterogametic Males
In this method of sex determination the
be administered to the mother soon after
males are heterogametic producing dissimilar
delivery. This develops passive immunity and
gametes while females are homogametic
prevents the formation of anti D antibodies in
producing similar gametes. It is of two kinds
the mothers blood by destroying the Rh foetal
XX-XO type and XX-XY type.
RBC before the mother’s immune system is
sensitized. This has to be done whenever the
XX-XO Type
woman attains pregnancy.
This method of sex determination is seen
4.4 Sex Determination in bugs, some insects such as cockroaches
Sex determination is the method by and grasshoppers. The female with two X
which the distinction between male and chromosomes are homogametic (XX) while
female is established in a species. Sex the males with only one X chromosome
has two ‘Z’ chromosomes and is homogametic potential genetic function; some genes with
(ZZ) producing a single type of sperm (Fig.4.5). or without homologous counterparts are
seen on the X. Present at both ends of the Y
chromosome are the pseudoautosomal regions
(PARs) that are similar with regions on the X
P1 AAZW AAZZ
chromosome which synapse and recombine
Gametes AZ AW AZ
during meiosis. The remaining 95% of the Y
chromosome is referred as the Non - combining
F1 Generation AAZZ AAZW Region of the Y (NRY). The NRY is divided
equally into functional genes (euchromatic)
and non functional genes (heterochromatic).
Fig. 4.5 ZW-ZZ type of sex determination
Within the euchromatin regions, is a gene
called Sex determining region Y (SRY). In
Sex determintion in human beings
humans, absence of Y chromosome inevitably
Genes determining sex in human beings are
leads to female development and this SRY gene
located on two sex chromosomes, called
is absent in X chromosome. The gene product
allosomes. In mammals, sex determination is
of SRY is the testes determining factor (TDF)
associated with chromosomal differences
present in the adult male testis.
between the two sexes, typically XX females and
XY males. 23 pairs of human chromosomes
include 22 pairs of autosomes (44A) and one pair 4.4.1 Dosage compensation -
of sex chromosomes (XX or XY). Females are Barr body
homogametic producing only one type of In 1949, Barr and Bertram first observed a
gametes (egg), each containing one X condensed body in the nerve cells of female cat
chromosome while the males are heterogametic which was absent in the male. This condensed
producing two types of sperms with X and Y body was called sex chromatin by them and
chromosomes. An independently evolved XX: was later referred as Barr body. In the XY
XY system of sex chromosomes also exist in chromosomal system of sex determination,
Drosophila (Fig.4.6). males have only one X chromosome, whereas
females have two. A question arises: how
Male Famale
(Heterogametic) (Homogametic) does the organism compensate for this dosage
Parents 44A + XY 44A + XX differences between the sexes? In mammals the
Gametes Sperms Ova necessary dosage compensation is accomplished
(22A+X) (22A+Y) (22A+X) (22A+X) by the inactivation of one of the X chromosome
in females so that both males and females have
only one functional X chromosome per cell.
Mary Lyon suggested that Barr bodies
Offsprings/
represented an inactive chromosome, which
Progeny (44A+XX) (44A+XY) (44A+XX) (44A+XY)
Female Male Female Male
in females becomes tightly coiled into a
Fig. 4.6 Sex determination in human beings heterochromatin, a condensed and visible form
of chromatin (Lyon’s hypothesis). The number
of Barr bodies observed in cell was one less than
The Y Chromosome and Male
the number of X-Chromosome. XO females
Development
have no Barr body, whereas XXY males have
Current analysis of Y chromosomes has
one Barr body.
revealed numerous genes and regions with
Principles Of Inheritance And Variation 52
(i) M
arriage between colour blind man a colourblind male will produce normal
and normal visioned woman visioned carrier daughter, colourblind
A marriage between a colour blind man daughter, normal visioned son and a
and a normal visioned woman will produce colourblind son in the F2 generation (Fig.
normal visioned male and female individuals 4.8).
in F1 generation but the females are carriers. ;F;F ; ;<
3DUHQW &RORXUEOLQGIHPDOH 1RUPDOPDOH
The marriage between a F1 normal visioned
carrier woman and a normal visioned male
*DPHWHV ;F ;F ; <
will produce one normal visioned female, one
carrier female, one normal visioned male and
one colour blind male. Colour blind trait is
inherited from the male parent to his grandson
) ;F; ;F<
through carrier daughter, which is an example
1RUPDOEXWFDUULHU &RORXUEOLQGPDOH
of criss-cross pattern of inheritance (Fig. 4.7). IHPDOH ;F<
;F;
*DPHWHV ; ;F ;F <
;; ; ;F<
3DUHQW 1RUPDOIHPDOH &RORXUEOLQGPDOH
*DPHWHV
; ; ;F < ) ;F; ;< ;F;F ;F<
1RUPDOEXW 1RUPDO &RORXUEOLQG &RORXUEOLQG
FDUULHUIHPDOH PDOH IHPDOH PDOH
Human Karyotype
Depending upon the position of
the centromere and relative length
of two arms, human chromosomes
are of three types: Metacentric, sub
metacentric and acrocentric. The
photograph of chromosomes are
arranged in the order of descending
length in groups from A to G (Fig.
4.9).
accompanied by gradual mental and physical the brain and internal organs are some of the
deterioration. The patients with this disease symptoms of this syndrome.
usually die between the age of 35 and 40.
b. Allosomal abnormalities in human
4.9 Chromosomal Abnormalities
beings
Each human diploid (2n) body cell has
Mitotic or meiotic non-disjunction of sex
46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Chromosomal
chromosomes causes allosomal abnormalities.
disorders are caused by errors in the number
Several sex chromosomal abnormalities have
or structure of chromosomes. Chromosomal
been detected. Eg. Klinefelter’s syndrome and
anomalies usually occur when there is an
Turner’s syndrome.
error in cell division. Failure of chromatids
to segregate during cell division resulting in 1. Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY Males)
the gain or loss of one or more chromosomes This genetic disorder is due to the presence
is called aneuploidy. It is caused by non- of an additional copy of the X chromosome
disjunction of chromosomes. Group of resulting in a karyotype of 47,XXY. Persons
signs and symptoms that occur together and with this syndrome have 47 chromosomes
characterize a particular abnormality is called (44AA+XXY). They are usually sterile males,
a syndrome. In humans, Down’s syndrome, tall, obese, with long limbs, high pitched voice,
Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, under developed genitalia and have feeble breast
Patau’s syndrome are some of the examples of (gynaecomastia) development.
chromosomal disorders.
2. Turner’s Syndrome (XO Females)
humans contain a special type of antigen called the condition is XXY. An idiogram refers to a
Rh antigen/Rh factors. Erythroblastosis foetalis, diagrammatic representation of chromosomes.
also called haemolytic disease of the newborn, The cytoplasmic extra nuclear genes have a
in which the red blood cells of a foetus are characteristic pattern of inheritance which does
destroyed due to maternal immune reaction not resemble genes of nuclear chromosomes
resulting from a blood group incompatibility and are known as Extrachromosomal/
between the foetus and the mother. Cytoplasmic inheritance. The betterment of
The mechanism of determination of male human race can be achieved by methods like
and female individuals in a species is called sex Eugenics, Euthenics and Euphenics.
determination. The chromosomes are different
in two sexes and referred to as allosomes; the Evaluation
remaining chromosomes are named autosomes. 1. Haemophilia is more
In human beings a normal female has 22 pairs of common in males
autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes (44A because it is a
+ XX) and a male has 22 pairs of autosomes and
a) Recessive character
a pair of sex chromosomes (44A + XY). In birds,
carried by
reptiles and some fishes, sex chromosomes are
Y-chromosome
ZZ in males and ZW in females. In moths and
butterflies, sex chromosomes are represented b)
Dominant character carried by
as ZZ in males and ZO in females. Sex in Y-chromosome
Drosophila is determined polygenically. The sex c)
Dominant trait carried by
of an individual depends upon the ratio of X X-chromosome
chromosomes to autosome sets. The inheritance
d)
Recessive trait carried by
of a trait that is determined by a gene located on
X-chromosome
one of the sex chromosomes is called sex linked
inheritance. Haemophilia, colourblindness, 2. ABO blood group in man is controlled by
muscular dystrophy are some examples for X a) Multiple alleles b) Lethal genes
linked inheritance in human beings.
c) Sex linked genes d) Y-linked genes
Pedigree analysis is the study of traits as 3. Three children of a family have blood
they have appeared in a given family line for groups A, AB and B. What could be the
several generations. The genetic disorders are genotypes of their parents?
of two types- Mendelian and chromosomal.
a) IA IB and ii b) IA Io and IBIo
Alternations or mutation in single gene causes
c) IB IB and IA IA d) IA IA and ii
Mendelian disorders like, thalassemia, albinism,
phenylketonuria, and Huntington’s chorea. 4. Which of the following is not correct?
Chromosomal abnormalities arise due to a) Three or more alleles of a trait in the
chromosomal non-disjunction, translocation, population are called multiple alleles.
deletion, duplication and inversion. Downs b) A normal gene undergoes mutations
syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, Turner’s to form many alleles
syndrome and Patau’s syndrome are some of the c) Multiple alleles map at different loci
chromosomal disorders. Downs syndrome is of a chromosome
due to trisomy of chromosome 21. Presence of
d)
A diploid organism has only two
trisomic condition of chromosome 13 results in
alleles out of many in the population
Patau’s syndrome. In Turner’s syndrome the sex
chromosome is XO and in Klinefelter’s syndrome
5. Which of the following phenotypes in the blood group which blood can be safely
progeny are possible from the parental transferred?
combination AxB?
a) ‘O’ and Rh negative
a) A and B only b) ‘O’ and Rh positive
b) A,B and AB only c)’B’ and Rh negative
c) AB only
d) ‘AB’ and Rh positive
d) A,B,AB and O
12. Father of a child is colourblind and
6. Which of the following phenotypes is not
mother is carrier for colourblindness, the
possible in the progeny of the parental
probability of the child being colourblind
genotypic combination IAIO X IAIB?
is
a) AB b) O
a) 25% b) 50%
c) A d) B
c) 100% d) 75%
7. Which of the following is true about
13. A marriage between a colourblind man
Rh factor in the offspring of a parental
and a normal woman produces
combination DdXDd (both Rh positive)?
a) All carrier daughters and normal sons
a) All will be Rh-positive
b) Half will be Rh positive b) 50% carrier daughters, 50% normal
c) About ¾ will be Rh negative daughters
d) About one fourth will be Rh negative c) 50% colourblind sons, 50% normal sons
8. What can be the blood group of offspring d) All carrier offsprings
when both parents have AB blood group?
14. Mangolism is a genetic disorder which
a) AB only b) A, B and AB is caused by the presence of an extra
c) A, B, AB and O d) A and B only chromosome number
9. If the childs blood group is ‘O’ and fathers a) 20 b) 21
blood group is ‘A’ and mother’s blood c) 4 d) 23
group is ‘B’ the genotype of the parents
15. Klinefelters’ syndrome is characterized by
will be
a karyotype of
a) IA IA and IB Io b) IA Io and IB Io
a) XYY b) XO
c) IA Io and IoIo d) IoIo and IB IB
c) XXX d) XXY
10. XO type of sex determination and XY type
16. Females with Turners’ syndrome have
of sex determination are examples of
a) Small uterus
a) Male heterogamety
b) Rudimentary ovaries
b) Female heterogamety
c) Underdeveloped breasts
c) Male homogamety
d) All of these
d) Both (b) and (c)
17. Pataus’ syndrome is also referred to as
11. In an accident there is great loss of
a) 13-Trisomy b) 18-Trisormy
blood and there is no time to analyse the
c) 21-Trisormy d) None of these
Concept Map
6LPSOH
0XOWLSOHDOOHOHV GRPLQDQFH
(J$%2EORRG
JURXSLQJLQ
KXPDQEHLQJ &RGRPLQDQFH
;OLQNHG(J
+DHPRSKLOLD
&RORXUEOLQGQHVV
6H[OLQNHG
,QKHULWDQFH <OLQNHG(J
+\SHUWULFKRVLV
.DU\RW\SLQJ 3HGLJUHHDQDO\VLV
([WUD
FKURPRVRPDO
&\WRSODVPLF
LQKHULWDQFH
(J.DSSD
SDUWLFOHV
LQSDUDPLFLXP
6KHOOFRLOLQJLQ
VQDLOV
;;)HPDOH;20DOH
3ULQFLSOHVRI (J%XJVFRFNURDFKHV
*UDVVKRSSHUV
LQKHULWDQFH
DQGYDULDWLRQ 0DOH
KHWHURJDPHW\ ;;)HPDOH;<0DOH
(J0DQ%DUUERGLHV;
LQDFWLYDWLRQ'URVRSKLOD
*HQLFEDODQFHPHFKDQLVP
6H[ =2)HPDOH==0DOH
GHWHUPLQDWLRQ (J0RWKV
%XWWHUIOLHV'RPHVWLFFKLFNHQV
)HPDOH
KHWHURJDPHW\
=:)HPDOH==0DOH
(J%LUGV5HSWLOHV
VRPH)LVKHV
+DSORGLSORLG\
(J+RQH\EHHV
7KDODVVHPLD$OELQLVP
0HQGHOLDQ 3KHQ\ONHWRQXULD
GLVRUGHUV +XQWLQJWRQ
VFKRUHD
*HQHWLF
GLVRUGHUV
'RZQ
VV\QGURPH.OLQHIHWHU
V
&KURPRVRPDO
V\QGURPH7XUQHU
VV\QGURPH
GLVRUGHUV
3DWDX
VV\QGURPH
(XJHQLFV(XSKHQLFV
9DULDWLRQ (XWKHQLFV
ICT CORNER
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND
VARIATION
Procedure:
Step -1: Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step -2 :Click “Timeline” to know the history of DNA identification and the work of scientists.
On the right top of the window, find hexagons revealing about other tabs to click.
Step -3 :Click “Genome” to go through “FLYOVER”, “ Chromosome Close Up” and in “
Genome Fishing”, click on the tabs such as “Centromere”, etc., to know the shape. And
Click “Genome Spots” to know the various responsible Spots respective to their activities.
Step – 4 :Find “Launch Gene Body” on the right bottom of the window, and Click it to analyse
and understand about the cloning.
Step -5 :Click on “Applications (Hexagon 4)” to know the uses behind. And click “Chronicle
(Hexagon 5)” to know the documentations.
Step 4
5
UNIT - II
Molecular
Genetics
CHAPTER
M
5.3 DNA is the genetic material endel’s theory dispelled the mystery
5.4 Chemistry of nucleic acids
of why traits seemed to appear and
5.5 RNA world
5.6 Properties of genetic material disappear magically from one generation to
5.7 Packaging of DNA helix the next. Mendel’s work reveals the patterns of
5.8 DNA Replication heredity and reflect the transmission of evolved
5.9 Transcription information from parents to offspring. This
5.10 Genetic code information is located on the chromosomes.
5.11 tRNA – the adapter molecule One of the most advanced realizations of
5.12 Translation
human knowledge was that our unique
5.13 Regulation of Gene expression
5.14 Human Genome Project (HGP) characteristics are encoded within molecules
5.15 DNA finger printing technique of DNA. The discovery that DNA is the genetic
material left several questions unanswered.
How is the information in DNA used? Scientists
Learning Objectives
now know that DNA directs the construction
➢ Identifies DNA as the genetic material. of proteins. Proteins determine the shapes of
➢ Understands the organization of prokaryotic cells and the rate of chemical reactions, such
and eukaryotic genome. as those that occur during metabolism and
➢ Learns to differentiate the nucleotides of DNA photosynthesis. The hereditary nature of every
and RNA. living organism is defined by its genome,
➢ Understands gene expression - which consists of a long sequence of nucleic
Replication, Transcription and
acids that provide the information needed to
Translation.
construct the organism. The genome contains
➢ Learns about codons and the
salient features of genetic code. the complete set of hereditary information for
➢ Understands the gene regulation any organism. The genome may be divided into
through Lac operon model. a number of different nucleic acid molecules.
➢ Realizes the importance of Human Genome Each of the nucleic acid molecule may contain
Project. large number of genes. Each gene is a sequence
➢ Illustrates the applications of DNA finger within the nucleic acid that represents a single
printing technique.
protein. In this chapter we will discuss the
63
Molecular Genetics 64
+\SRWKHVLV7KHJHQHWLFPDWHULDORIWKHFHOOLVHLWKHUSURWHLQRUQXFOHLFDFLG'1$RU51$
5HPRYHOLSLGVDQG
VXJDUVIURPDVROXWLRQRI
+HDWNLOOHG /LSLGV KHDWNLOOHG6FHOOV
6FHOOV 6XJDUV 3URWHLQV51$DQG'1$
UHPDLQ
$GGWRFXOWXUHFRQWDLQLQJ
$GG5FHOOV $GG5FHOOV $GG5FHOOV
OLYLQJ5FHOOV2EVHUYHIRU
WUDQVIRUPDWLRQE\WHVWLQJ
IRUWKHSUHVHQFHRI
YLUXOHQW6FHOOV
&RQFOXVLRQ7UDQVIRUPDWLRQUHTXLUHV'1$WKHUHIRUHLWLVWKHJHQHWLFPDWHULDORIWKHFHOO
to identify the nature of the transforming (an enzyme which destroys protein) did not
substance responsible for converting a non- affect the transformation. Digestion with
virulent strain into virulent strain. They DNase inhibited transformation suggesting
observed that the DNA, RNA and proteins that the DNA caused the transformation.
isolated from the heat-killed S-strain when These experiments suggested that DNA and
added to R-strain changed their surface not proteins is the genetic material. The
character from rough to smooth and also phenomenon, by which DNA isolated from
made them pathogenic (Fig. 5.1). But one type of cell (R – strain), when introduced
when the extract was treated with DNase into another type (S-strain), is able to retain
(an enzyme which destroys DNA) the some of the properties of the R - strain is
transforming ability was lost. RNase (an referred to as transformation.
enzyme which destroys RNA) and proteases
65 Molecular Genetics
Molecular Genetics 66
67 Molecular Genetics
components of adjacent nucleotides are called separated RNA from the protein of TMV
phosphodiester bond (5' 3'), indicating viruses. Three molecular biologists in the early
the polarity of the strand. 1980’s (Leslie Orgel, Francis Brick and Carl
The ends of the DNA or RNA are distinct. Woese) independently proposed the ‘RNA
The two ends are designated by the symbols 5' world’ as the first stage in the evolution of
and 3'. The symbol 5' refers to carbon in the life, a stage when RNA catalysed all molecules
sugar to which a phosphate (PO4) functional necessary for survival and replication. The
group is attached. The symbol 3' refers to term ‘RNA world’ first used by Walter Gilbert
carbon in the sugar to which hydroxyl (OH) in 1986, hypothesizes RNA as the first genetic
functional group is attached. In RNA, every material on earth. There is now enough
nucleotide residue has an additional –OH evidence to suggest that essential life processes
group at 2' position in the ribose. (such as metabolism, translation, splicing etc.,)
Understanding the 5' 3' direction of a evolved around RNA. RNA has the ability to act
nucleic acid is critical for understanding the as both genetic material and catalyst. There are
aspects of replication and transcription. several biochemical reactions in living systems
Based on the X - ray diffraction analysis of that are catalysed by RNA. This catalytic
Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, the RNA is known as ribozyme. But, RNA being
double helix model for DNA was proposed by a catalyst was reactive and hence unstable.
James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. The This led to evolution of a more stable form of
highlight was the base pairing between the DNA, with certain chemical modifications.
two strands of the polynucleotide chain. This Since DNA is a double stranded molecule
proposition was based on the observations having complementary strand, it has resisted
of Erwin Chargaff that Adenine pairs with changes by evolving a process of repair. Some
Thymine (A = T) with two hydrogen bonds RNA molecules function as gene regulators by
and Guanine pairs with Cytosine (G ≡ C) binding to DNA and affect gene expression.
with three hydrogen bonds. The ratios Some viruses use RNA as the genetic material.
between Adenine with Thymine and Guanine Andrew Fire and Craig Mellow (recipients of
with Cytosine are constant and equal. The Nobel Prize in 2006) were of the opinion that
base pairing confers a unique property to RNA is an active ingredient in the chemistry of
the polynucleotide chain. They are said to be life. The types of RNA and their role have been
complementary to each other, that is, if the discussed in class XI.
sequence of bases in one strand (template) is
known, then the sequence in the other strand 5.6 Properties of genetic material
can be predicted. The salient features of DNA (DNA versus RNA)
structure has already been dealt in class XI. The experiment by Hershey and Chase
clearly indicates that it is DNA that acts
5.5 RNA world as a genetic material. However, in some
A typical cell contains about ten times as viruses like Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV),
much RNA as DNA. The high RNA content bacteriophage θB, RNA acts as the genetic
is mainly due to the variety of roles played by material. A molecule that can act as a genetic
RNA in the cell. Fraenkel-Conrat and Singer material should have the following properties:
(1957) first demonstrated that RNA is the
S elf Replication: It should be able to
•
genetic material in RNA containing viruses
replicate. According to the rule of base
like TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus) and they
pairing and complementarity, both nucleic
Molecular Genetics 68
acids (DNA and RNA) have the ability to a faster rate. Thus viruses having RNA
direct duplications. Proteins fail to fulfill genome with shorter life span can mutate
this criteria. and evolve faster.
• Stability: It should be stable structurally and The above discussion indicates that both
chemically. The genetic material should be RNA and DNA can function as a genetic
stable enough not to change with different material. DNA is more stable, and is preferred
stages of life cycle, age or with change in for storage of genetic information.
physiology of the organism. Stability as one
of property of genetic material was clearly 5.7 Packaging of DNA helix
evident in Griffith’s transforming principle.
The distance between two consecutive
Heat which killed the bacteria did not
base pairs is 0.34nm (0.34×10-9m) of the
destroy some of the properties of genetic
DNA double helix in a typical mammalian
material. In DNA the two strands being
cell. When the total number of base pairs is
complementary, if separated (denatured) by
multiplied with the distance between two
heating can come together (renaturation)
consecutive base pairs (6.6 × 10-9 × 0.34 ×10-9
when appropriate condition is provided.
m/bp), the length of DNA double helix is
Further 2' OH group present
at every nucleotide in RNA is a
$
reactive group that makes RNA
liable and easily degradable. RNA
is also known to be catalytic and
reactive. Hence, DNA is chemically
more stable and chemically less 1XFOHRVRPH
reactive when compared to RNA. &RUH'1$
69 Molecular Genetics
approximately 2.2 m. (The total length of the makes two complete turns around the histone
double helical DNA = total number of base octameres and the two turns are sealed off by
pairs × distance between two consecutive an H1 molecule. Chromatin lacking H1 has a
base pairs). If the length of E. coli DNA is beads-on-a-string appearance in which DNA
1.36 mm, the number of base pairs in E. coli enters and leaves the nucleosomes at random
is 4 ×106m (1.36 × 103 m/0.34 ×10-9). The places. H1 of one nucleosome can interact
length of the DNA double helix is far greater with H1 of the neighbouring nucleosomes
than the dimension of a typical mammalian resulting in the further folding of the fibre.
nucleus (approximately 10-6 m). How is such The chromatin fiber in interphase nuclei and
a long DNA polymer packaged in a cell? mitotic chromosomes have a diameter that
Chromosomes are carriers of genes which vary between 200-300 nm and represents
are responsible for various characters from inactive chromatin. 30 nm fibre arises from the
generation to generation. Du Praw (1965) folding of nucleosome, chains into a solenoid
proposed a single stranded model (unineme), structure having six nucleosomes per turn. This
as a long coiled molecule which is associated structure is stabilized by interaction between
with histone proteins in eukaryotes. Plants different H1 molecules. DNA is a solenoid and
and animals have more DNA than bacteria packed about 40 folds. The hierarchical nature
and must fold this DNA to fit into the cell of chromosome structure is illustrated in (Fig.
nucleus. In prokaryotes such as E. coli though 5.3). Additional set of proteins are required
they do not have defined nucleus, the DNA for packing of chromatin at higher level and
is not scattered throughout the cell. DNA are referred to as non-histone chromosomal
(being negatively charged) is held with some proteins (NHC). In a typical nucleus, some
proteins (that have positive charges) in a regions of chromatin are loosely packed (lightly
region called the nucleoid. The DNA as a stained) and are referred to as euchromatin.
nucleoid is organized into large loops held The chromatin that is tightly packed (stained
by protein. DNA of prokaryotes is almost darkly) is called heterochromatin. Euchromatin
circular and lacks chromatin organization, is transcriptionally active and heterochromatin
hence termed genophore. is transcriptionally inactive.
In eukaryotes, this organization is much more
complex. Chromatin is formed by a series of 5.8 DNA Replication
repeating units called nucleosomes. Kornberg Replication of DNA takes place during the
proposed a model for the nucleosome, in S phase of cell cycle. During replication, each
which 2 molecules of the four histone proteins DNA molecule gives rise to two DNA strands,
H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 are organized to identical to each other as well as to the parent
form a unit of eight molecules called histone strand. Three hypotheses of DNA replication
octamere. The negatively charged DNA have been proposed. They are conservative
is wrapped around the positively charged replication, dispersive replication, and semi-
histone octamere to form a structure called conservative replication.
nucleosome. A typical nucleosome contains In conservative replication, the original
200 bp of DNA helix. The histone octameres double helix serves as a template. The original
are in close contact and DNA is coiled on molecule is preserved intact and an entirely
the outside of nucleosome. Neighbouring new double stranded molecule is synthesized.
nucleosomes are connected by linker DNA In dispersive replication, the original molecule
(H1) that is exposed to enzymes. The DNA is broken into fragments and each fragment
Molecular Genetics 70
3' 5'
Semi-conservative replication was
T A
proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953. This
C G mechanism of replication is based on the
A T
Parent DNA model. They suggested that the two
C G polynucleotide strands of DNA molecule
C G
G C unwind and start separating at one end.
T A
During this process, covalent hydrogen bonds
C G are broken. The separated single strand then
T A
C G acts as template for the synthesis of a new
T A
strand. Subsequently, each daughter double
T A
Parental Parental helix carries one polynucleotide strand from
A T
strand A T strand the parent molecule that acts as a template
C 3' 5' C
C G C G
and the other strand is newly synthesised
G C and complementary to the parent strand
G C TA
T A
C G
(Fig. 5.4).
C G T A
T A
T A
C G C G 5.8.1 Experimental proof of
A T
T A
DNA replication
T A
A T A T The mode of DNA replication was
5'
3'
3'
determined in 1958 by Meselson and Stahl.
5'
They designed an experiment to distinguish
Daughter
strands between semi conservative, conservative and
dispersive replications. In their experiment,
Fig. 5.4 Semiconservative DNA replication they grew two cultures of E.coli for many
serves as a template for the synthesis of generations in separate media. The ‘heavy’
complementary fragments. Finally two new culture was grown in a medium in which
molecules are formed which consist of both the nitrogen source (NH4Cl) contained the
old and new fragments. heavy isotope 15N and the ‘light’ culture was
grown in a medium in which the nitrogen
Generation I Generation II
15 14
N-DNA N-DNA 14
N-DNA
15
N-DNA 15
N-DNA
14
20 min 40 min N-DNA
14
Gravitational force N-DNA
15 15 14 15 14 14 14 15
N N N N N N N N
Heavy Hybrid Light Hybrid
Fig. 5.5 Meselson and Stahl experiment to support semiconservative mode of DNAreplication
71 Molecular Genetics
source contained light isotope 14N for many errors are corrected by repair enzymes such
generations. At the end of growth, they as nucleases. Deoxy nucleotide triphosphate
observed that the bacterial DNA in the heavy acts as substrate and also provides energy for
culture contained only 15N and in the light polymerization reaction.
culture only 14N. The heavy DNA could be Replication begins at the initiation site called
distinguished from light DNA (15N from 14N) the site of ‘origin of replication’ (ori). In
with a technique called Cesium Chloride prokaryotes, there is only one origin of
(CsCl) density gradient centrifugation. In replication, whereas in eukaryotes with giant
this process, heavy and light DNA extracted DNA molecules, there can be several origins
from cells in the two cultures settled into two of replication (replicons). Since the two
distinct and separate bands (hybrid DNA) strands of DNA cannot be separated
(Fig. 5.5). throughout at a time (due to large requirement
The heavy culture (15N) was then transferred of energy) the replication occurs within a
into a medium that had only NH4Cl, and took small opening of the DNA helix called as
samples at various definite time intervals (20 replication fork. Unwinding of the DNA
minutes duration). After the first replication, strand is carried out by DNA helicase. Thus, in
they extracted DNA and subjected it to density one strand (template strand with polarity
gradient centrifugation. The DNA settled 3' 5') the replication is continuous and is
into a band that was intermediate in position known as the leading strand while in the
between the previously determined heavy and other strand (coding strand with polarity
light bands. After the second replication (40 5' 3') replication is discontinuous, known
minutes duration), they again extracted DNA as the lagging strand (Fig. 5.6). The
samples, and this time found the DNA settling discontinuously synthesized fragments of the
into two bands, one at the light band position lagging strand (called the Okazaki fragments)
and one at intermediate position. These results are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase.
confirm Watson and Crick’s semi conservative
replication hypothesis.
Molecular Genetics 72
As they move away in both directions, newly information is reversed. RNA synthesizes DNA
synthesized complementary nucleotides are by reverse transcription, then transcribed into
paired with the existing nucleotides on the mRNA by transcription and then into proteins
parent strand and covalently bonded together by translation.
by DNA polymerase. Formation of new strand For a cell to operate, its genes must be
requires a primer (a short stretch of RNA)for expressed. This means that the gene products,
initiation. The primer produces a 3'-OH end on whether proteins or RNA molecules must be
the sequence of ribonucleotides, to which deoxy made. The RNA that carries genetic information
ribonucleotides are added. The RNA primer is encoding a protein from genes into the cell is
ultimately removed leaving a gap in the newly known as messenger RNA (mRNA). For a gene
synthesized DNA strand. It is removed from to be transcribed, the DNA which is a double
5' end one by one by the exonuclease activity helix must be pulled apart temporarily, and
of DNA polymerase. Finally, when all the RNA is synthesized by RNA polymerase. This
nucleotides are in position, gaps are sealed by enzyme binds to DNA at the start of a gene and
the enzyme DNA ligase. opens the double helix. Finally, RNA molecule
At the point of origin of repliction, the is synthesized. The nucleotide sequence in the
helicases and topoisomerases (DNA gyrase) RNA is complementary to the DNA template
unwind and pull apart the strands, forming a strand from which it is synthesized.
Y-Shaped structure called the replication fork. Both the strands of DNA are not copied during
There are two replication forks at each origin. transcription for two reasons. 1. If both the strands
The two strands of a DNA helix have an act as a template, they would code for RNA with
antiparallel orientation. The enzyme DNA different sequences. This in turn would code for
polymerase can only catalyse the addition of a proteins with different amino acid sequences.
nucleotide to the new strands in the 5' 3' This would result in one segment of DNA coding
direction, as it can only add nucleotides to the for two different proteins, hence complicate the
3' carbon position. genetic information transfer machinery. 2. If two
RNA molecules were produced simultaneously,
5.9 Transcription double stranded RNA complementary to each
Francis Crick proposed the Central dogma other would be formed. This would prevent RNA
in molecular biology which states that genetic from being translated into proteins.
information flows as follows:
5.9.1 Transcription unit and gene
A transcriptional unit in DNA is defined by
three regions, a promoter, the structural gene
and a terminator. The promoter is located
towards the 5' end. It is a DNA sequence that
provides binding site for RNA polymerase. The
presence of promoter in a transcription unit,
The process of copying genetic information
defines the template and coding strands. The
from one strand of DNA into RNA is termed
terminator region located towards the 3' end
transcription. This process takes place in
of the coding strand contains a DNA sequence
presence of DNA dependent RNA polymerase.
that causes the RNA polymerase to stop
In some retroviruses that contain RNA as transcribing. In eukaryotes the promoter has
the genetic material (e.g, HIV), the flow of AT rich regions called TATA box (Goldberg-
73 Molecular Genetics
Molecular Genetics 74
Initiation
5' 5'
3' 3'
Promoter σ RNA polymerase DNA helix
Sigma factor
In
Elongation Eukaryotes, there are at least
three RNA polymerases
5' 5' in the nucleus (in addition
to RNA polymerase found
3' 3'
Terminator in the organelles). There is
RNA σ a clear division of labour.
The RNA polymerase I
Termination
transcribes rRNAs (28S, 18S
5' 5' and 5.8S), whereas the RNA
3' 3' polymerase III is responsible
for transcription of tRNA,
Rho factor ρ 5srRNA and snRNA.
RNA
The RNA polymerase
RNA Polymerase
II transcribes precursor
Fig. 5. 8 Process of transcription in prokaryotes
of mRNA, the hnRNA
(heterogenous nuclear RNA). In eukaryotes, the
elongation and termination? The RNA monocistronic structural genes have interrupted
polymerase is only capable of catalyzing the coding sequences known as exons (expressed
process of elongation. The RNA polymerase sequences) and non- coding sequences called
associates transiently with initiation factor sigma introns (intervening sequences). The introns are
(σ) and termination factor rho (r) to initiate removed by a process called splicing. hnRNA
and terminate the transcription, respectively. undergoes additional processing called as capping
Association of RNA with these factors instructs and tailing. In capping an unusual nucleotide,
the RNA polymerase either to initiate or methyl guanosine triphosphate is added at the 5'
terminate the process of transcription (Fig. 5.8). end, whereas adenylate residues (200-300) (Poly
In bacteria, since the mRNA does not A) are added at the 3' end in tailing (Fig. 5.9).
require any processing to become active Thereafter, this processed hnRNA, now called
and also since transcription and translation mRNA is transported out of the nucleus for
take place simultaneously in the same translation.
compartment (since there is no separation of The split gene feature of eukaryotic genes
cytosol and nucleus in bacteria), many times is almost entirely absent in prokaryotes.
the translation can begin much before the Originally each exon may have coded for
mRNA is fully transcribed. This is because a single polypeptide chain with a specific
the genetic material is not separated from function. Since exon arrangement and intron
other cell organelles by a nuclear membrane removal are flexible, the exon coding for
consequently; transcription and translation these polypeptide subunits act as domains
can be coupled in bacteria. combining in various ways to form new genes.
Single genes can produce different functional
75 Molecular Genetics
Molecular Genetics 76
88*/HX//HXFLQH
)LUVWQXFOHRWLGHLQFRGRQ¶HQG
&RGRQ 7KUHHOHWWHUDQGVLQJOHOHWWHUDEEUHYLDWLRQV
77 Molecular Genetics
DNA point mutation can lead to a different amino acid sequence Phenotype
Molecular Genetics 78
change of amino acid residue glutamic acid to and ribosomal binding loop at their ends.
valine (Fig. 5.10). The mutant haemoglobin In addition it also shows a small lump called
undergoes polymerisation under oxygen variable loop or extra arm. The amino acid
tension causing the change in the shape of is attached to one end (amino acid acceptor
the RBC from biconcave to a sickle shaped end) and the other end consists of three
structure. anticodon nucleotides. The anticodon pairs
with a codon in mRNA ensuring that the
The effect of point mutation can be
correct amino acid is incorporated into the
understood by the following example.
growing polypeptide chain. Four different
ABC DEF GHI JKL regions of double-stranded RNA are formed
during the folding process. Modified bases
If we insert a letter O between DEF are especially common in tRNA. Wobbling
and GHI the arrangement would be between anticodon and codon allows some
ABC DEF OGH IJK L tRNA molecules to read more than one codon.
The process of addition of amino acid
If we insert OQ at the same place the to tRNA is known as aminoacylation or
arrangement would be charging and the resultant product is called
aminoacyl- tRNA (charged tRNA). Without
ABC DEF OQG HIJ KL
aminoacylation tRNA is known as uncharged
The above information shows that insertion tRNA (Fig. 5.12). If two such tRNAs are
or deletion of one or two bases, changes the brought together peptide bond formation is
reading frame from the point of insertions or favoured energetically. Numbers of amino
deletions. Such mutations are referred to as acids are joined by peptide bonds to form a
frame shift insertion or deletion mutations. polypeptide chain. This aminoacylation is
This forms the genetic basis of proof that codon catalyzed by an enzyme aminoacyl – tRNA
is a triplet and is read in a continuous manner.
$PLQRDFLGDWWDFKHGKHUH
Molecular Genetics 80
81 Molecular Genetics
Molecular Genetics 82
same time, the covalent bond between the amino Termination is the third phase of translation.
acid and tRNA occupying the P site is hydrolyzed Termination of protein synthesis occurs when
(broken). The product of this reaction is a one of the three stop codons appears in the
dipeptide which is attached to the 3’ end of tRNA ‘A’ site of the ribosome. The terminal codon
still residing in the A site. For elongation to be signals the action of GTP – dependent release
repeated, the tRNA attached to the P site, which factor, which cleaves the polypeptide chain
is now uncharged is released from the large from the terminal tRNA releasing it from
subunit. The uncharged tRNA moves through the translational complex (step 1). The tRNA
the ‘E’ site on the ribosome. is then released from the ribosome, which
The entire mRNA-tRNA-aa1-aa2 complex then dissociates into its subunits (step 2)
shifts in the direction of the ‘P’ site by a distance (Fig. 5.13 d).
of three nucleotides (step 3). This step requires Many antibiotics do not allow pathogenic
several elongation factors (EFs) and the energy bacteria to flourish in animal host because
derived from hydrolysis of GTP. This results in the they inhibit one or the other stage of bacterial
third triplet of mRNA to accept another charged protein synthesis. The antibiotic tetracycline
tRNA into the A site (step 4). The sequence of inhibits binding between aminoacyl
elongation is repeated over and over (step 5 and tRNA and mRNA. Neomycin inhibits the
step 6). An additional amino acid is added to the interaction between tRNA and mRNA.
growing polypeptide, each time mRNA advances Erythromycin inhibits the translocation of
through the ribosome. Once a polypeptide chain mRNA along the ribosome. Streptomycin
is assembled, it emerges out from the base of the inhibits the initiation of translation and
large subunit (Fig. 5.13 c). causes misreading. Chloramphenicol
inhibits peptidyl transferase and formation
of peptide bonds.
related functions are called operons. They regulation in E.coli. In lac operon, a polycistronic
usually transcribe single mRNA molecules. structural gene is regulated by a common
In E.coli, nearly 260 genes are grouped into 75 promoter and regulatory gene. When the cell is
different operons. using its normal energy source as glucose, the
Structure of the operon: Each operon is a unit ‘i’ gene transcribes a repressor mRNA and after
of gene expression and regulation and consists its translation, a repressor protein is produced.
of one or more structural genes and an adjacent It binds to the operator region of the operon and
operator gene that controls transcriptional prevents translation, as a result, β-galactosidase is
activity of the structural gene. not produced. In the absence of preferred carbon
source such as glucose, if lactose is available as
i) The structural gene codes for proteins,
an energy source for the bacteria then lactose
rRNA and tRNA required by the cell.
enters the cell as a result of permease enzyme.
ii) Promoters are the signal sequences in
Lactose acts as an inducer and interacts with the
DNA that initiate RNA synthesis. RNA
repressor to inactivate it.
polymerase binds to the promoter prior
The repressor protein binds to the operator
to the initiation of transcription.
of the operon and prevents RNA polymerase
iii) The operators are present between the
from transcribing the operon. In the presence
promoters and structural genes. The
of inducer, such as lactose or allolactose, the
repressor protein binds to the operator
repressor is inactivated by interaction with the
region of the operon.
inducer. This allows RNA polymerase to bind
The Lac (Lactose) operon: The metabolism to the promotor site and transcribe the operon
of lactose in E.coli requires three enzymes to produce lac mRNA which enables formation
– permease, β-galactosidase (β-gal) and of all the required enzymes needed for lactose
transacetylase. The enzyme permease is metabolism (Fig. 5.14). This regulation of
needed for entry of lactose into the cell,
β-galactosidase brings about
51$3RO\PHUDVH
hydrolysis of lactose to XQDEOHWRELQGWR
glucose and galactose, while SURPRWRU
,QDEVHQFH
transacetylase transfers acetyl S L S R ] \ D RILQGXFHU
lac operon by the repressor is an example of For sequencing, the total DNA from a cell is
negative control of transcription initiation. Lac isolated and converted into random fragments of
operon is also under the control of positive relatively smaller sizes and cloned in suitable hosts
regulation as well. using specialized vectors. This cloning results in
amplification of pieces of DNA fragments so that
5.14 Human Genome it could subsequently be sequenced with ease.
Project (HGP) Bacteria and yeast are two commonly used hosts
The international human genome project and these vectors are called as BAC (Bacterial
was launched in the year 1990. It was a mega Artificial Chromosomes) and YAC (Yeast
project and took 13 years to complete. The Artificial Chromosomes). The fragments are
human genome is about 25 times larger than sequenced using automated DNA sequencers
the genome of any organism sequenced to (developed by Frederick Sanger). The sequences
date and is the first vertebrate genome to be are then arranged based on few overlapping
completed. Human genome is said to have regions, using specialized computer based
approximately 3×109 bp. HGP was closely programs. These sequences were subsequently
associated with the rapid development of a annotated and are assigned to each chromosome.
new area in biology called bioinformatics. The genetic and physical maps on the genome are
assigned using information on polymorphism
5.14.1 Goals and methodologies of of restriction endonuclease recognition sites
Human Genome Project and some repetitive DNA sequences, called
The main goals of Human Genome Project are microsatellites. The latest method of sequencing
as follows even longer fragments is by a method called
Shotgun sequencing using super computers,
• Identify all the genes (approximately which has replaced the traditional sequencing
30000) in human DNA. methods.
• Determine the sequence of the three
billion chemical base pairs that makeup 5.14.2 Salient features of Human
the human DNA. Genome Project:
• To store this information in databases. • Although human genome contains 3 billion
nucleotide bases, the DNA sequences that
• Improve tools for data analysis.
encode proteins make up only about 5% of the
• Transfer related technologies to other genome.
sectors, such as industries. • An average gene consists of 3000 bases, the
• Address the ethical, legal and social issues largest known human gene being dystrophin
(ELSI) that may arise from the project. with 2.4 million bases.
The methodologies of the Human Genome • The function of 50% of the genome is derived
Project involved two major approaches. One from transposable elements such as LINE and
approach was focused on identifying all the genes ALU sequence.
that are expressed as RNA (ETSS – Expressed • Genes are distributed over 24 chromosomes.
Sequence Tags). The other approach was sequence Chromosome 19 has the highest gene density.
annotation. Here, sequencing the whole set of Chromosome 13 and Y chromosome have
genome was taken, that contains all the coding lowest gene densities.
and non-coding sequences and later assigning
different regions in the sequences with functions.
85 Molecular Genetics
• The chromosomal organization of human than treating the symptoms will be an important
genes shows diversity. advantage.
• There may be 35000-40000 genes in the • Once genetic sequence becomes easier to
genome and almost 99.9 nucleotide bases are determine, some people may attempt to use
exactly the same in all people. this information for profit or for political
• Functions for over 50 percent of the discovered power.
genes are unknown. • Insurance companies may refuse to insure
• Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for people at ‘genetic risk’ and this would save
proteins. the companies the expense of future medical
bills incurred by ‘less than perfect’ people.
• Repeated sequences make up very large
portion of the human genome. Repetitive • Another fear is that attempts are being made
sequences have no direct coding functions to “breed out” certain genes of people from
but they shed light on chromosome structure, the human population in order to create a
dynamics and evolution (genetic diversity). ‘perfect race’.
DNA sequences. In DNA fingerprinting, short DNA finger printing involves identifying
repetitive nucleotide sequences are specific for a differences in some specific regions in DNA
person. These nucleotide sequences are called as sequence called repetitive DNA, because in these
variable number tandem repeats (VNTR).The sequences, a small stretch of DNA is repeated
many times. These repetitive DNA are separated
VNTRs of two persons generally show variations
from bulk genomic DNA as different peaks during
and are useful as genetic markers.
density gradient centrifugation. The bulk DNA
1
forms a major peak and the other small peaks
2 Chromosome 7 Chromosome 7
are referred to as satellite DNA. Depending on
base composition (A : T rich or G : C rich), length
Chromosome 2 Chromosome 2
of segment and number of repetitive units, the
satellite DNA is classified into many sub categories
Chromosome 16 Chromosome 16
such as micro-satellites, mini-satellites, etc., These
1 Paternal Chromosome DNA from individual (A)
sequences do not code for any proteins, but they
2 Maternal Chromosome DNA from individual (B)
f orm a large portion of human genome. These
C A B
0 11 Number of short tandem repeats
sequences show high degree of polymorphism
12
11
and form the basis of DNA fingerprinting (Fig.
Chromosome 7 10
9 5.15). DNA isolated from blood, hair, skin cells,
or other genetic evidences left at the scene of a
8
7
Chromosome 2 6
5
4
crime can be compared through VNTR patterns,
3
2
with the DNA of a criminal suspect to determine
Chromosome 16 1
guilt or innocence. VNTR patterns are also useful
DNA from crime scene (c) Amplified repeats, separated by size on
a gel, give a DNA fingerprint in establishing the identity of a homicide victim,
Fig. 5.15 Schematic representation of either from DNA found as evidence or from the
DNA fingerprinting : Few representative body itself.
chromosomes have been shown to contain The Steps in DNA Fingerprinting technique is
different copy number of VNTR depicted in Fig. 5.16
2 3
Molecular Genetics 88
89 Molecular Genetics
'1$LVWKH 51$
*ULIILWK¶V
JHQHWLF
H[SHULPHQW
PDWHULDO 7UDQVFULSWLRQ
5HSOLFDWLRQ XQLW3URPRWRU
'1$ 6WUXFWXUDOJHQH
%DFWHULDO 7HUPLQDWRU
WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ
6HDUFKLQJ
IRUJHQHWLF
PDWHULDO 7UDQVFULSWLRQ
FRGRQVVWRS
0ROHFXODU FRGRQV8QDPELJXRXV
'1$)LQJHU *HQHWLFV VSHFLILFGHJHQHUDWH
*HQHWLF XQLYHUVDO$8*
SULQWLQJ
FRGH LQLWLDWRUFRGRQ
+XPDQ
9175DV JHQRPH 7UDQVODWLRQ
SUREH SURMHFW 5HJXODWLRQ
RIJHQH
H[SUHVVLRQ
&KDUJLQJRIW51$
$PLQRDF\ODWLRQ
,QHXNDU\RWHV± RIW51$8QUHODWHG
WUDQVFULSWLRQDOOHYHO UHJLRQVDQG
,GHQWLI\GHWHUPLQHWKH
91
3URFHVVLQJOHYHO 5HOHDVHIDFWRU
VHTXHQFHVWRUHGDWD
DQDO\VLVWUDQVIHUDQG 7UDQVSRUWRIP51$
(/6, DQG7UDQVODWLRQDO
OHYHO
Molecular Genetics
25-02-2019 19:14:02
www.asiriyar.net
www.asiriyar.net
ICT CORNER
Molecular Genetics
Procedure :
Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR Code to launch the “Gene Expression Essentials” activity
page.
Step 2: Click “Expression” pick the genetic material from the Biomolecule Toolbox,
understand the changes for the three different genes.
Step 3: Click “mRNA” and slide through the slider in Positive Transcription factors and
Negative Transcription factors such as Concentration, Affinity. Also Slide through
“Affinity” in RNA Polymerase.
Step 4: Click “Multiple Cells” and find the average protein level vs Time in the graph indicated
above.
Step 4
Molecular Genetics 92
6
UNIT - II
Evolution
CHAPTER
93
Evolution 94
appeared. The seven periods of Paleozoic era in fishes), Mississippian (earliest amphibians,
order from oldest to the youngest are Cambrian Echinoderms), Pennsylvanian (earliest reptiles),
(Age of invertebrates), Ordovician (fresh Permian (mammal like reptiles).
water fishes, Ostracoderms, various types of Mesozoic era (dominance of reptiles)
Molluscs), Silurian (origin of fishes), Devonian called the Golden age of reptiles, is divided
(Age of fishes, many types of fishes such as into three periods namely Triassic (origin of
lung fishes, lobe finned fishes and ray finned egg laying mammals), Jurassic (Dinosaurs
Sphenopsides,
125 Cretaceous Ginkgos, Gnetales,
(Dicotyledons)
Mesozoic
95 Evolution
were dominant on the earth, fossil bird – viruses. Two major cell types that appeared
Archaeopteryx) and Cretaceous (extinction during this time were significant. One form of the
of toothed birds and dinosaurs, emergence of earliest cell contained clumps of nucleoproteins
modern birds). embedded in the cell substance. Such cells were
Cenozoic era (Age of mammals) similar to the Monera. They are considered as
ancestral to the modern bacteria and blue green
is subdivided into two periods namely
algae. The other form of earliest cells contained
Tertiary and Quaternary. Tertiary period is
nucleoprotein clumps that condensed into a
characterized by abundant mammalian fauna.
central mass surrounded by a thin membrane.
This period is subdivided into five epochs This membrane separated nucleoproteins from
namely, Paleocene (placental mammals, the cell substances. Such cells were referred
Eocene (Monotremes except duck billed to as Protista. When the natural sources of
Platypus and Echidna, hoofed mammals and food in the ocean declined in course of time
carnivores), Oligocene (higher placental the ancestors of Monera and Protista had to
mammals appeared), Miocene (origin of evolve different methods for food procurement.
first man like apes) and Pliocene (origin of These may be summarized as parasitism,
man from man like apes).Quaternary period saprophytism, predator or animalism and
witnessed decline of mammals and beginning chemosynthesis or photosynthesis. When the
of human social life. number of photosynthetic organisms increased
The age of fossils can be determined there was an increase in the free O2 in the sea
and atmosphere.
using two methods namely, relative dating
and absolute dating. Relative dating is used to CH4+2O2 → CO2 +2H2O
determine a fossil by comparing it to similar 4NH3+3O2 → 2N2+6H2O
rocks and fossils of known age. Absolute The atmospheric oxygen combined with
dating is used to determine the precise age methane and ammonia to form CO2 and free
of a fossil by using radiometric dating to nitrogen. The presence of the free O2 brought
measure the decay of isotopes. about the evolution of aerobic respiration
which could yield large amounts of energy
6.3 Biological evolution by oxidation of food stuffs. Thus Prokaryotes
and Eukaryotes evolved.
Formation of protobionts
Abiotically produced molecules can Experimental approach to the origin
spontaneously self assemble into droplets of life
that enclose a watery solution and maintain Urey and Miller (1953), paved way
a chemical environment different from their
for understanding the possible synthesis of
surroundings. Scientists call these spheres
organic compounds that led to the appearance
as ‘protobionts’. Liposomes are lipids in a
of living organisms is depicted in the Fig. 6.1.
solution that can self assemble into a lipid
bilayer. Some of the proteins inside the In their experiment, a mixture of gases was
liposomes acquired the properties of enzymes allowed to circulate over electric discharge
resulting in fast multiplication of molecules. from an tungsten electrode. A small flask was
The coacervates with nucleoprotein and kept boiling and the steam emanating from
nutrients had a limiting surface membrane that it was made to mix with the mixture of gases
had the characters of a virus or free living genes. (ammonia, methane and hydrogen) in the large
Subsequently number of genes united to form chamber that was connected to the boiling
‘proto viruses’ somewhat similar to present day water. The steam condensed to form water
Evolution 96
by hard minerals and get fossilized, which are homologous structures that brings about
called casts. Hardened faecal matter termed divergent evolution (Fig 6.2).
as coprolites occur as tiny pellets. Analysis of Similarly the thorn of Bougainvillea and
the coprolites enables us to understand the the tendrils of Curcurbita and Pisum sativum
nature of diet the pre-historic animals thrived represent homology. The thorn in former is
on. used as a defence mechanism from grazing
animals and the tendrils of latter is used as a
Visit any museum nearer to your
support for climbing.
school with your teacher and identify
the bones of different animals including Analogous structures
mammals. The famous Egmore Museum Organisms having different structural
is in Chennai. patterns but similar function are termed as
analogous structures. For example, the wings
6.4.2 Evidences from of birds and insects are different structurally
comparative anatomy but perform the same function of flight that
Similarities in structure between groups brings about convergent evolution (Fig. 6.3).
of organisms are accepted as indicators of
relationship. For example, a comparative study
of the forelimbs of different vertebrates exhibits Ulna
Carpals
a fundamental plan of similarity in structure.
Radius
These relationships can be studied under Humerus
homologous organs, analogous organs, vestigial
organs, connecting links and atavistic organs.
Homologous structures
In vertebrates, comparative anatomical
studies reveal a basic plan in various
structures such as fore limbs and hind limbs.
Fore limbs of vertebrates exhibit anatomical
similarity with each other and is made of
similar bones such as humerus, radius, ulna,
carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. Forewing
Bird Bat
Hindwing
Human
Fig. 6.2 Forelimbs of terrestrial vertebrates to Fig. 6.3 Comparison of insect and bird wing
show homology to show their analogy
Structures which are similar in origin Other examples of analogous organs
but perform different functions are called include the eyes of the Octopus and of
Evolution 98
mammals and the flippers of Penguins include coccyx, wisdom teeth, ear muscles,
and Dolphins. Root modification in sweet body hair, mammae in male, nictitating
potato and stem modification in potato are membrane of the eye, etc.,
considered as analogous organs. Both of these
plants have a common function of storage of
Connecting link
food. The organisms which possess the
characters of two different groups (transitional
Vestigial organs stage) are called connecting links. Example
Peripatus (connecting link between Annelida
Structures that are of no use to the
and Arthropoda), Archeopteryx (connecting
possessor, and are not necessary for their
link between Reptiles and Aves).
existence are called vestigial organs. Vestigial
organs may be considered as remnants of Atavistic organs
structures which were well developed and Sudden appearance of vestigial organs in
functional in the ancestors, but disappeared highly evolved organisms is called atavistic
in course of evolution due to their non- organs. Example, presence of tail in a human
utilization. Human appendix is the remnant baby is an atavistic organ.
of caecum which is functional in the digestive 6.4.3 Embryological evidences
tract of herbivorous animals like rabbit. Embryology deals with the study of the
Cellulose digestion takes place in the caecum development of individual from the egg to the
of these animals. Due to change in the diet adult stage. A detailed study of the embryonic
containing less cellulose, caecum in human development of different forms makes us to
became functionless and is reduced to a think that there is a close resemblance during
vermiform appendix, which is vestigial. Other development.
examples of vestigial organs in human beings The development of heart in all vertebrates
follows the same pattern of development as a
pair of tubular structures
)LVK 6DODPDQGHU 7RUWRLVH &KLFN +XPDQ that later develop into
two chambered heart in
fishes, three chambered in
amphibians and in most
3KDU\QJHDO 3RVWDQDO reptiles and four chambered
SRXFKHV WDLO
in crocodiles, birds and
mammals; indicating a
common ancestry for all the
vertebrates,
Hence scientists in the
19th century concluded that
higher animals during their
embryonic development
pass through stages of lower
animals (ancestors). Ernst
Von Haeckel, propounded
the “biogenetic law or
Fig 6.4 Embryological evidences
99 Evolution
Evolution 100
101 Evolution
Evolution 102
C
s
nd hing
Large insectivorous
ills
ru
fin
nc
Medium
s
gb
Insect
ch
s
tree finch
e fi
Cactu
ground finch
es
pin
(Geospiza fortis)
bills
Gras
psittacula) Seed
eaters
Bud eater Large ground four fundamental forces of evolution such as
Vegetarian tree finch (Geospiza
finch (Platyspiza
crassirostris)
Parrot-like bill magnirostris) natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and
gene flow.
Fig 6.5 Darwin’s finches
103 Evolution
Evolution 104
Medium-sized
Number of individuals
Phenotypes individuals
are favoured
with phenotype
favoured
by natural
selection
Fig 6.7 Operation of natural selection on different traits (a) Stabilising (b) Directional and (c) Disruptive
AA 'XHWRFKDQFH
HYHQWVRQO\
WKHVHEHHWOHV
$D JLYHVULVHWR 1H[WJHQHUDWLRQ
Migration
$$ RIIVSULQJV
AA AA $D
DD DD
aa DD $D
AA $D
aa
DD DD
aa
AA )UHTXHQF\RI$
)UHTXHQF\RI$
aa )UHTXHQF\RID )UHTXHQF\RID
Evolution 106
6.8 Origin and Evolution of Man Magnon, France and is considered as the ancestor
of modern Europeans. They were not only adapted
Mammals evolved in the
to various environmental conditions, but were
early Jurassic period, about 210
also known for their cave paintings, figures on
million years ago. Hominid
floors and walls.
evolution occurred in Asia and
Homo sapiens or modern human arose in
Africa. Hominids proved that
Africa some 25,000 years ago and moved to other
human beings are superior to
continents and developed into distinct races. They
other animals and efficient in making tools and
had a brain capacity of 1300 – 1600 cc. They started
culture. The earliest fossils of the prehistoric man
cultivating crops and domesticating animals.
like Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus lived some 14
mya and were derived from ape like Dryopithecus. Summary
Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were hairy Evolutionary Biology is the study of history
and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees. of life forms on Earth which originated on Earth
Australopithecus lived in East African grasslands millions of years ago. How Earth originated, how
about 5 mya and was called the Australian ape life originated, what is the place of man in the
man. He was about 1.5 meters tall with bipedal universe are all general questions. This chapter
locomotion, omnivorous, semi erect, and lived in deals with several theories to explain the life
caves. Low forehead, brow ridges over the eyes, on Earth. Evidence from the fossil record and
protruding face, lack of chin, low brain capacity many other areas of biology like embryology,
of about 350 – 450 cc, human like dentition, anatomy and molecular biology indicates a
lumbar curve in the vertebral column were common ancestry.
his distinguishing features. Homo habilis lived The theories advanced by Lamarck,
about 2 mya. Their brain capacity was between Darwin, Hugo de Vries explained the intricate
650 – 800cc, and was probably vegetarian. They evolutionary process. Geological time scale
had bipedal locomotion and used tools made of with different eras, periods and epochs gives
chipped stones. an idea about the dominant species in those
Homo erectus the first human like being was days. The mathematical distribution of gene
around 1.7 mya and was much closer to human and genotype frequencies remains constant in
a small population was contributed by Hardy
in looks, skull was flatter and thicker than the
and Weinberg in 1608. Natural Selection and
modern man and had a large brain capacity of
gene pool are the important factors those affect
around 900 cc. Homo erectus probably ate meat.
Hardy Weinberg equilibrium.
Homo ergaster and Homo erectus were
the first to leave Africa. Neanderthal human Human evolution states that humans
was found in Neander Valley, Germany with a developed from primates or ape like ancestors.
brain size of 1400 cc and lived between 34,000 - The emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct
species from apes and placental mammals in
1,00,000 years ago. They differ from the modern
brain size, eating habit and other behavior
human in having semierect posture, flat cranium,
proves that ‘Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny’.
sloping forehead, thin large orbits, heavy brow
ridges, protruding jaws and no chin. They used
animal hides to protect their bodies, knew the
use of fire and buried their dead. They did not
practice agriculture and animal domestication.
Cro-Magnon was one of the most talked forms
of modern human found from the rocks of Cro-
107 Evolution
Evolution 108
109 Evolution
110
3DQVSHUPLD 0XWDWLRQ
6SRQWDQHRXV
JHQHUDWLRQ
6SHFLDWLRQ
6SHFLDO
FUHDWLRQ 1DWXUDOVHOHFWLRQ 'LVUXSWLYH
2ULJLQRIOLIH
'LUHFWLRQDO
$ELRJHQHVLV
(92/87,21 $FTXLUHG
FKDUDFWHUV
+XPDQHYROXWLRQ 3RSXODWLRQ
(PEU\RORJLFDO
'U\RSLWKHFXV +DUG\:HLQEHUJ
HTXLOLEULXP
(YLGHQFHV
5DPDSLWKHFXV
)DFWRUVDIIHFWLQJ
0RUSKRORJLFDO *HQHIORZ +DUG\:HLQEHUJ 5HFRPELQDWLRQ
DQG$QDWRPLFDO HTXLOLEULXP
$XVWUDORSLWKHFXV %LRFKHPLFDO
0XWDWLRQ
+RPRKDELOLV *HQHWLFGULIW
'LYHUJHQW 1DWXUDOVHOHFWLRQ
HYROXWLRQ
+RPRORJ\
+RPRHUHFWXV 3DOHRQWRORJLFDO
&RQYHUJHQW
HYROXWLRQ
+RPRVDSLHQV $QDORJ\
25-02-2019 19:16:30
www.asiriyar.net
www.asiriyar.net
7
UNIT - III
Human Health
and Diseases
CHAPTER
T
7.2 Maintenance of personal and public
he World Health Organization [WHO]
hygiene
defines health as ‘a state of complete
7.3 Basic concepts of immunology
physical, mental and social wellbeing and not
7.4 Immunodeficency diseases
merely absence of diseases’. We can also say
7.5 Autoimmune diseases
“HEALTH IS WEALTH”, when people are
7.6 Adolescence – Drug and alcohol abuse
healthy they are more efficient at work. Health
7.7 Mental health – Depression
increases longevity of people and reduces
infant and adult mortality. Personal hygiene,
Learning Objectives regular exercise and balanced diet are very
important to maintain good health.
➢ Learns about various bacterial,viral,
fungal, protozoan and helminth diseases. 7.1 Common diseases in
➢ Understands the life cycle of human beings
malarial parasite. Disease can be defined as a disorder or
➢ Understands the basic concepts of
malfunction of the mind or body. It involves
immunology.
morphological, physiological and psychological
➢ Differentiates between innate immunity
disturbances which may be due to environmental
and acquired immunity,
primary immune response factors or pathogens or genetic anomalies or life
and scondary immune style changes. Diseases can be broadly grouped
response, active and passive into infectious and non infectious types.
immunity. Diseases which are transmitted from one
➢ Realiazes the importance of person to another are called infectious diseases
immunization. or communicable diseases. Such disease
➢ Explains the concept of hypersensitivity. causing organisms are called pathogens
➢ Learns the ill effects of drugs and alcohol. and are transmitted through air, water, food,
➢ Realizes the responsibility for their physical contact and vectors. The disease
behaviour and health care.
causing pathogen may be virus, bacteria, fungi,
➢ Understands the importance of mental
protozoan parasites, helminthic parasites, etc.,
health and to be followed for their well
Infectious diseases are common and everyone
being.
111
Plasmalemma
Ectoplasm
Endoplasm
1. T. gambiense is transmitted by Glossina being released from liver cells, the merozoites
palpalis (Tsetse fly) and causes Gambian or penetrate the RBC’s.
Central African sleeping sickness (Fig. 7.2). Inside the RBC, the merozoite begins
2. T. rhodesiense is transmitted by Glossina to develop as unicellular trophozoites. The
morsitans causing Rhodesian or East trophozoite grows in size and a central vacuole
African sleeping sickness. develops pushing them to one side of cytoplasm
and becomes the signet ring stage. The
3. T. cruzi is transmitted by a bug called
trophozoite nucleus then divides asexually to
Triatoma megista and causes Chagas disease
produce the schizont. The large schizont shows
or American trypanosomiasis.
yellowish - brown pigmented granules called
Kala – azar or visceral leishmaniasis Schuffners granules. The schizont divides
is caused by Leishmania donovani, which is and produces mononucleated merozoites.
transmitted by the vector Phlebotomus (sand Eventually the erythrocyte lyses, releasing the
fly). Infection may occur in the endothelial cells, merozoites and haemozoin toxin into the blood
bone marrow, liver, lymph glands and blood stream to infect other erythrocytes. Lysis of red
vessels of the spleen. Symptoms of Kala azar blood cells results in cycles of fever and other
are weight loss, anaemia, fever, enlargement of symptoms. This erythrocytic stage is cyclic
spleen and liver. and repeats itself approximately every 48 to
Malaria is caused by different types of 72 hours or longer depending on the species
Plasmodium species such as P. vivax, P. ovale, of Plasmodium involved. The sudden release
P. malariae and P. falciparum (Table 7.3). of merozoites triggers an attack on the RBCs.
Plasmodium lives in the RBC of human in its Occasionally, merozoites differentiate into
mature condition it is called as trophozoite. It is macrogametocytes and microgametocytes.
transmited from one person to another by the When these are ingested by a mosquito,
bite of the infected female Anopheles mosquito. they develop into male and female gametes
respectively.
Life cycle of Plasmodium In the mosquito's gut, the infected
Plasmodium vivax is
erythrocytes lyse and male and female
a digenic parasite, involving
gametes fertilize to form a diploid zygote
two hosts, man as the
called ookinete. The ookinete migrates to the
secondary host and female
mosquito's gut wall and develop into an oocyte.
Anopheles mosquito as the
The oocyte undergoes meiosis by a process
primary host. The life cycle
called sporogony to form sporozoites. These
of Plasmodium involves three phases namely
sporozoites migrate to the salivary glands of
schizogony, gamogony and sporogony (Fig. 7.3).
the mosquito. The cycle is now completed and
The parasite first enters the human blood when the mosquito bites another human host,
stream through the bite of an infected female the sporozoites are injected and the cycle begins
Anopheles mosquito. As it feeds, the mosquito a new.
injects the saliva containing the sporozoites. The
The pathological changes caused by
sporozoite within the blood stream immediately
malaria, affects not only the erythrocytes
enters the hepatic cells of the liver. Further in
but also the spleen and other visceral organs.
the liver they undergo multiple asexual fission
Incubation period of malaria is about 12 days.
(schizogony) and produce merozoites. After
The early symptoms of malaria are headache,
nausea and muscular pain. The classic
,QPRVTXLWRJXW ,QKXPDQ
6SRUR]RLWHV 6SRUR]RLWHV
6DOLYDU\
JODQGV
/LYHU
2RF\VW 0HUR]RLWHV
6FKL]RQW
IRUPV
'1$UHSOLFDWLRQIROORZHG 0HUR]RLWHV
E\VSRURJRQ\ UXSWXUHIURP
5%&
2RNLQHWH 5%&V
0LGWURSKR]RLWH
'1$UHSOLFDWLRQDQG0HLRVLV 6SKDVHEHJLQV 1XFOHXV
=\JRWH +HPR]RLQ
(DUO\WURSKR]RLWH 6LJQHWULQJ
IRUPV IRUPV
0DFURJDPHWH
0DFURJDPHWRF\WH
0LFURJDPHWH
0LFURJDPHWRF\WH
([IODJHOODWLRQ *DPHWRF\WHV3ODVPRGLXP
Ponds, drainage ditches and other to grow and makes them to thrive in skin
permanent bodies of water can be stocked folds such as those in the groin or between
with fishes such as Gambusia which feed on the toes. Ringworms of the feet is known as
mosquito larvae. Preparations containing Athlete’s foot caused by Tinea pedis (Fig.
Bacillus thuringiensis can be sprayed to kill 7.5). Ringworms are generally acquired from
the mosquito larvae since it is not toxic to soil or by using clothes, towels and comb used
other forms of life. The best protection against by infected persons.
malaria is to avoid being bitten by mosquito.
People are advised to use mosquito nets, wire
gauging of windows and doors to prevent
mosquito bites.
In the 1950’s the World Health
Organisation (WHO) introduced the Malaria
eradication programme. This programme
was not successful due to the resistance of
Plasmodium to the drugs used to treat it and
resistance of mosquito's to DDT and other
insecticides. Fig. 7.4 Symptoms of Ringworm
Triradiate mouth
with lips
of the disease are In some cases, the obstruction of lymph vessels
Excretory
pore abdominal pain, causes elephantiasis or filariasis of the limbs,
Lateral line vomiting, headache, scrotum and mammary glands (Fig. 7.8).
anaemia, irritability
and diarrhoea. A heavy 7.2 Maintenance of personal and
infection can cause public hygiene
Cloacal aperture
nutritional deficiency Hygiene is a set of practices performed
Penial setae
protection from environmental agents that that are foreign to the host and not to those of
are foreign to the body. host itself. This ability to distinguish foreign
molecules from self is another fundamental
When the immune system does not
feature of the immune system. However,
function efficiently in an individual, it leads to
occasionally, it fails to make its distinction
infection causing disease. The overall ability
and reacts destructively against the host's
of body to fight against the disease causing
own molecules; such autoimmune diseases
pathogen is called immunity. It is also called
can be fatal to the organism.
disease resistance and the lack of immunity is
known as susceptibility. Immunity is highly Almost all the macromolecules e.g.
specific. proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids,
etc., as long as they are foreign to recipient
Normally many of the responses of the
organism can induce immune response.
immune system initiate the destruction and
Any substance capable of eliciting immune
elimination of invading organisms and any
response is called an ANTIGEN (ANTIbody
toxic molecules produced by them. These
GENerator). There are two broad classes of
immune reactions are destructive in nature
immunity responses namely, innate immunity
and are made in response only to molecules
and acquired immunity (Fig. 7.9).
2. Physiological barriers
Lysozyme acts as antibacterial agent and cleaves the bacterial cell wall.
Interferons induce antiviral state in the uninfected cells.
Chemical mediators
Complementary substances produced from leucocytes lyse the
pathogenic microbes or facilitate phagocytosis.
Thymus
The thymus is a flat and bilobed organ
located behind the sternun, above the heart.
Each lobe of the thymus contains numerous
lobules, separated from each other by
Fig. 7.11 Lymphoid organs in human body connective tissue called septa. Each lobule
is differentiated into two compartments,
Based on their functions, they are classified
the outer compartment or outer cortex, is
into primary or central lymphoid organs and
densely packed with immature T cells called
secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs. The
thymocytes, whereas the inner compartment
primary lymphoid organs provide appropriate
or medulla is sparsely populated with
environment for lymphocytic maturation. The
thymocytes. One of its main secretions is the
secondary lymphoid organs trap antigens and
hormone thymosin. It stimulates the T cell to
make it available for mature lymphocytes, which
become mature and immunocompetent. By
can effectively fight against these antigens.
All these cells are derived from pluripotent activated and divides rapidly to produce plasma
haematopoetic stem cells. Each stem cell has the cells. The plasma cells produce antibodies. Some
capacity to produce RBC, WBC and platelets. B cells do not produce antibodies but become
The only cells capable of specifically recognising memory cells. These cells are responsible for
and producing an immune response are the secondary immune response. T lymphocytes
lymphocytes. The other types of white blood do not produce antibodies. They recognize
cells play an important role in non specific antigen-presenting cells and destroy them. The
immune response, antigen presentation and two important types of T cells are Helper T
cytokine production. cells and Killer T cells. Helper T cells release a
Lymphocytes: About 20-30% of the white chemical called cytokine which activates B cells.
blood cells are lymphocytes. They have a large Killer cells move around the body and destroy
nucleus filling most of the cell, surrounded cells which are damaged or infected (Fig. 7.14).
by a little cytoplasm. The two main types of Apart from these cells neutrophils and
lymphocytes are B and T lymphocytes. Both monocytes destroy foreign cells by phagocytosis.
these are produced in the bone marrow. B Monocytes when they mature into large cells,
lymphocytes (B cells) stay in the bone marrow they are called macrophages which perform
until they are mature. Then they circulate phagocytosis on any foreign organism.
around the body. Some remain in the blood,
while others accumulate in the lymph nodes and Dendritic cells are called so because
spleen. T lymphocytes leave the bone marrow its covered with long, thin membrane
and mature in the thymus gland. Once mature, extensions that resemble dendrites of nerve
T cells also accumulate in the same areas of the cells. These cells present the antigen to
body as B cells. Lymphocytes have receptor T-helper cells. Four types of dendritic cells
proteins on their surface. When receptors on a are known. They are langerhans, interstitial
B cell bind with an antigen, the B cell becomes cells, myeloid and lymphoid cells
Each chain (L and H) has two terminals. They are When antigen and antibody are closely
C - terminal (Carboxyl) and amino or N-terminal. fitted, the strength of binding is great. When
Each chain (L and H) has two regions. They have they are apart binding strength is low. The
variable (V) region at one end and a much larger bonds that hold the antigen to the antibody
constant (C) region at the other end. Antibodies combining site are all non-covalent in nature.
responding to different antigens have very different These include hydrogen bonds, electrostatic
(V) regions but their (C) regions are the same bonds, Van der Waals forces and hydrophobic
in all antibodies. In each arm of the monomer bonds. Antibody affinity is the strength of the
antibody, the (V) regions of the heavy and light reaction between a single antigenic determinant
chains combines to form an antigen – binding site and a single combining site on the antibody.
shaped to ‘fit’ a specific antigenic determinant.
The chief application of antigen - antibody
Consequently each antibody monomer has two
reactions are to determine blood groups for
such antigen – binding regions. The (C) regions
transfusion, to study serological ascertainment
that forms the stem of the antibody monomer
of exposure to infectious agents, to develop
determine the antibody class and serve common
immunoassays for the quantification of various
functions in all antibodies.
substances, to detect the presence or absence
The functions of immunoglobulin are of protein in serum and to determine the
agglutination, precipitation, opsonisation, characteristics of certain immunodeficiency
neutralization etc. diseases.
Bacteria Complement
Virus molecule
Antigen
Bacterium molecules
Foreign cell Hole
Leads to
Enhances
Macrophage
a process in which pathogens are coated with the microbes, their toxins, or one of its surface
a substance called an opsonin, marking the proteins. Vaccines “teach” our body how to
pathogen out for destruction by the immune defend itself when viruses or bacteria, invade
system. This results in a much more efficient it. Vaccines deliver only very little amounts of
phagocytosis. inactivated or weakened viruses or bacteria, or
The neutralization reactions are the parts of them. This allows the immune system
reactions of antigen-antibody that involve the to recognize the organism without actually
elimination of harmful effects of bacterial experiencing the disease. Some vaccines need
exotoxins or a virus by specific antibodies. to be given more than once (i.e., a ‘booster’
These neutralizing substances i.e. antibodies vaccination) to make sure the immune system
are known as antitoxins. This specific can overcome a real infection in the future.
antibody is produced by a host cell in response Vaccine initiates the immunization
to a bacterial exotoxin or corresponding process. The vaccines are classified as first,
toxoid (inactivated toxin). second and third generation vaccines.
Attenuated
(weakening)
Live Attenuated
pathogen non-pathogenic
form (vaccine)
Chemical
Inactivation
Modification
Live
pathogen Killed pathogens Toxin Toxoid
(vaccine) (vaccine)
Fig.7.17 Types of vaccines
and the Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine, Killed 7.3.9 Vaccination and
(inactivated) vaccines are killed or inactivated
immunization
by heat and other methods. E.g. Salk’s polio
“Vaccination is the process of
vaccine. Toxoid vaccines contain a toxin or
administrating a vaccine into the body or the act
chemical secreted by the bacteria or virus.
of introducing a vaccine into the body to produce
They make us immune to the harmful effects of
immunity to a specific disease.” Immunization
the infection, instead of to the infection itself. is the process of the body building up immunity
E.g. DPT vaccine (Diphtheria, Pertussis and to a particular disease. Immunization describes
Tetanus). the actual changes in the body after receiving a
Second generation vaccine contains the vaccine. Vaccines work by fighting the pathogen
pure surface antigen of the pathogen. E.g. and then recording it in their memory system
Hepatitis-B vaccine. Third generation vaccine to ensure that the next time this pathogen enters
contains the purest and the highest potency the body, it is eliminated far quickly. Once, the
vaccines which are synthetic in generation. The body is able to fight against the disease, it is
latest revolution in vaccine is DNA vaccine or believed to have built the immunity for it, also
recombinant vaccine (Refer Chapter- 10 for known as the body being immunized against
details). the disease.
last about half an hour. The common examples observed under the electron microscope,
of allergens are mites in dust, pollens and some HIV is seen as a spherical virus, 100-120
proteins in insect venom. Hay fever and asthma nm in diameter, containing a dense core
are some common examples of allergy. Symptoms surrounded by a lipoprotein envelope.
of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, The envelope has glycoprotein (gp)
running nose and difficulty in breathing. Allergy is spikes termed gp 41 and gp 120. At the
a form of over active immune response mediated core, there are two large single stranded
by IgE and mast cells. It can also be due to the RNA. Attached to the RNA are molecules
release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin of reverse transcriptase. It also contains
from the mast cells. enzymes like protease and ribonuclease.
Anaphylaxis is the classical immediate The core is covered by a capsid made
hypersensitivity reaction. It is a sudden, systematic, of proteins. This is followed by another
severe and immediate hypersensitivity reaction layer of matrix proteins as shown in the
occurring as a result of rapid generalized mast-cell Fig 7.18.
degranulation. gp41
gp120
of host cells and directs the infected cells to cytotoxic T cells that destroy our own tissues.
produce viral particles. The macrophages If a disease-state results, it is referred to as
continue to produce virus and in this way acts auto-immune disease. Thus, autoimmunity is a
like a HIV factory. Simultaneously, HIV enters misdirected immune response. Autoimmunity
into helper T-lymphocytes, replicates and is evidenced by the presence of auto antibodies
produces progeny viruses. The progeny viruses and T cells that are reactive with host antigens.
released in the blood attack other helper When the cells act as antigens in the same body,
T-lymphocytes. This is repeated, leading to a they are called autoantigens.
progressive decrease in the number of helper
Autoimmune diseases in human can be
T lymphocytes in the body of the infected
divided into two broad categories, namely
person. During this period, the person suffers
organ-specific and non-organ-specific
from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and weight loss.
(systemic) autoimmune diseases. In organ-
Due to decrease in the number of helper T
specific disease, the autoimmune process
lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from
is directed mostly against one organ. The
infections and becomes immune deficient and
autoantibodies may block the functions
unable to protect against any infection.
performed by the organs. Examples include
A simple blood test is available that Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Graves’ disease
can determine whether the person has been (thyroid gland) and Addison’s disease (adrenal
infected with HIV. The ELISA test (Enzyme glands).
Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay) detects the
In non-organ specific (systemic) disorders,
presence of HIV antibodies. It is a preliminary
autoimmune activity is widely spread
test. Western blot test is more reliable and
throughout the body. Rheumatoid arthritis
a confirmatory test. It detects the viral core
and multiple sclerosis are example for systemic
proteins. If both tests detect the presence of
disorder.
the antibodies, the person is considered to be
HIV positive.
7.5.1 Tumour immunology
AIDS has no cure. Prevention of AIDS
A tumour or neoplasm is a group of cells
is the best option. Advocating safe sex and
whose growth has gone unchecked. When a
promoting regular check-up, safe blood for
transfusion, use of disposable needles, use of tumour continues to grow and invades healthy
condoms during sexual contact, prevention of tissue, it is called cancer. They spread to other
drug abuse, AIDS awareness programme by parts of the body from the tumour and give rise to
NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation), secondary tumour. This is known as metastasis.
NGOs (Non-Governmental Organisations) Tumour may be benign or malignant depending
and WHO are to prevent the spreading of on its characteristics. Benign or non-cancerous
AIDS. tissues are capable of indefinite growth and do
not invade other body parts. In the malignant
7.5Autoimmune diseases tumour, the cells grow indefinitely, detach and
Autoimmunity is due to an abnormal migrate into healthy surrounding tissues.
immune response in which the immune system In normal cells, cell growth and differentiation
fails to properly distinguish between self and
is highly controlled and regulated. But in cancer
non-self and attacks its own body. Our body
cells, there is breakdown of this regulatory
produces antibodies (auto antibodies) and
7.6 Adolescence – drug and The drugs which are commonly abused
alcohol abuse include opioids, cannabinoids, coca-alkaloids,
Adolescence begins with a period of barbiturates, amphetamines and LSD.
rapid physical and sexual development called Opioids are drugs which bind to specific
puberty to maturity from 12 to 19 years of age. opioid receptors present in the central
Adolescence is also a highly dynamic period of nervous system and intestinal tract. Heroin
psychological and social changes in individuals. (smack) is chemically diacetyl morphine,
Adolescents are vulnerable to group (peer) which is white, odourless and bitter crystalline
pressure and many youngsters are pushed into compound. It is obtained by acetylation of
experimenting with drugs and alcohol. Proper morphine, which is extracted from flowers of
education and guidance would enable youth the poppy plant (Fig. 7.19). Morphine is one
to say no to drugs and alcohol and to follow a of the strongest pain killer and is used during
healthy life style. surgery. It is the most widely abused narcotic
drug which acts as a depressant and slows
Alcohol is a psychoactive drug, which
down body functions.
acts on the brain, affecting a person’s mind and
Cannobinoids are a group of chemicals
behaviour. It is a depressant, which slows down
obtained from Cannabis sativa, the Indian hemp
the activity of the nervous system. The intake
plant (Fig. 7.20). Natural cannabinoids are
of certain drugs for a purpose other than their the main source of marijuana, ganja, hashish
normal clinical use in an amount and frequency and charas. It interferes in the transport of the
that impair one’s physical, physiological and neurotransmitter, dopamine and has a potent
psychological functions is called drug abuse. stimulating action on the CNS, producing
increased energy and a sense of euphoria.
Fig. 7.19 Opium plant (poppy plant) Fig. 7.20 Cannabis sativa (Hemp plant)
Table 7.9 classification of drugs
Group Drugs Effects
Amphetamines, cocaine,
Stimulants Accelerates the activity of the brain
nicotine and tobacco
Alcohol, Barbiturates,
Depressants Slows down the activity of the brain
Tranquilizers
Narcotic/ Act as depressants on the Central
Opium, Morphine
Analgesics Nervous System
Cannabis Bhang (Marijuana), Ganja, Charas Affects the cardiovascular system.
Lysergic acid diethylamide Distorts the way one sees, hears and
Hallucinogens
(LSD), Phencyclidine feels
Cocaine is a white powder that is obtained only their jobs, homes and money, but also
from the leaves of the coca plant, Erythroxylum friendship, family relationships and contact
coca. It is commonly called coke or crack. Cocaine with the normal world. Addiction to drugs
causes serious physical and psychological and alcohol can lead to a psychological
problems including hallucinations and attachment to certain effects such as euphoria
paranoia. The other plants with hallucinogenic and temporary feeling of well being.
properties are Atropa belladonna and Datura Repeated use of drugs and alcohol may
(Fig. 7.21 and Fig. 7.22). affect the tolerance level of the receptors
present in the body. These receptors then
respond only to highest doses of drugs and
alcohol leading to greater intake and addiction.
Excessive use of drug and alcohol leads to
physical and psychological dependence.
When psychological dependence develops,
the drug user gets mentally ‘hooked on’ to
the drug. The drug user constantly thinks
only about the drug and has continuous
Fig. 7.21 Atropa Fig. 7.22Datura
belladonna uncontrollable craving for it. This state called
“euphoria” is characterized by mental and
Drugs like methamphetamine, emotional preoccupation with the drug.
amphetamines, barbiturates, tranquilizers, Physical dependence is a state in which
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are the user’s body requires a continuous presence
normally used as medicine to treat patients of the drug. If the intake of the drug or alcohol
with mental illness like depression and is abruptly stopped, he or she would develop
insomnia and are often abused. withdrawal symptoms. In a sense, the body
Tobacco is smoked, chewed and becomes confused and protests against the
used as snuff. It increases the carbon absence of the drug. The withdrawal symptoms
monoxide content of blood and reduces may range from mild tremors to convulsions,
the concentration of haem bound oxygen, severe agitation and fits, depressed mood, anxiety,
thus causing oxygen deficiency in the body. nervousness, restlessness, irritability, insomnia,
Tobacco contains nicotine, carbon monoxide dryness of throat, etc, depending on the type of
and tars, which cause problems in the heart, drug abuse.
lung and nervous system. Adrenal glands are
stimulated by nicotine to release adrenaline
and nor adrenaline which increases blood
pressure and heart beat. Alcoholism is the inability to control
drinking due to physical and emotional
7.6.1 Addiction and dependence dependence on alcohol. Treatment involves
Addiction is a physical or psychological counseling by a healthcare professional.
need to do or take or use certain substance Detoxification programme in a hospital or
such as alcohol, to the point where it could medical facility is an option for those who
be harmful to the individual. This addictive need additional assistance. Medications
behaviour can be personally destructive to are available to reduce the desire to drink
a person. Overtime addicts start to lose not and smoke.
7.6.2 Effects of drugs and alcohol 1. Effectively dealing with peer pressure
Short-term effect appears only for a few The biggest reason for teens to start
minutes after the intake of drugs and alcohol. on drugs is due to their friends / peer groups
The abuser feels a false sense of well being and imposing pressure on them. Hence, it is
a pleasant drowsiness. Some short term effects important to have a better group of friends to
are euphoria, pain, dullness of senses, alteration avoid such harmful drugs and alcohol.
in behaviour, blood pressure, narcosis (deep
sleep), nausea and vomiting. 2. Seeking help from parents and peers
Help from parents and peer group
Drugs and alcohol have long-term effect
should be sought immediately so that they can
that lead to serious damages, because of the
be guided appropriately. Help may even be
constant and excessive use. The physical and
sought from close and trusted friends. Getting
mental disturbance makes the life of the user
proper advice to sort out their problems would
unbearable and torturous. For example heavy
help the young to vent their feelings of anxiety
drinking permanently damages the liver
and guilt.
and brain.
The use of alcohol during adolescence may 3. Education and counselling
have long-term effects. Alcohol interferes with Education and counselling create
the ability of the liver to break down fat. Over positive attitude to deal with many problems
time fat accumulation and high levels of alcohol and to accept disappointments in life.
destroy the liver cells and a scar tissue grows in
the place of dead cells. This scarring of the liver
4. Looking for danger signs
Teachers and parents need to look
is called “Liver cirrhosis”. Alcohol irritates the
for sign that indicate tendency to go in for
stomach lining due to the production of excess
acid leading to ulcers. Excessive alcohol use addiction.
weakens the heart muscle, causing scar tissue 5. Seeking professional and
to build up in the cardiac muscle fibers. As a medical assistance
result, heavy drinkers have an increased risk Assistance is available in the form of
of high blood pressure, stroke, coronary artery highly qualified psychologists, psychiatrists and
disease and heart attack. Korsakoff syndrome, de-addiction and rehabilitation programmes to
a chronic memory disorder is most commonly help individuals to overcome their problems.
caused by alcohol misuse.
7.7 Mental health – Depression
7.6.3 Prevention and control
Mental health is a state of well being of
It is practically possible to prevent some
the mind, with self esteem. Self esteem means
one from using drugs and alcohol. Here are
liking yourself and being able to stand up for what
some ways that help to prevent drug and
you believe is right. Positive mental health is an
alcohol abuse.
Alcoholic Anonymous
Alcoholic anonymous was started in 1935 by a businessman and a doctor who had been a
“hopeless drunk” for many years. After the men helped each other to stop drinking and to stay
sober, they then founded the alcoholic anonymous to help other alcoholics. Since that time
alcoholic anonymous has spread throughout the world.
organs. The secondary lymphoid organs are a) CNS stimulant b) both a and b
lymph node, MALT, GALT and BALT. c) hallucinogenic d) CNS depressants
An antigen is a substance that is 5. Choose the correctly match pair.
specific to an antibody. An immunogen is a
a) Amphetamines - Stimulant
substance capable of initiating an immune
response. Haptens are substance that are b) LSD - Narcotic
non-immunogenic but can react with the c) Heroin - Psychotropic
product of a specific immune response. d) Benzodiazepine - Pain killer
Substances that can enhance the immune
response to an antigen are called adjuvants. 6. The Athlete’s foot disease in human is
Precipitation, agglutination, neutralization, caused by-------
opsonisation etc. are the different types of a) Bacteria b) Fungi
antigen and antibody reaction. A vaccine is c) Virus d) Protozoan
biological preparation that provides active 7. Cirrhosis of liver is caused by chronic
acquired immunity. The malfunctioning of intake of ------
immune system leads to hypersensitivity,
a) Opium b) Alcohol
immunodeficiency or autoimmune diseases.
A tumour or neoplasm is a group of cells c) Tobacco d) Cocaine
whose growth has gone unchecked. 8. The sporozoite of the malarial parasite is
Evaluation present in ----
INTERESTING FACTS
1. Freezing does not kill bacteria; it only 5. Iceland and the Faroe islands are the only
arrests their growth. countries in the world, where there are
2. Antibiotics not only kill harmful bacteria, “No mosquitos” (Mosquito free countries)
but also kill beneficial bacteria of our body. 6. Sterile insect technique (SIT) - The screw-
3. UTI- Urinary Tract Infection is one of worm fly was the first pest successfully
the most common bacterial infections eliminated from an area through the
affecting 150 million people each year sterile insect technique, by the use of an
worldwide. integrated area-wide approach.
4. World malaria day is on 25th April 7. Zika virus could become a surgical weapon
against brain cancer.
6OHHSLQJ
VLFNQHVV
+DVKLPRWR¶V
WK\URLGLWLV
)LODULDVLV
+HOPLQWKLF +HDOWKDQG
+XPDQ $XWRLPPXQH *UDYH¶V
KHDOWKDQG ,PPXQRORJ\ GLVHDVHV
GLVHDVHV GLVHDVHV GLVHDVHV
$VFDULDVLV
GLVHDVHV
$GGLVRQ¶V
GLVHDVHV
&DQGLGLDVLV
)XQJDO 6FRSHRI
$WKOHWH¶V
IRRW
GLVHDVHV LPPXQRORJ\
9LUDO
KHSDWLWLV
8ULQDU\WUDFW 0HQWDO ,PPXQH
LQIHFWLRQ &RPPRQ 9LUDO
FROG &KLNXQJXQ\D KHDOWK GHILFLHQF\
GLVHDVHV GHSUHVVLRQ GLVHDVH
0XPSV 3ROLRP\HOLWLV
Concept Map
25-02-2019 19:18:34
www.asiriyar.net
www.asiriyar.net
ICT CORNER
Human Health and Diseases
Procedure :
Step -1 : Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page. Click “To enter the lab” to
start the test.
Step -2 : Follow the interactive steps guided by the virtual lab starting from centrifugation and to
ELISA.
Step -3 : On the right, Find the different headers such as “Diagnosis, Background, Notebook,
Glossary and Help” and click to know the virtual procedure happening aside on the left.
Step – 4 : Find “Launch Gene Body” on the right bottom of the window, and Click it to analyse
and understand about the cloning.
Step -5: Complete this ELISA to know a patient acquired the disease or not.
Step 4
IMMUNOLOGY URL:
http://media.hhmi.org/biointeractive/vlabs/immunology/index.html?_
ga=2.219254809.1253796128.1545143882-264360672.1545143882
8
UNIT - III
Microbes in
Human Welfare
CHAPTER
142
o
temperature (≤40 C) multiply and convert di-oxide, which is responsible for leavening of
milk into curd. Curd is more nutritious than dough. When leavened dough is baked, both
milk as it contains a number of organic acids carbon-di-oxide and ethyl alcohol evaporate
and vitamins. making the bread porous and soft.
Antibiotic resistance
Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria
develop the ability to defeat the drug designed
to kill or inhibit their growth. It is one of the
most acute threat to public health. Antibiotic
resistance is accelerated by the misuse and
over use of antibiotics, as well as poor infection
prevention control. Antibiotics should be used
H only when prescribed by a certified health
Penicillium N S
chrysogenum professional. When the bacteria become
O
O
N resistant, antibiotics cannot fight against them
OH and the bacteria multiply. Narrow spectrum
O
antibiotics are preferred over broad spectrum
antibiotics. They effectively and accurately target
Stap
Staphylococcus aureus
specific pathogenic organisms and are less likely
Fig. 8.1 Discovery of penicillin to cause resistance. "Superbug" is a term used to
Biodiesel is a fuel made from vegetable oils, fats or greases. Biodiesel fuel can be used in diesel
engines without altering the engine. Pure biodiesel is non-toxic, biodegradable and produces
lower level of air pollutants than petroleum-based diesel fuel. The Government of India
approved the National Policy on Biofuels in December 2009 and identified Jatropha curcas as
the most suitable oilseed for biodiesel production. Pongamia species is also a suitable choice
for production of biodiesel.
Primary Secondary
sludge Anaerobic sludge
sludge digester
Production of biogas
substances, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. bacteria and mimicking bacterial interaction
UV is an ideal disinfectant for wastewater since found in nature (Fig. 8.3). Microbial fuel cells
it does not alter the water quality – except for work by allowing bacteria to oxidize and reduce
inactivating microorganisms. UV is a chemical- organic molecules. Bacterial respiration is basically
free process that can completely replace one big redox reaction in which electrons are
the existing chlorination system and also being moved around. A MFC consists of an anode
inactivates chlorine-resistant microorganisms and a cathode separated by a proton exchange
like Cryptosporidium and Giardia. membrane. Microbes at the anode oxidize the
organic fuel generating protons which pass
Act enforced by Government to through the membrane to the cathode and the
conserve water bodies electrons pass through the anode to the external
National river conservation plan (NRCP) circuit to generate current.
was enacted in 1995 to improve the water
quality of the rivers, which are the major
e-
fresh water resources in our country. This
e-
important assignment taken up under the
NRCP includes, Substrate C
A a O2 + 4H+
• To capture the raw sewage flowing into the n t
river through open drains and divert them o h
for treatment. d o
Re e 2H2O
• Setting up sewage treatment plants for d
OX e
treating the diverted sewage.
CO2 H+ H+
• Construction of low cost sanitation toilets to
prevent open defecation on river banks.
Proton exchange membrane
The ministry for environment, forest and
climate change has initiated the Ganga action Fig. 8.3 Microbial fuel cell
plan and the Yamuna action plan to save the 8.4 Microbes in the production of
major rivers of the country.
biogas (Gobar gas)
The Ganga action plan was launched on Biogas is a mixture of different gases
14th January 1986. The main objective of the produced by the breakdown of organic matter in
programme is to improve the water quality of the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced
River Ganges by interception, diversion and from raw materials such as agricultural wastes,
treatment of domestic sewage and to identify manure, municipal wastes, plant material,
grossly polluting units to prevent pollution. sewage, food waste, etc., Biogas is produced
The Yamuna Action Plan is a bilateral under anaerobic condition, when the organic
project between the Government of India and materials are converted through microbiological
Japan. It was formally launched in April 1993. It reactions into gas and organic fertilizer. Biogas
was proposed to build large number of sewage primarily consists of methane (63 percent), along
treatment plants to discharge treated wastewater with CO2 and hydrogen. Methane producing
into the rivers. bacteria are called methanogens and one such
common bacterium is Methanobacterium.
8.3.2 Microbial fuel cell(MFC)
Biogas is devoid of smell and burns with a blue
A microbial fuel cell is a bio-electrochemical
flame without smoke. The Methanogens are also
system that drives an electric current by using
present in anaerobic sludge and rumen of cattle.
chrysosporium an anaerobic
fungus exhibits strong
potential for bioremediation
Microorganism of pesticides, polyaromatic
O
hydrocarbons, dyes,
O
+ H2
2
+H
CO 2
oil
2
CO
oil CO 2
O
+ H2 trinitrotoluene, cyanides,
carbon tetrachloride, etc.,
Microorganisms Microorganisms digest Microorganisms Dehalococcoides species are
eat oil or other oil and convert it to give off
organic contaminants carbon dioxide (CO ) CO and H O
responsible for anaerobic
2 2 2
and water (H O)
2 bioremediation of toxic
trichloroethene to non-
toxic ethane. Pestalotiopsis
Fig. 8.6 The process of bioremediation microspora is a species of
endophytic fungus capable
(treatment of contaminated soil or water in the
of breaking down and digesting polyurethane.
site) and ex situ bioremediation (treatment of
This makes the fungus a potential candidate
contaminated soil or water that is removed
for bioremediation projects involving large
from the site and treated) .
quantities of plastics.
8.6.1 Microorganisms involved
in bioremediation Breaks down
PET into
Ideonella sakaiensis
adhere to
Aerobic microbes degrade the terephthalic acid
& ethylene glycol
PET film
3URGXFWLRQRI
IHUPHQWHGEHYHUDJHV 3ULPDU\ 1RVWRF$QDEDHQD 0HWKDQRJHQV &XUG 0LFURELDOIXHO
$]RVSLULOOXP 2UJDQLFIDUPLQJ %LRZHHGLFLGHV %LRSHVWLFLGH
WUHDWPHQW JURZ FHOOV
5KL]RELXP DQDHURELFDOO\RQ
0\FRUUKL]DDQG FHOOXORVLFPDWHULDO
3URGXFWLRQRIDQWLELRWLFV &\DQREDFWHULD <RJXUW
DQGSURGXFH
FDUERQGLR[LGH
0\FRKHUELFLGH DQGK\GURJHQ
DORQJZLWK &KHHVH
&KHPLFDOVOLNHFLWULFDFLG 6HFRQGDU\ %WKXULQJLHQVLV
DFHWLFDFLGODFWLFDFLG WUHDWPHQW PHWKDQH
EXW\ULFDFLGHWF
%UHDG
3URGXFWLRQRI
%LRDFWLYHPROHFXOHV &U\JHQHSURGXFH
GHOWDHQGRWR[LQ
7HUWLDU\ DQGNLOOLQJHVWLQJ
WUHDWPHQW LQVHFWV
25-02-2019 19:20:04
www.asiriyar.net
www.asiriyar.net
ICT CORNER
MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
Procedure :
Step -1: Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page and click “START” to
begin the fermentation experiment.
Step -2: Click “next” for all the flasks combination.
Step -3: When the “Matching Game” starts to know the result, “Drag and place” the
combination perfectly to their respective flasks.
Step – 4 :Go on through the other tests, explanations and the principle involved in the
fermentation process.
Step 4
9
UNIT - IV
Applications of
biotechnology
CHAPTER
"Our world is built on biology"
Chapter outline
9.1 Applications in Medicine
B efore we start this chapter, it will be helpful
if you revise the structure of DNA, Protein
synthesis and genetic engineering. Genetic
9.2 Gene therapy engineering involves the manipulation of DNA
9.3 Stem Cell Therapy and naturally occurring processes such as protein
9.4 Molecular Diagnosis synthesis for a wide range of applications including
9.5 Transgenic Animals the production of therapeutically important
9.6 Biological products and proteins. This also involves extracting a gene from
their uses one organism and transferring it to the DNA of
9.7 Animal cloning another organism, of the same or another species.
The DNA produced in this way is referred to as
9.8 Ethical issues
recombinant DNA (rDNA) and this technique as
recombinant DNA technology. All these are part of
the broad field biotechnology which can be defined
as the applications of scientific and engineering
principles to the processing of material by biological
Learning objectives
agents to provide goods and services.
155
Extraction &
DNA Introduction of purification of
recombinant human insulin
DNA into a C chain
bacterial cell Recombinant A chain
Bacterium COOH
Human H2N
pancreas cell Signal B chain
Human Recombinant
peptide
Pre pro insulin
insulin-producing bacteria
gene multiplying C chain
Plasmid S
S
S
S
DNA H 2N COOH
B chain
Bacterium
Human insulin Insulin
Somatic cell nuclear transfer is a could be treated by injecting hGH extracted from
technique for creating a viable embryo from the human pituitary glands.
a body cell and an egg cell. This technique is Using recombinant DNA technology hGH
discussed later in animal cloning. can be produced (Fig.9.2). The gene for hGH is
isolated from the human pituitary gland cells.
The isolated gene is inserted into a plasmid
In 1997, Rosie, the first
vector and then is transferred into E. coli. The
transgenic cow produced
recombinant E. coli then starts producing human
human protein enriched
growth hormone.The recombinant E. coli are
milk, which contained the
isolated from the culture and mass production of
human alpha lactalbumin. The protein
hGH is carried out by fermentation technology.
rich milk (2.4 gm/litre) was a nutritionally
balanced food for new born babies than A recombinant form of human growth
the normal milk produced by the cows. hormone called somatropin is used as a drug to
treat growth disorders in children.
9.1.2 Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
9.1.3 Human Blood-Clotting
At about the same time when recombinant
Factor VIII
insulin was first made in E. coli, other research
You would have studied in your earlier
groups worked on human growth hormones
class that many factors are required for normal
somatostatin and somatotropin. These are
blood clotting process and the factor VIII is
peptide hormones secreted by the pituitary
one of them. The genes for the formation of
gland that helps in the growth and development
factor VIII is located in the X chromosome. A
by increasing the uptake of amino acids and
genetic defect in the synthesis of factor VIII
promoting protein synthesis. Deficiency of
results in Haemophilia A, a sex-linked disease
human growth hormone causes dwarfism, which
EcoRI
DNA
recombination
Sticky
ends
Human Cell
DNA
Bacterial Cell insertion
Bacterial
chromosome
EcoRI
The recombinant vaccine for hepatitis B (HbsAg) was the first synthetic vaccine launched in 1997
which was marketed by trade names Recombivax and Engerix-B. India is the fourth country in
the world after USA, France and Belgium to develop an indigenous hepatitis B vaccine.
DNA
HB
Recombinant vaccine
Bacterium
Extraction &
Hepatitis B purification of
Virus HB antigen HB vaccine
producing
gene Recombinant yeast
Recombinant cell multiplying and
DNA producing HB antigen
in fermentation tank
Bacterial Plasmid DNA
DNA cut with restriction
enzymes Fermentation
Tank
Plasmid
DNA
Bacterium HB antigen
Bacterium carrying
plasmid with cloned normal Genetically disabled
human ADA gene retrovirus
Retrovirus infects
T cells, transfer
ADA gene to cells
Cells are grown
in culture to
ensure ADA gene
is active
The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 by French Anderson to a four year old
girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. ADA deficiency or SCID (Severe combined
immunodeficiency) is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder. It is caused by the deletion or
dysfunction of the gene coding for ADA enzyme. In these patients the nonfunctioning T-Lymphocytes
cannot elicit immune responses against invading pathogens.The right approach for SCID treatment
would be to give the patient a functioning ADA which breaks down toxic biological products.
In some children ADA deficiency could be cured by bone marrow transplantation, where
defective immune cells could be replaced with healthy immune cells from a donor. In some patients it
can be treated by enzyme replacement therapy, in which functional ADA is injected into the patient.
During gene therapy the lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are removed and grown in a
nutrient culture medium. A healthy and functional human gene, ADA cDNA encoding this enzyme
is introduced into the lymphocytes using a retrovirus. The genetically engineered lymphocytes are
subsequently returned to the patient. Since these cells are not immortal, the patient requires periodic
infusion of such genetically engineered lymphocytes. The disease could be cured permanently if the
gene for ADA isolated from bone marrow cells are introduced into the cells of the early embryonic
stages.
therapy which involves insertion of DNA into body. ES cells are immortal i.e., they can proliferate
the genome to replace the missing gene product in a sterile culture medium and maintain their
and Gene inhibition therapy which involves undifferentiated state.
insertion of the anti sense gene which inhibits
the expression of the dominant gene (Fig. 9. 4). More
Stem cell
Stem cell
The two approaches to achieve gene therapy
are somatic cell and germ line gene therapy.
Somatic cell therapy involves the insertion of
a fully functional and expressible gene into a
target somatic cell to correct a genetic disease
Muscle cell Neuron
permanently whereas Germline gene therapy
involves the introduction of DNA into germ cells
which is passed on to the successive generations.
Red blood corpuscles
Gene therapy involves isolation of a specific
gene and making its copies and inserting them Fig. 9.5 Embryonic stem cells
into target cells to make the desired proteins.
It is absolutely essential for gene therapists to Adult stem cells are found in various tissues
ensure that the gene is harmless to the patient of children as well as adults. An adult stem cell or
and it is appropriately expressed and that the somatic stem cell can divide and create another
body’s immune system does not react to the cell similar to it. Most of the adult stem cells are
foreign proteins produced by the new genes. multipotent and can act as a repair system of the
body, replenishing adult tissues.The red bone
9.3 Stem Cell Therapy marrow is a rich source of adult stem cells.
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells found The most important and potential application
in most of the multi cellular animals. These cells of human stem cells is the generation of cells and
maintain their undifferentiated state even after tissues that could be used for cell based therapies.
undergoing numerous mitotic divisions. Human stem cells could be used to test new drugs.
Stem cell research has the potential to
revolutionize the future of medicine with the ability Totipotency (Toti-total) is the ability
of a single cell to divide and produce all of the
to regenerate damaged and diseased organs. Stem differentiated cells in an organism.
cells are capable of self renewal and exhibit ‘cellular Pluripotency (Pluri-several) refers to a
potency’. Stem cells can differentiate into all types stem cell that has the potential to differentiate
of cells that are derived from any of the three germ into any of the three germ layers-ectoderm,
layers ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. endoderm and mesoderm.
Multipotency (multi-Many) refers to the
In mammals there are two main types of stem cells that can differentiate into various
stem cells – embryonic stem cells (ES cells) and types of cells that are related. For example blood
adult stem cells. ES cells are pluripotent and can stem cells can differentiate into lymphocytes,
produce the three primary germ layers ectoderm, monocytes , neutrophils etc.,
mesoderm and endoderm. Embryonic stem cells Oligopotency (Oligo-Few) refers to stem
cells that can differentiate into few cell types.
are multipotent stem cells that can differentiate
For example lymphoid or myeloid stem cells
into a number of types of cells (Fig. 9.5). ES cells can differentiate into B and T cells but not RBC.
are isolated from the epiblast tissue of the inner Unipotency ( Uni- Single) refers to the
cell mass of a blastocyst. When stimulated ES can ability of the stem cells to differentiate into only
develop into more than 200 cells types of the adult one cell type.
Target
Antigen
Capture
Antibody
ELISA is a biochemical procedure and specific method used for diagnosis. ELISA
discovered by Eva Engvall and Peter Perlmanin possesses the added advantages of not requiring
(1971) to detect the presence of specific radioisotopes or a radiation counting apparatus.
antibodies or antigens in a sample of serum, PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
urine, etc., It is a very important diagnostic The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is
tool to determine if a person is HIV positive an invitro amplification technique used for
or negative. ELISA is a tool for determining synthesising multiple identical copies (billions)
serum antibody concentrations (such as the of DNA of interest. The technique was developed
antibodies produced in a person infected by by Kary Mullis (Nobel laureate, 1993) in the
pathogens such as HIV) and also for detecting year 1983.
the presence of specific antigens and hormones
Denaturation, renaturation or primer
such as human chorionic gonadotropins.
annealing and synthesis or primer extension,
During diagnosis the sample suspected are the three steps involved in PCR (Fig. 9.7).
to contain the antigen is immobilized on The double stranded DNA of interest is denatured
the surface of an ELISA plate (Fig. 9.6). The to separate into two individual strands by high
antibody specific to this antigen is added and temperature . This is called denaturation. Each
allowed to react with the immobilized antigen. strand is allowed to hybridize with a primer
The anti-antibody is linked to an appropriate (renaturation or primer annealing). The primer
enzyme like peroxidase. The unreacted anti- template is used to synthesize DNA by using Taq –
antbody is washed away and the substrate of the DNA polymerase.
enzyme (hydrogen peroxidase) is added with
During denaturation the reaction mixture is
certain reagents such as 4-chloronaphthol. The
heated to 950 C for a short time to denature the
activity of the enzyme yields a coloured product
target DNA into single strands that will act as a
indicating the presence of the antigen. The
template for DNA synthesis. Annealing is done by
intensity of the colour is directly proportional
rapid cooling of the mixture, allowing the primers
to the amount of the antigen. ELISA is highly
to bind to the sequences on each of the two strands
sensitive and can detect antigens in the range of
flanking the target DNA. During primer extension
a nanogram.
or synthesis the temperature of the mixture is
There are four kinds of ELISA namely, increased to 750C for a sufficient period of time to
Direct ELISA, Indirect ELISA, sandwich ELISA allow Taq DNA polymerase to extend each primer
and competitive ELISA. It is a highly sensitive by copying the single stranded template. At the
5’ 3’
3’ 5’
5’ 3’
Nucleotide
5’ 3’
3’ 5’
DNA primer 3’ 5’
Original
DNA
5’ 3’
3’ 5’
Fig. 9.7 Steps involved in PCR
163 Applications of biotechnology
end of incubation both single template strands be present. Its DNA has unique sequences that
will be made partially double stranded. The new can be detected by PCR, often using the clinical
strand of each double stranded DNA extends to specimen (for example, blood, stool, spinal fluid,
a variable distance downstream. These steps are or sputum) in the PCR mixture. PCR is also
repeated again and again to generate multiple employed in the prenatal diagnosis of inherited
forms of the desired DNA. This process is also diseases by using chorionic villi samples or cells
called DNA amplification (Fig. 9.8). from amniocentesis. Diseases like sickle cell
anemia, β-thalassemia and phenylketonuria
Targeted sequence
5’
can be detected by PCR in these samples.
3’
5’ 3’ cDNA from PCR is a valuable tool for diagnosis
Heat, cool, add and monitoring retroviral infections – eg.
primers to get
ssDNA that Tuberculosis by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
primers anneal to
Several virally induced cancers, like
5’ 3’ 3’ 5’
cervical cancer caused by Papilloma virus
Primer Primer
can be detected by PCR. Sex of human beings
Add Taq polymerase,
and live stocks, embryos fertilized invitro can
dGTP, dCTP, dATP, dTTP be determined by PCR by using primers and
to synthesize
complimentary strand DNA probes specific for sex chromosomes.
3’ 5’ 3’ 5’ PCR technique is also used to detect sex-
5’ 3’ 5’ 3’ linked disorders in fertilized embryos.
Repeat cycle
25 to 75 times
Applications of PCR
The differences in the genomes of two
Fig. 9.8 Polymerase chain reaction
different organisms can be studied by PCR. PCR
The PCR technique can also be used for
is very important in the study of evolutions,
amplifications of RNA in which case it is referred
more specifically phylogenetics. As a technique
to as reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR). In this
which can amplify even minute quantities of
process the RNA molecules (mRNA) must be
DNA from any source, like hair, mummified
converted to complementary DNA by the enzyme
tissues, bones or any fossilized materials.
reverse transcriptase. The cDNA then serves as
the template for PCR. PCR technique can also be used in the
PCR In Clinical Diagnosis field of forensic medicine . A single molecule
of DNA from blood stains, hair, semen of an
The specificity and sensitivity of PCR is
individual is adequate for amplification by PCR.
useful for the diagnosis of inherited disorders
The amplified DNA is used to develop DNA
(genetic diseases), viral diseases, bacterial
fingerprint which is used as an important tool
diseases, etc., The diagnosis and treatment of
in forensic science.Thus, PCR is very useful for
a particular disease often requires identifying
identification of criminals. PCR is also used in
a particular pathogen. Traditional methods of
amplification of specific DNA segment to be
identification involve culturing these organisms
used in gene therapy.
from clinical specimens and performing
metabolic and other tests to identify them.
The concept behind PCR based diagnosis of
9.5 Transgenic Animals
In early days selective breeding
infectious diseases is simple – if the pathogen
methods were carried out to improve the
is present in a clinical specimen its DNA will
genetic characteristics of live stock and
Human
gene E
Egg
donor
Egg Culture in
oviduct tissue
Micro injection of
human gene
Implant 6 day old
embryo in surrogate
Blastocyst
Development
within a host goat
Dolly
Transgenic
goat
Fig. 9. 10 Cloning of dolly
Milk from
transgenic goat developed by the nuclear transfer technique
and the phenomenon of totipotency.
Fig.9. 9 Production of transgenic Totipotency refers to the potential of a cell
animals to develop different cells, tissues, organs and
9.7 Animal Cloning finally an organism.
Cloning is the process of producing The mammary gland udder cells (somatic
genetically identical individuals of an organism cells) from a donor sheep (ewe) were isolated
either naturally or artificially. In nature many and subjected to starvation for 5 days. The
organisms produce clones through asexual udder cells could not undergo normal growth
reproduction. cycle, entered a dormant stage and became
Cloning in biotechnology refers to the totipotent. An ovum (egg cell) was taken
process of creating copies of organisms or copies from another sheep (ewe) and its nucleus was
of cells or DNA fragments (molecular cloning). removed to form an enucleated ovum. The
dormant mammary gland cell/udder cell and
Dolly was the first mammal (Sheep)
the enucleated ovum were fused. The outer
clone developed by Ian Wilmut and Campbell
membrane of the mammary cell was ruptured
in 1997. Dolly, the transgenic clone was
allowing the ovum to envelope the nucleus.
ICT CORNER
Applications of biotechnology Science for a
better life
Procedure :
Step -1: Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page and click “Click to enter
the lab” to begin.
Step -2: Click wherever the cursor symbol becomes as “Hand” symbol as that would lead for
the next step.
Step -3 Follow the instructions for all the six steps “Prepare DNA to Examine Light Output”.
Step – 4 : Explore the “Use Transgenic flies” a dialog box option found below the lab area to
know uses.
Step 4
10
UNIT - V
Organisms and
Population
CHAPTER
171
10. Organism and its environment (respiration), air sacs (floatation) and kidneys
Every living organism has its own (excretion).
specific surrounding, medium or environment Niche (or) Ecological Niche
with which it continuously interacts and As every organism has its unique habitat,
develops suitable adaptations for survival so also it has an ecological niche which includes
there. Environment is a collective term which the physical space occupied by an organism
includes the different conditions in which an and its functional role in the community.
organism lives or is present. The common and The ecological niche of an organism not only
influencing factors in any environment are light, depends on where it lives but also includes the
temperature, pressure, water, salinity. These are sum total of its environmental requirements.
collectively referred to as Abiotic components. Charles Elton (1927) was the first to
Environments are variable and dynamic, in use the term ‘niche’ as the functional status
which temperature changes and light changes of an organism in its community. Groups
are diurnal and seasonal. These influence the of species with comparable role and niche
organisms inhabiting them. An organism’s dimensions within a community are termed
growth, distribution, number, behavior and ‘guilds’. Species that occupy the same niche
reproduction is determined by the different in different geographical regions, are termed
factors present in the environment. ‘ecological equivalents’.
Many animals share the same general
10.2 Habitat habitat. But their niches are well defined. The
A habitat can be considered as the ‘address’ life style of an individual population in the
of the organism. The collection of all the habitat habitat is known as its niche. For example,
areas of a species constitutes its geographical crickets and grasshoppers are closely related
range. Organisms in a habitat interact with each insects that live in the same habitat, yet
other and can be part of trophic levels to form they occupy different ecological niches. The
food chains and food webs. grasshopper is very active during daylight. It
Examples: In a xerophytic habitat, the can usually be found on a plant, feeding on the
camel is able to use water efficiently and plant parts. Although the cricket lives in the
effectively for evaporative cooling through their same field, it is quite different. During the day,
skin and respiratory system. They excrete highly the cricket hides under leaves or plant debris
concentrated urine and can also withstand and is usually inactive. It is active at night time
dehydration upto 25% of the body weight. The (nocturnal). The cricket and the grasshopper
hoofs and hump are also suitable adaptations do not interfere with each other’s activities in
for survival in this dry sandy environment. the same habitat. Thus, niche of an organism
In an aquatic media, maintaining can be defined as the total position and
homeostasis and osmotic balance is a challenge. function of an individual in its environment.
So, marine animals have appropriate adaptations In a pond ecosystem, where Catla, Rohu
to prevent cell shrinkage. While freshwater and Mrigal are present, the ecological niche of
organisms have suitable adaptations to withstand the Catla is a surface feeder, Rohu is a column
bursting of their cells. Apart from this, organisms feeder and Mrigal is a bottom feeder. Their
such as fish have a wide range of adaptations mouths are designed to suit their niche and
like fins (locomotion), streamlined body hence have different positions and functions in
(aerodynamic), lateral line system (sensory), gills their habitat. (Fig.10.1)
VLV
RUDXWRO\V
QGRUDXWRO\
3K\WRSODQNWRQ 0DFURSK\WHV
of animals are influenced by temperature. Birds
1XWULHQWV ([FUHWLRQDQG
([FUHWLRQD
and mammals attain greater body size in colder
&ROXPQ
IHHGHU5RKX
=RRSODQNWRQ
1XWULHQWV
%HQWKRV
%RWWRP
IHHGHU0ULJDO
tend to have shorter limbs, ears and other
0LFURELDOGHFRPSRVLWLRQ
appendages when compared to the members of
Fig.10.1 Types of feeders (niche) in pond ecosystem the same species in warmer climates (Allen’s
rule). In some aquatic environments, an inverse
relationship between water temperature and
10.3 Major Abiotic Components fish meristic characters is observed - lower the
or Factors temperature, more the vertebrae (Jordon’s rule).
The abiotic factors include the chemical
Bergman's rule
and physical factors which influence or affect Bergman's rule is an eco geographic principle
organisms and their functioning in their that states that within broadly distributed
taxoncmic clade, populations and
environment. The common abiotic factors are: species of larger size are found in
colder and of smaller
Temperature size are in warmer
regions.
Temperature or degree of hotness and
coldness is an essential and variable factor in
any environment. It influences all forms of life
by affecting many vital activities of organisms
like metabolism, behaviour, reproduction,
7KH$OOHQ5XOH
development and even death in the Biosphere. )URPWKHQRUWKHUQDUFWLFKDUH/DUFWLFXVWKURXJKWKHPRUH
The minimum and maximum temperature of an VRXWKHUO\GHVHUWMDFNUDEELW/DOOHQLKDUHVVKRZSURJUHVVLYHO\
ORQJHUH[WUHPLWLHVOHJV HDUVDQGOHDQHUERGLHV
environment regulates the survival of a cell.
(cat, dog, tiger, human). Eurythermy can be calories) and duration (length of day) of light
an evolutionary advantage: adaptations to cold are considered significant for organisms.
temperatures (cold-eurythemy) are seen as Light influences growth, pigmentation,
essential for the survival of species during ice migration and reproduction. The
ages. In addition, the ability to survive in a
intensity and frequency of light influences
wide range of temperatures increases a species'
metabolic activity, induce gene mutations
ability to inhabit other areas, an advantage
(UV, X- rays). Light is essential for vision. This
for natural selection. Eurythermy is an aspect of
thermoregulation in organisms. is proved by the poorly developed or absence
of eyes in cave dwelling organisms. Diapause is
Those organisms which can tolerate only a
also influenced by light in animals. Gonads of
narrow range of temperature are Stenotherms
(Fish, Frogs, Lizards and Snakes). birds become more active with increasing light
Over the course of time, by evolution,
animals of different ecological habitats have Phototaxis: The movement of
developed different variations and adaptations organism in response to light, either towards
to temperature changes. It enabled them to the source of light as in Moths (positive
survive in different habitats and develop niches. phototaxis) or away from light (Euglena,
In case of extreme temperatures, organisms have Volvox, earthworm (negative phototaxis).
adapted by forming heat resistant spores, cysts Phototropism: The growth or
(Entamoeba), antifreeze proteins (Arctic fishes). orientation of an organism in response
Hibernation (winter sleep) and Aestivation to light, either towards the source of light
(Summer sleep) are useful adaptations to
(positive phototropism) as seen in Sunflower,
overcome extreme winters and summers. In
or a way from light (negative phototropism)
certain conditions, migration is an appropriate
as in case of the root of plants.
adaptation to overcome extreme temperatures
and resultant water and food scarcity (Fig 10.2). Photokinesis: A change in the speed
of locomotion (or frequency of turning)
Light in a motile organism or cell which is made
It is an important and essential abiotic in response to a change in light intensity is
factor. Ecologically, the quality (wavelength or called Photokinesis. It involves undirected
colour), the intensity (actual energy in gram random movement in response to light.
6WHQRWKHUPDO 6WHQRWKHUPDO
ROLJRWKHUPDO (XU\WKHUPDO SRO\WKHUPDO
2SWLPXP
$FWLYLW\
2SWLPXP 2SWLPXP
7HPSHUDWXUH
Fig. 10.2 Types of Organisms based on temperature tolerance
Organisms and populations 174
in summer. Light influences the locomotion freeze, while below the surface, water will be
and movement of lower animals. in liquid form, sustaining life(Fig. 10.3).
Û&
WATER
Û&
Life on earth began in the seas and water ,&(
2. Porosity – The space present between soil Relative humidity is the amount of water
particles in a given volume of soil are called vapour present in air and is expressed as a
pore spaces. The percentage of soil volume percentage of the amount needed for saturation
occupied by pore space or by the interstitial at the same temperature Relative humidity is
spaces is called porosity of the soil. expressed as a percentage; a high percentage
3. Permeability of soil-The characteristic means that the air-water mixture is more
of soil that determines the movement of humid at a given temperature. Humidity is
water through pore spaces is known as soil measured with a Hygrometer.
permeability. Soil permeability is directly
dependent on the pore size. Water holding Altitude
capacity of the soil is inversely dependent This factor is mainly the elevation or gradient
on soil porosity. and it affects temperature and precipitation in
an ecosystem or biome. As altitude increases,
4. Soil Temperature-Soil gets its heat energy
temperature and density of oxygen decreases.
from solar radiation, decomposing organic
Higher altitudes usually receive snow instead of
matter, and heat from the interior of earth.
rain because of low temperature.
Soil temperature effects the germination
of seeds, growth of roots and biological Animals are known to modify their
activity of soil-inhabiting micro-and macro- response to environmental changes (stress) in
organisms. reasonably short time spans. This is known as
Acclimatization. This is observed when people
5. Soil water- In soil, water is not only important
who have moved from the plains to higher
as a solvent and transporting agent, but also
altitudes show enhanced RBC count within a
maintains soil texture, arrangement and
few days of settling in their new habitat. This
compactness of soil particles, making soil
helps them cope with lower atmospheric oxygen
habitable for plants and animals.
and higher oxygen demand.
Wind
Wind is the natural movement of air of any 10.4 Concept of biome and their
velocity from a particular direction. The two distribution
main causes are differential heating between Biomes are large regions of earth that
the equator and the poles and the rotation have similar or common vegetation and
of the planet (Coriolis effect). Wind helps to climatic conditions. They play a crucial role
transport pollen grains, seeds, and even flight in sustaining life on Earth. They are defined
by their soil, climate, flora and fauna. Biomes
of birds. While it is the source of wind energy,
have distinct biological communities that
it also causes erosion. Wind speed is measured
have been formed in response to a shared
with an Anemometer.
physio-chemical climate. Biomes are seen to
even spread across continents. Thus, it can be
Humidity observed that a biome is a broader term than
Moisture in the form of invisible vapor habitat. Any biome can comprise a variety of
in the atmosphere is called humidity. which habitats. Factors such as temperature, light,
is generally expressed in terms of absolute water availability determine what type of
humidity, relative humidity or specific humidity. organisms and adaptations are observed in a
Absolute humidity is the total mass of water biome (Fig. 10.4).
vapour present in a given volume or mass of air.
It does not take temperature into consideration.
7XQGUD
zones are influenced by aquatic bodies (Fig. 10.6).
H
6XEDUFWLF
HUD
PS
7HPSHUDWH
FUH
7HPSHUDWH 7HPSHUDWH
3. Marine (Coral reefs, pelagic zones and
'H
30◦N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricom
30◦S
Temperate forest
Only scattered remnants of original
•• These forests occur in eastern North temperate forests remain today.
America, northeastern Asia and western
and central Europe. Desert biomes
•• Have well-defined seasons with a distinct •• Deserts cover about one fifth of the earth's
winter. Moderate climate and a growing surface and occur where rainfall is >500
season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost- mm/year.
free months distinguish temperate forests. •• Rainfall is usually very low and/or
•• Annual temperature varies from -30° C to concentrated in short bursts between
30° C. long rainless periods. Evaporation rates
•• Precipitation (750-1500 mm) is distributed regularly exceed rainfall rates.
evenly throughout the year. •• Soils are course-textured, shallow, rocky
•• Soil is fertile, enriched with decaying litter. or gravely with good drainage and have no
subsurface water. The finer dust and sand
•• Canopy is moderately dense and
particles are blown elsewhere, leaving
allows light to penetrate, resulting in
heavier pieces behind. Sand dunes are
well-developed and richly diversified
common.
understorey vegetation and stratification
of animals. •• Mean annual temperatures range from
20-25° C. The extreme maximum ranges
•• Flora is characterized by 3-4 tree species
from 43.5 - 49° C. Minimum temperatures
per km2. Trees have broad leaves that are
sometimes drop to -18° C. Based on the
lost annually such as oak, hickory, beech,
temperature range, deserts can be Hot
hemlock, maple, basswood, cottonwood,
deserts and Cold deserts.
elm, willow, and spring-flowering herbs.
•• Hot deserts such as the Sahara of North
•• Fauna consists of squirrels, rabbits, skunks, Africa and the deserts of the southwestern
birds, deer, mountain lion, bobcat, timber U.S., Mexico, Australia and India (Thar
wolf, fox, and black bear. desert) occur at low latitudes.
Based on seasonal distribution of rainfall, the •• Hot deserts have a considerable amount
types of temperate forests are of specialized vegetation (xerophytes),
•• Moist conifer and evergreen broad-leaved aloe, agave, Opuntia species, Euphorbia
forests: wet winters and dry summers. royleana as well as specialized vertebrate
•• Dry conifer forests: dominate higher and invertebrate animals.
elevation zones; low precipitation. •• Soils often have abundant nutrients
because they need only water to become
•• Mediterranean forests: precipitation is
very productive and have little or no
concentrated in winter (<1000 mm /year).
organic matter.
•• Temperate coniferous forests: mild
•• Only animals which can tap available water
winters, high annual precipitation (> 2000
or capable of storing sufficient water and
mm /year).
withstand the heat can survive in the desert.
•• Temperate broad-leaved rainforests: The animals include small nocturnal (active
mild, frost-free winters, high precipitation at night) carnivores. The dominant animals
(> 1500 mm/year), evenly distributed
throughout the year.
are burrowers and have cursorial, fossorial is between -2° C and 4° C and the mean
and saltatorial adaptations. summer temperature is between 21° C and
•• The animals stay inactive in protected 26° C.
hideaways during the hot day and come •• Winters receive quite a bit of snow. The
out to forage at dusk, dawn or at night, mean annual precipitation ranges from 150-
when the desert is cooler. 250 mm.
•• The dominant animals of warm deserts are •• The soil is heavy, silty and salty.
reptiles and small mammals. The Indian
Spiny-tailed lizard, the blackbuck, the •• Widely distributed animals are jack rabbits,
white-footed fox are the common fauna kangaroo rats, kangaroo mice, pocket mice,
of the Thar deserts. There are also insects, grasshopper mice, antelope and ground
arachnids and birds (Fig. 10.11). squirrels.
•• Conform: Most animals cannot maintain to survive freezing climates. Some of the
a constant internal environment. Their most attractive adaptations in nature occur
body temperature changes with the for reasons of crypsis (e.g. camouflage) and
ambient temperature. In aquatic animals mimicry. Cryptic animals are those which
like fishes, the osmotic concentration of camouflage perfectly with their environment
the body fluids changes with that of the and are almost impossible to detect. Certain
ambient water osmotic concentration. Such reptiles and insects such as chameleons and
animals are called Conformers. In case of stick insects show this type of adaptation,
extreme condition, the inhabitants relocate which helps in prey capture or to evade from
themselves as in migration. predators. Likewise, horse legs are suitable
•• Migrate: Organisms tend to move away for fast running and adapted for grasslands
temporarily from a stressful habitat to a and similar terrestrial environments.
new, hospitable area and return when the
stressful period is over. Birds migrate from b) Behavioural adaptations
Siberia to Vedanthangal in Tamilnadu to Action and behaviour of animals are
escape from the severe winter periods. instinctive or learned. Animals develop certain
behavioural traits or adaptations for survival.
•• Suspend: In certain conditions, if the
Fleeing from a predator, hiding during sleep,
organisms is unable to migrate, it may avoid
seeking refuge from climate change or moving
the stress by becoming inactive. This is seen
to find different food sources are all behavioral
commonly in bears going into hibernation
adaptations. The two most characteristic forms
during winter. Some snails and fish go
of behavioral adaptations are migration and
into aestivation to avoid summer related
courtship. Migration allows the animals to find
problems like heat and desiccation. Some
better resources or evade threat. Courtship is
lower animals suspend a certain phase of their
a set of behavioral patterns to find a mate to
life cycle, which is referred to as diapause.
reproduce. Most nocturnal animals remain
underground or inactive during daytime. This
10.6 Adaptations
is a modification of their feeding and activity
In biology, adaptation is a
pattern or habit or behaviour.
dynamic evolutionary process
that fits organisms to their
environment and enhancing Ethology is the scientific study of animal
their evolutionary fitness. behaviour, under natural conditions.
Adaptations can be a phenotypic or adaptive
trait with a functional role in each individual c) Physiological adaptations
organism that is maintained and has These are adaptations of organisms
been evolved by natural selection. The adaptive that help them to live and survive in their
traits may be structural adaptation, behavioural environment with unique niches. Example:
adaptation and physiological adaptation. Lions have sharp canines to hunt and tear
meat and a digestive system suitable for
a) Structural adaptations
digesting raw meat. The two most well-known
The external and internal structures of
physiological adaptations are hibernation and
animals can help them to adapt better to their
aestivation. These are two different types of
environment. Some of the most common
examples are mammals growing thicker fur inactivity where the metabolic rate slows down
so much that the animal can survive without 4. Some animals obtain their water
eating or drinking. Aquatic medium and requirement from food as partial
terrestrial habitats have their own respective replacement of water lost through
environmental conditions. Hence organisms excretion.
have to evolve appropriate adaptations to select 5. Birds make nests and breed before the
suitable habitats and niches. rainy season as there is availability of
abundant food. But during drought
Adaptations of aquatic animals birds rarely reproduce.
1. The pectoral fins and dorsal fins act as 6. Camels are able to regulate water
stabilizers or balancers and the caudal effectively for evaporative cooling
fin helps in changing the direction as a through the skin and respiratory system
rudder. and excrete highly concentrated urine,
2. Arrangement of body muscles in the and can also withstand dehydration up
form of bundles (myotomes) help in to 25% of their body weight.
locomotion. 10.7 Populations
3. Stream lined structure helps in the swift Population is defined
movement of the animals in water. as any group of organisms
4. Respiration by gills making use of gases of the same species which
dissolved in water. can interbreed among
5. Presence of air-bladders filled with air themselves, and occupy a particular space
for buoyancy. and function as part of a biotic community.
6. Presence of lateral-line system. They A population has various properties like
function as rheoreceptors which is population density, natality (birth rate),
helpful in echolocating objects in water. mortality (death rate), age distribution, biotic
7. Integuments rich in mucous glands are potential, dispersion and ‘r’, ‘K’ selected
protected by scales. growth forms. A population possesses genetic
8. Maintain water and ionic balance in its characteristics that are directly related to
body with excretory structures. their adaptiveness, reproductive success, and
persistence in their habitats over time. Life
Adaptations of terrestrial animals history of an organism is an important part
1. Earthworms, land Planarians secrete a of this attribute. The population has a definite
mucus coating to maintain a moist situation structure and function that can be described
for burrowing, coiling, respiration, etc., with reference to time.
2. Arthropods have an external covering
over the respiratory surfaces and well- 10.8 Population Attributes
developed tracheal systems.
Population density
3. In vertebrate skin, there are many
cellular layers besides the well protected The density of a population refers to
respiratory surfaces that help in its size in relation to unit of space and time.
preventing loss of water. Population density is the total number of that
species within a natural habitat. The size of
the population can be measured in several Birth rate (b) = number of birth per unit time
ways, including abundance (absolute number average population
in population), numerical density (number Mortality
of individuals per unit area (or) volume) and Mortality is the population decline
biomass density (biomass per unit area (or) factor and is oppposite to natality. Mortality
volume). The population density of a species can be expressed as a loss of individuals in
can also be expressed with reference to the unit time or death rate. Generally, mortality
is expressed as specific mortality, that is, the
actual area of habitat available to the species
number of members of an original population
(ecological density - Table 10.1). When the size
dying after the lapse of a given time. The crude
of individuals in the population is relatively death rate of a population can be calculated
uniform then density is expressed in terms of by the equation.
number of individuals (numerical density).
Death rate (d)= number of deaths per unit time
average population
Natality
Populations increase because of The rate of mortality (death) is determined
natality. Natality is equivalent to birth rate by density. Mortality is high at high density
because of the hazards of overcrowding,
and is an expression of the production of new
increased predation and spread of disease.
individuals in the population by birth, hatching,
Mortality rates vary among species and
germination (or) fission. The two main aspects of
are correlated and influenced by a number
reproduction, namely fertility and fecundity play
of factors such as destruction of nests, eggs
a significant role in a population. Natality rate
or young by storms, wind, floods, predators,
may be expressed in crude birth rate number of
accidents and desertion by parents.
organisms born per female per unit time.
$JH'LVWULEXWLRQ
$JHVWUXFWXUH
3RVWUHSURGXFWLYHDJH
5HSURGXFWLYHDJH
3UHUHSURGXFWLYHDJH
rainy season followed by their disappearance at Table 10.2 Differences between r- selected
the end of the season (Fig. 10.14). and K selected species
Biotic Environmental Carrying r selected species K selected species
potential resistance capacity
Smaller sized Larger sized
organisms organisms
Population
of different age groups of males and females 5. Competition between species leads to
in a population is often presented graphically a) Extinction b) Mutation
as age pyramid, its shape indicated whether a c) Amensalism d) Symbiosis
population is stationary, growing or declining.
6. Which of the following is an r-species
Ecological effects of any factors on a
a) Human b) Insects
population are generally reflected in population
density. Population grow through births and c) Rhinoceros d) Whale
immigration and decline through deaths and 7. Match the following and choose the correct
emigration. When resources are unlimited, combination from the options given below.
the growth is usually exponential but when
Column I Column II
resources become progressively limiting the
A. Mutalism 1. Lion and deer
growth pattern turns logistic. In either case,
growth is ultimately limited by the carrying B. Commensalism 2. Round worm and man
capacity of the environment. The intrinsic rate C. Parasitism 3. Birds compete with
of natural increase is a measure of the inherent squirrels for nuts
potential of a population to grow. D. Competition 4. Sea anemone on hermit
crab
Population of the same or different species
in a habitat do not live in isolation but interact E. Predation 5. Bernacles attached to
in many ways. These interactions may be intra Whales.
specific or interspecific. They may be positive, Dispersal
negative or neutral in nature. a) A- 4, B-5, C-2, D –3, E-1
b) A- 3, B-1, C-4, D – 2, E-5
Evaluation: c) A- 2, B-3, C-1, D – 5, E-4
1. All populations in a d) A- 5, B-4, C-2, D – 3, E-1
given physical area are 8. The figure given below is a diagrammatic
defined as representation of response of organisms
a) Biome b) Ecosystem to abiotic factors. What do A, B and C
c) Territory d) Biotic factors represent respectively.
c) Endotherms d) Stenotherms %
3. The interaction in nature, where one gets &
benefit on the expense of other is...
a) Predation b) Mutualism
c) Amensalism d) Commensalism
([WHUQDOOHYHO
4. Predation and parasitism are which type of
interactions?
a) (+,+) b) (+, O)
c) (--, --) d) (+, --)
S. A B C a) Conform b) Regulate
No. c) Migrate d) Suspend.
a. Conformer Regulator Partial 14. What is a Habitat?
Regulator 15. Define ecological niche.
b. Regulator Partial Conformer 16. What is Acclimatisation?
Regulator 17. What is Pedogenesis?
18. What is Zero Stress?
c. Partial Regulator Conformer
Regulator 19. What is soil permeability?
20. Differentiate between Eurytherms and
d. Regulator Conformer Partial Stenotherms.
Regulator
21. Explain hibernation and aestivation with
examples.
9. The relationship between sucker fish and
22. Give the diagnostic characters features of
shark is...........
a Biome?
a) Competition b) Commensalism
23. Classify the aquatic biomes of Earth.
c) Predation d) Parasitism.
24. What are the ways by which organisms
10. What type of human population is respond to abiotic factors?
represented by the following age pyramid? 25. Classify the adaptive traits found in
organisms.
$JH'LVWULEXWLRQ
$JHVWUXFWXUH
- 'HQVLW\
7HPSHUDWXUH 7XQGUD &RQIRUP 0RUSKRORJLFDO 'HQVLW\ 0XWXDOLVP
JURZWKFXUYHV GHSHQGHQW
6 'HQVLW\
/LJKW 7DLJD 5HJXODWH 3K\VLRORJLFDO 1DWDOLW\ JURZWKFXUYHV &RPPHQVDOLVP
LQGHSHQGHQW
$WPRVSKHULF
'HVHUW ,PPLJUDWLRQ 3UHGDWLRQ
KXPLGLW\
7RSRJUDSKLF
0LJUDWLRQ
IDFWRU
25-02-2019 19:22:10
www.asiriyar.net
www.asiriyar.net
ICT CORNER
Organisms and Population
Procedure :
Step:-1: Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step: -2 Click “Background Information” to know the general on “Population Genetics”.
Step:-3 Click “Tutorial” to learn the steps that aligned with the “experiment”.
Step – 4: Click “Run Experiments” on home page to test the experiment by altering the
variables under various parameters.
Step 4
11
UNIT - V
Biodiversity and
its conservation
CHAPTER
Nilgiri tahr is an endangered species in the
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
due to hunting and poaching
Chapter outline
A
11.1 Biodiversity
wide variety of living organisms including
11.2 Importance of biodiversity – Global plants, animals and micro-organisms with
and India whom we share this planet earth makes the world
11.3 Biogeographical regions of India a beautiful place to live in. Living organisms exist
almost everywhere from mountain peaks to the
11.4 Threats to biodiversity
ocean depths; from deserts to the rainforests.
11.5. Causes of Biodiversity Loss They vary in their habit and behaviour, shape,
11.6 IUCN size and colour. The remarkable diversity of
living organisms forms an inseparable and
11.7 Biodiversity and its conservation significant part of our planet, however, the ever
increasing human population is posing serious
threats to bio-diversity. In this chapter, we shall
discuss biodiversity – concepts, levels, magnitude
Learning objectives
and patterns, importance of biodiversity,
biogeographical regions of India, threats to
➢➢ Acquire knowledge about concept, biodiversity, causes of biodiversity loss, extinction,
level and patterns of biodiversity. and biodiversity conservation.
➢➢ Appreciate the magnitude
of India’s biodiversity. 11.1 Biodiversity
➢➢ Understand The 1992 UN Earth Summit defined
biogeographical regions Biodiversity as the variability among living
and resources of India. organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems
➢➢ Gain insight into the
and the ecological complexes of which they are
threats to biodiversity.
a part. This includes diversity within species,
➢➢ Understand the reasons/causes and between species and ecosystems of a region.
effects of extinction. It reflects the number of different organisms
and their relative frequencies in an ecological
system and constitutes the most important
functional component of a natural ecosystem.
193
110 species of trees in a relatively small area. Fig. 11.1 Three levels of biodiversity
formation of different races, varieties and
11.1.2 Levels of biodiversity subspecies. Rouwolfia vomitaria, a medicinal
Edward Wilson popularized the term plant growing in different ranges of the
‘Biodiversity’ to describe diversity at all levels Himalayas shows differences in the potency
of biological organization from populations to and concentration of the active ingredient
biomes. There are three levels of biodiversity reserpine due to genetic diversity. Genetic
– Genetic diversity, Species diversity and diversity helps in developing adaptations to
Community/Ecosystem diversity (Fig. 11.1). changing environmental conditions.
Genetic diversity refers to the differences Species diversity refers to the variety
in genetic make-up (number and types of genes) in number and richness of the species in any
between distinct species and to the genetic habitat. The number of species per unit area at
variation within a single species; also covers a specific time is called species richness, which
genetic variation between distinct populations denotes the measure of species diversity. The
of the same species. Genetic diversity can Western Ghats have greater amphibian species
be measured using a variety of molecular diversity than the Eastern Ghats. The more the
techniques. India has more than 50,000 genetic number of species in an area the more is the
variants of Paddy and 1000 variants of Mango. species richness (Fig. 11.1a).The three indices
Variation of genes of a species increases with of diversity are - Alpha, Beta and Gamma
diversity in size and habitat. It results in the diversity
i. Alpha diversity: It is measured by counting described. Each year about 10-15 thousand
the number of taxa (usually species) within new species are identified and published
a particular area, community or ecosystem. worldwide, of which 75% are invertebrates. The
ii.
B eta diversity: It is species diversity number of undescribed species is undoubtedly
between two adjacent ecosystems and is much higher.
obtaining by comparing the number of India is very rich in terms of biological
species unique to each of the ecosystem. diversity due to its unique bio-geographical
iii. Gamma diversity refers to the diversity location, diversified climatic conditions and
of the habitats over the total landscape or enormous eco-diversity and geo-diversity.
geographical area. According to world biogeographic classification,
iii. Gamma diversity: It refers to the diversity India represents two of the major realms
of the habitats over the total landscape or (The Palearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three
geographical area. biomes (Tropical humid forests, Tropical Dry/
Deciduous forests and Warm Deserts/Semi
deserts). With only about 2.4% of the world’s
total land surface, India is known to have over
8 % of the species of animals that the world
holds and this percentage accounts for about
92,000 known species.
India is the seventh largest country in the
world in terms of area. India has a variety of
ecosystems, biomes with its varied habitats
like, hills, valleys, plateaus, sea shores,
Fig. 11.1a Species biodiversity
mangroves, estuaries, glaciers, grasslands
Community/Ecosystem diversity is the and river basins. It also reflects different
variety of habitats, biotic communities, and kinds of climates, precipitation, temperature
ecological processes in the biosphere. It is the distribution, river flow and soil. India is one
diversity at ecosystem level due to diversity of of the 17 mega biodiversity countries of the
niches, trophic levels and ecological processes world and has ten biogeographic zones with
like nutrient cycles, food webs, energy flow characteristic habitat and biota.
and several biotic interactions. India with its
alpine meadows, rain forests, mangroves,
"The world is currently undergoing a very
coral reefs, grass lands and deserts has one of
rapid loss of biodiversity comparable
the greatest ecosystem diversity on earth.
with the great mass extinction events
11.1.3 Magnitude of biodiversity that have previously occurred only
Biodiversity is often quantified as the five or six times in the earth's history."
number of species in a region at a given time. - World Wildlife Fund
The current estimate of different species on
earth is around 8-9 million. However, we really 11.1.4 Patterns of biodiversity
don’t know the exact magnitude of our natural distribution
wealth. This is called the ‘The Taxonomic The distribution of plants and animals
impediment’. So far about 1.5 million species of is not uniform around the world. Organisms
microorganisms, animals and plants have been require different sets of conditions for their
hyperbola. On a logarithmic scale, the Tundra and the Polar ice caps. This variety
relationship is a straight line described by the (Biodiversity) is essential for the wellbeing of
equation. our planet and sustenance of life as a whole. The
log S = log C + Z log A importance of biodiversity can be viewed and
measured as
where
a) Ecosystem services b) Biological
S = Species richness
resources c) Social benefits of biodiversity
A = Area
Z = Slope of the line (regression The organization and functioning of
coefficient) ecosystems world over is effected and dependent
C = Y-intercept on biodiversity and its richness. The major
functional attributes are:
• continuity of nutrient cycles or
S=CAz
biogeochemical cycles (N2, C, H2O, P, S
cycles)
• soil formation, conditioning or maintenance
(S) Species richness
e
al of soil health (fertility) by soil microbial
sc
g diversity along with the different trophic
g -lo log S = log C + Z log A
lo members
• increases ecosystem productivity and
provide food resources
(A) Area (S) • act as water traps, filters, water flow
Fig. 11.2 Species - Area relationship on regulators and water purifiers (forest cover
log scale and vegetation)
Regression coefficient Z generally has • climate stability (forests are essential for
a value of 0.1-0.2 regardless of taxonomic rainfall, temperature regulation, CO2
group or region. However, in case of the absorption, which in turn regulate the
species – area relationship in very large areas density and type of vegetation)
like entire continents, the slope of the line • forest resource management and sustainable
appears to be much steeper (Z-value in the development
range of 0.6-1.2). For example, in case of the • maintaining balance between biotic
fruit eating (frugivorous) birds and mammals components
in the tropical forests of different continents,
• cleaning up of pollutants – microbes are the
the slope is found to be a steeper line of 1.15
biggest degraders of molecules including
(Fig 11.2).
many anthropogenic ones which are present
11.2 Importance of biodiversity – in effluents, sewage, garbage and agro-
chemicals
Global and India
Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth. • ecological stability – the varieties and richness
That is, it is the number of different species of species contribute to ecological stability
of flora and fauna including microorganisms. and survival of species. Biodiverse regions
These organisms can inhabit different are reservoirs of biological resources like
ecosystems with varying conditions like the food resources, gene pool, genetic resource,
Rainforests, Coral reefs, Grasslands, Deserts, medicinal resources, bio-prospecting
• to provide unique aesthetic value and hot of biotic provinces and biomes and covers
spots for Ecotourism. Along with forest 7.2% of the country’s landmass. The
resources and wildlife it has commercial common fauna of the Himalayan ranges,
significance are the wild sheep, mountain goats, shrew,
• an indicator of the health of the ecosystem. snow leopard and panda, many of which
Endemism is a crucial indicator of are endangered.
richness. 3. Indian Desert: The extremely arid area
west of the Aravalli hill range, comprising
The interrelationship both the salty desert of Gujarat and the
and interdependence of sand desert of Rajasthan. It comprises
all living components 6.9% of the country’s land-mass. Wild
in a system can be seen ass is endemic to this region. It is also
from the example of the the habitat for the Indian Bustard, camel,
fruit bats of Guam (South East Asia). The foxes and snakes, many of which are
fruit bats are a delicacy here, and hence endangered.
their population has dwindled which is 4. Semi – Arid Zones: This zone is between
not surprising. What is surprising is that the desert and the Deccan plateau,
local fruit production has got affected including the Aravalli hill range covering
as it was identified that the bats served 15.6% of the country’s landmass. Fauna
as pollinators. Hence there is a need for found here are nilghai, blackbuck, four
conservation of diversity as that could horned antelopes, sambar, chital and
avert such situations. spotted deer which are herbivores along
with predators like Asiatic lion, tiger,
leopard and jackal.
11.3 Biogeographical regions of
5. Western Ghats: Western Ghats, are
India
mountain ranges along the west coast of
As per the international ‘biome’ type
India, extending over almost 1,500km
of classification based upon climate, fauna
from Sat Pena in south Gujarat to the
and flora and the soil conditions, India can
southernmost tip of Kerala. The annual
be divided into ten different biogeographic
rainfall is about 2000 mm. This zone has
zones, (Fig.11.3)namely:
large populations of Nilgiri tahr (State
1. Trans Himalayan Region: An extension animal of Tamil Nadu), Nilgiri Langur,
of the Tibetan plateau, high-altitude cold tiger, leopard, and Indian elephant.The
desert in Ladakh (J&K) and Lauhala Spiti grizzled squirrel and lion tailed macaque
(H.P) comprising 5.7% of the country’s are endemic to this region.
landmass. The mountains of this region
6. Deccan Peninsula: This covers much
have the richest wild sheep and goat
of the southern and south-central
community in the world, renowned for its
plateau with a predominantly deciduous
quality wool and wool products. Other
vegetation and 4.3% of the country’s
fauna include Chiru and Black-rocked
landmass. It is known for deciduous
Crane.
forests, thorn forests and pockets of semi
2. Himalayas: The entire mountain chain ever green forests. Fauna found here are
running from north-western to north- Chital, Sambhar, Nilghai, elephant, sloth
eastern India, comprising a diverse range
Trans-Himalaya
Himalaya
Semi arid
Gangetic plains
Desert
North east
Deccan peninsula
Coastal
Western ghats
Island
9. Coastal Region: Coastal region of India larger areas to obtain the necessities of
with sandy beaches, mud flats, coral reefs, life - food, cover, mates than do smaller
mangroves constitutes 2.5% of the total mammals. Individual home range of Lion
geographical area. The coastline from can be about 100 square Km. Mammals have
Gujarat to Sundarbans is estimated to be specialized dietary needs such as carnivores,
5423km long. Apart from this a total of 25 frugivores and the need to forage over much
islets constitute the Lakshadweep, which larger areas than general dietary herbivores
are of coral origin and have a typical reef and omnivores. Mammals also have low
lagoon system, rich in biodiversity. The reproductive output other than small rodents.
fauna includes native crabs, turtles and
tunas 11.5 Causes of biodiversity loss
10. Andaman and Nicobar Islands:The The major causes for biodiversity decline are:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the
• Habitat loss, fragmentation and
Bay of Bengal have highly diverse set of
destruction (affects about 73% of all
biomes, constituting 0.3% of the total
species)
geographical area. They are centers of high
endemism and contain some of India’s • Pollution and pollutants (smog, pesticides,
finest evergreen forests and support a herbicides, oil slicks, GHGs)
wide diversity of corals. Fauna includes • Climate change
Narcondam hornbills of the Andamans • Introduction of alien/exotic species
and the South Andaman Krait. • Over exploitation of resources (poaching,
indiscriminate cutting of trees, over
11.4 Threats to biodiversity fishing, hunting, mining)
Even though India is one of the 17 identified • Intensive agriculture and aquacultural
mega diverse countries of the world, it faces lots practices
of threats to its biodiversity. • Hybridization between native and non-
Apart from natural causes, human native species and loss of native species
activities, both directly and indirectly are today’s • Natural disasters (Tsunami, forest fire,
main reason for habitat loss and biodiversity earth quake, volcanoes)
loss. Fragmentation and degradation due to • Industrialization, Urbanization,
agricultural practices, extraction (mining, infrastructure development, Transport –
fishing, logging, harvesting) and development Road and Shipping activity, communication
(settlements, industrial and associated towers, dam construction, unregulated
infrastructures) leads to habitat loss and tourism and monoculture are common area
fragmentation leads to formation of isolated, of specific threats
small and scattered populations and as • Co-extinction
endangered species.
Habitat Loss
Some of the other threats include
specialised diet, specialized habitat Development of human society is
requirement, large size, small population inevitable. Natural habitats are destroyed for
size, limited geographic distribution and the purpose of settlement, agriculture, mining,
high economic or commercial value. Large industries and construction of highways.
mammals by virtue of their size require As a result species are forced to adapt to the
changes in the environment or move to other and decreased biodiversity in the habitat
places. If not, they become victim to predation, fragments. Animals requiring large territories
starvation, disease and eventually die or results such as mammals and birds are severely
in human animal conflict. affected. The elephant corridors and migratory
routes are highly vulnerable. The dwindling
Over population, urbanization,
of many well-known birds (sparrows) and
industrialization and agricultural advancements animals can be attributed to this.
require additional land, water and raw materials
every year. This is made possible only through
fragmentation or destruction of natural habitats Where are the Sparrows?
by filling wetlands, ploughing grasslands, Common Sparrows are going extinct
cutting down trees, forest, desilting rivers, because of mindless urbanization. They are
constructing transport ways, caving mountains, losing not just their natural habitats but also
extracting, ores, changing the course of rivers the essential human touch they need and
and filling of seashore. thrive upon. The population of sparrows
is dwindling due to the use of packed
The most dramatic example of habitat food, insecticides in farming and changing
loss comes from the tropical rainforests 14% of lifestyles, and match box-styled architecture
the earth’s land surface once covered by these resulting in an inadequate availability
tropical forests, is not more than 6% now. The of food and shelter for the birds. Unlike
Amazon rainforest, a vast area, harbouring pigeons that can make nests on ledges,
millions of species, also called “Lungs of the sparrows need cavities to build their nests.
planet”is destroyed and being replaced for
agriculture and human settlements. 90% of New
Over exploitation:
Zealand’s wetlands have been destroyed and
cleared for cultivating soya beans and raising We depend on nature for our basic needs
such as food and shelter. However, when
grass for beef cattle. Kodaikanal and Nilgiri
the need becomes greed, it leads to over
hills of Tamil Nadu have been destroyed rapidly
exploitation of natural resources. Excessive
for human occupancy. Loss of habitat results
exploitation of a species, reduces the size of
in annihilation of plants, microorganisms and
its population to such a level that it becomes
forcing out animals from their habitats. vulnerable to extinction. Dodo, passenger
pigeon and Steller’s sea cow have become
Habitat fragmentation
extinct in the last 200-300 years due to over
Habitat fragmentation is the process
exploitation by humans. Overfishing due to
where a large, continuous area of habitat is
population pressure leads to many marine fish
both, reduced in area and divided into two or
(populations) declining around the world.
more fragments. Fragmentation of habitats
like forest land into crop lands, orchard lands, Exotic species invasion:
plantations, urban areas, industrial estates, Exotic species (non-native; alien) are
transport and transit systems has resulted in the organisms often introduced unintentionally
destruction of complex interactions amongst or deliberately for commercial purpose, as
species, (food chain and webs) destruction of biological control agents and other uses. They
species in the cleared regions, annihilation of often become invasive and drive away the local
species restricted to these habitats (endemic) species and is considered as the second major
cause for extinction of species. Exotic species inundation, less predictability of weather
have proved harmful to both aquatic and patterns, extreme weather conditions,
terrestrial ecosystems. outbreak of squalor diseases, migration of
Tilapia fish (Jilabi kendai) (Oreochromis animals and loss of trees in forest. Thus,
mosambicus) introduced from east coast of climate change is an imminent danger to the
South Africa in 1952 for its high productivity existing biodiversity (Fig 11.4).
into Kerala’s inland waters, became invasive,
due to which the native species such as Puntius Human
Anthropogenic Ecosystem
dubius and Labeo kontius face local extinction. GHG and Aerosol Services
Emissions
Amazon sailfin catfish is responsible for Land-use
Climate
Change
destroying the fish population in the wetlands Impacts
than the naturally occurring extinction rate IUCN's scheme after Critically Endangered
and is still expected to grow in the future. (CR).
This loss of biodiversity has a immense In 1998 there were1102 animal and 1197
impact on plant animal and human life. The plant species in the IUCN Red List. In 2012,
negative effects include dramatic influence on the list features 3079 animal and 2655 plant
the food web. Even reduction in one species species as endangered (EN) worldwide.
can adversely affect the entire food chain
which further leads to an overall reduction 11.5.4 Extinction:
in biodiversity. Reduced biodiversity leads Species is considered extinct when none
to immediate danger for food security by of its members are alive anywhere in the
reducing ecosystem services. world. If individuals of a species remain alive
only in captivity or other human controlled
11.5.2 Hotspots conditions, the species is said to be extinct in
Hotspots are areas characterized with high the wild. In both of these situations, the species
concentration of endemic species experiencing would be considered globally extinct. A species
unusual rapid rate of habitat modification loss. in considered to be locally extinct when it is no
Norman Myers defined hot spots as “regions longer found in an area it once inhabited but is
that harbour a great diversity of endemic species still found elsewhere in the wild.
and at the same time, have been significantly In the 450 million years of life on Earth,
impacted and altered by human activities.” there had been 5 mass extinctions, which had
A hotspot is a region that supports at least eliminated at least 50% of the species of flora
1500 endemic vascular plant species (0.5% of and fauna on the globe.
the global total) has lost more than 70% of its The extinction of species is mainly
original vegetation. There are 35 biodiversity due to drastic environmental changes and
hotspots in the world. India is home to four population characteristics.
biodiversity hotspots (as per ENVIS). They are
There are three types of Extinctions
a. Himalaya (the entire Indian Himalayan
i. Natural extinction is a slow process
region)
of replacement of existing species with
b. Western Ghats
better adapted species due to changes in
c. Indo-Burma: includes entire North-eastern environmental conditions, evolutionary
India, except Assam and Andaman group of changes, predators and diseases. A small
Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, population can get extinct sooner than
Laos, Cambodia and Southern China) the large population due to inbreeding
d. Sundalands: includes Nicobar group depression (less adaptivity and variation).
of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia,
ii. Mass extinction: The earth has experienced
Singapore, Brunei, Philippines)
quite a few mass extinctions due to
11.5.3 Endangered organisms environmental catastrophes. A mass
A species that has been categorized as extinction occurred about 225 million years
very likely to become extinct is an Endangered ago during the Permian, where 90% of shallow
species. Endangered (EN), as categorized by the water marine invertebrates disappeared.
International Union for Conservation of Nature iii. Anthropogenic extinctions These are
(IUCN) Red List, is the second most severe abetted by human activities like hunting,
conservation status for wild populations in the habitat destruction, over exploitation,
urbanization and industrialization. Some world. It plays a vital role in the implementation
examples of extinctions are Dodo of of several international conventions on nature
Mauritius and Steller’s sea cow of Russia. conservation and biodiversity.
Amphibians seem to be at higher risk of
Red Data Book
extinction because of habitat destruction.
Red Data book or Red list is a catalogue
The most serious aspect of the loss of of taxa facing risk of extinction. IUCN –
biodiversity is the extinction of species. The International Union of Conservation of Nature
unique information contained in its genetic and Natural Resources, which is renamed as
material (DNA) and the niche it possesses are WCU – World Conservation Union (Morges
lost forever. Switzerland) maintains the Red Data book.
The concept of Red list was mooted in 1963.
One more species goes extinct...
The purpose of preparation of Red List are:
• To create awareness on the degree of threat
to biodiversity
• Identification and documentation of
species at high risk of extinction
• Provide global index on declining
biodiversity
George the tree snail (Achatinella • Preparing conservation priorities and help
apexfulva) died on January 1, 2019, at in conservation of action
the age of 14. He was the last snail of his
• Information on international agreements
species, and is emblematic of the loss of
on conservation of biological diversity
native Hawaiian molluscs.
Red list has eight categories of species
i) Extinct ii) Extinct in wild iii) Critically
11.6 IUCN Endangered iv) Endangered v) Vulnerable
The International Union for Conservation vi) Lower risk vii) Data deficiency viii) Not
of Nature (IUCN) is an organization working in evaluated.
the field of nature conservation and sustainable
use of natural resources. It was established in
11.7 Biodiversity and its
1948 and located at Gland VD, Switzerland. It is conservation
involved in data gathering and analysis research, The natural resources
field projects and education on conservation, of the Earth, including air,
sustainable development and biodiversity. water, land, flora and fauna
IUCN’s mission is to influence, encourage and of natural ecosystems must
assist societies throughout the world to conserve be safeguarded for the
nature and to ensure that any use of natural benefit of the present and future generations
resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. through careful planning and management,
It influences governments and industries as appropriate – Principle of the Stockholm
through partnerships by providing information Declaration,1972.
and advice. The organization collects, compiles The large-scale loss of biodiversity and its
and publishes the IUCN red list of threatened global impact makes conservation the need of
species and their conservation status in the the hour.
is permitted inside the national park except There are 544 existing wildlife sanctuaries
the activities permitted by the Chief Wildlife in India covering an area of 118,918 km2, which
Warden of the state under the conditions given is 3.62 % of the geographical area of the country
in CHAPTER IV, of the Wildlife Protection (National Wildlife Database, 2017).
Act (WPA) 1972 (Table 11.1). Sanctuaries are tracts of land where wild
animals and fauna can take refuge without
Table 11.1 National Parks in Tamil Nadu
being hunted or poached. Other activities
National Parks Year of like collection of forest products, regulated
District(s)
in Tamil Nadu establishment harvesting of timber, private ownership of
Guindy NP 1976 Chennai land are permitted. Periyar wild life sanctuary
Gulf of Mannar Ramanathpuram in Kerala is famous for the Indian Tiger and
1980
Marine NP and Tuticorin Asiatic Elephant.
Indira Gandhi Table 11.2 Wild life sanctuaries in Tamil Nadu
1989 Coimbatore
(Annamalai) NP
Prominent WLS Year of
Mudumalai NP 1990 Nilgiris Districts
in Tamil Nadu establishment
Mukurthi NP 1990 Nilgiris
Vedanthangal
1936 Chengalpet
Lake Birds WLS
There are 104 existing national parks in India
covering an area of 40,501 km2, which is Mudumalai WLS 1942 Nilgiris
1.23% of the geographical area of the country
Point Calimere
(National Wildlife Database, Aug. 2018). 1967 Nagapattinam
WLS
National Park is an area which is strictly Indira Gandhi
reserved for the betterment of wildlife and (Annamalai) 1976 Coimbatore
biodiversity and where activities like WLS
development, forestry, poaching, hunting, Mundanthurai
1977 Tirunelveli
WLS
grazing and cultivation are not permitted.
They are large areas of scenic and national Biosphere Reserve (BR):
beauty maintained for scientific educational Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international
and recreational use. They are not used for designation by UNESCO for representative parts
commercial extraction of resources. of natural and cultural landscapes extending
Kaziranga National park is a protected area over large area of terrestrial or coastal/ marine
for the one Horned Rhinoceros in Assam. ecosystems or a combination thereof. BRs are
Wild Life Sanctuaries (WLS): designated to deal with the conservation of
Any area other than the area comprised with biodiversity, economic and social development
any reserve forest or the territorial waters can be and maintenance of associated cultural
notified by the State Government to constitute as values. Biosphere Reserves are thus special
a sanctuary if such area is of adequate ecological, environments for both people and nature and
faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or are living examples of how human beings and
zoological significance. This is for the purpose nature can co-exist while respecting each other’s
of protecting, endangered factual species. Some needs. The Biosphere Reserve Programme
restricted human activities are allowed inside is guided by UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere
the Sanctuary area details of which are given in (MAB) programme, as India is a signatory to
CHAPTER IV, of the Wildlife Protection Act the landscape approach supported by MAB
(WPA) 1972. Ecoturism is permitted, as long as programme. The scheme called Biosphere
animal life is undistrubed. Reserve was implemented by the Government of
Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Vandalur management under the name of Zoo e-Eye. 24
Arignar Anna Zoological Park is spread x 7 Animal Live Streaming was introduced for
over an area of 602 hectares. of Reserve Forest at the benefit of the visitors for the first time in the
Vandalur, Chennai. It is one of the largest zoo in world. Vandalur Zoo Mobile Application was
South East Asia in terms of area. The Zoological introduced to provide services to the visitors like
Park exhibits different classes of animals – it has facility to book tickets, Zoo navigation, Animal
around 2500 wild animals of nearly 180 species information in text and audio format. Digital
which includes Mammals, Birds and Reptiles. 34 payments at ticket counters are also available.
years since its establishment, the Zoological Park The Zoo school has been involved in
has emerged as a successful ex-situ conservation education and outreach programmes. One such
centre and a captive breeding centre for many successful programme is ‘Zoo Ambassador’
endangered species like Royal Bengal Tiger, Lion which is been conducted for school children.
Tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Gray Wolf, etc., In the year 2018, more than 400 students were
The Zoo has many attractive features like trained and titled as Zoo Ambassadors. The Zoo
Butterfly Park, Childrens Park, Walk Through also has a Rescue Centre which accommodates
Aviary, Lion & Deer Safari, Forest Museum, rescued wild animals and treats them to come out
Interpretation centre, etc., which attracts more of stress.
than 21 lakh visitors every year. The Zoo has Source: Director, Arignar Anna Zoological Park,
strengthened its protection by means of installing Vandalur, Chennai
CCTV Cameras for both visitors and animal
Biodiversity is the variety of all life on Earth, population growth and increased consumption.
encompassing genetic, species and ecosystem This increased exploitation of biological resources
diversity. Today’s biodiversity is the fruit of billions has resulted in the loss of species at levels currently
of years of evolution, shaped by natural processes estimated to be 100 times faster than the natural
and, increasingly, by the influence of humans. To rate of loss prior to significant human intervention.
date, about two million species have been identified Though many species were lost and new ones
on Earth. formed, it is likely we will lose all this natural
Biodiversity supplies a large number of goods wealth in less than two centuries, if the present rate
and services that sustain human life, including of biodiversity losses persist.
the provision of food, fuel and building materials; The biodiversity and its conservation is the
purification of air and water; stabilization and important global issue of international concern.
moderation of the earth’s climate; moderation Recognition of this problem has made scientists and
of floods, droughts, temperature extremes and policy makers to work and develop mechanisms
wind forces; generation and renewal of soil health; to document, conserve and sustainably use
maintenance of genetic resources as inputs to crop biodiversity.
varieties and livestock breeds, medicines, and other
products; and cultural, recreational and aesthetic The younger generation should be made to
benefits. realize the critical state of biodiversity today and
volunteer to protect and conserve it, so as to enable
Over the past few hundred years, biodiversity the future generations get to enjoy the benefits of
has faced major challenges, including a growing Nature.
demand for biological resources caused by
Concept Map
,PSRUWDQFH
RIELRGLYHUVLW\
7KUHDWVWR 3DWWHUQVRI
ELRGLYHUVLW\ ELRGLYHUVLW\
0DJQLWXGH
&DXVHVRI RI
ELRGLYHUVLW\ ELRGLYHUVLW\
%LRGLYHUVLW\ +RWVSRWV
/RVVRI
ELRGLYHUVLW\
/HYHORI
ELRGLYHUVLW\
(QGDQJHUHG
RUJDQLVP
&RQFHSWVRI
ELRGLYHUVLW\
([WLQFWLRQ
Red data
Hotspots book Offsite Gene
conservation banks
Protected
National areas IUCN CITES
parks INSITU EXSITU
conservation Govt WWF conservation
Organisations
Sanctuaries Biosphere in conservation
reserves
Biodiversity conservation
ICT CORNER
BIO DIVERSITY AND ITS
CONSERVATION
Procedure :
Step -1: Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page. Click “Explore the
exhibition” to start the exhibition.
Step -2: Find the species name below the figure (Ex: Helmeted Hornbill). Find a grey dot right
next to the name. Click the same to know about its extinction.
Step -3: Click “<” on the left top of this page to play a video about the same species. Click “x” to
run to the homepage.
Step – 4 : On the left “ top first” option to load all the species. Middle square in a circle is for slide
show of all the species.
Step -5: On the right of the page, find ^ and down button to move on from one to the next.
Step 4
12
UNIT - V
Environmental
Issues
CHAPTER
Chapter Outline
12.1 Pollution
12.2 Air Pollution
12.3 Water Pollution Environment is my prime teacher
12.4 Noise Pollution - Masanabu Fukuoka
12.5 Agrochemicals
12.6 Biomagnification
12.7 Eutrophication
12.8 Organic Farming and its
Implementation
12.9 Solid Waste Management
A clean environment is very necessary
to live a peaceful and healthy life. But
our environment is getting dirty day by day
12.10 Global Environment Change
12.11 Ozone Depletion because of our negligence. Earth is currently
12.12 Deforestation facing a lot of environmental concerns like air
12.13 Ecosan Toilets
12.14 Peoples Participation in Conservation pollution, water pollution, and noise pollution,
of Forests global warming, acid rain, biomagnification,
eutrophication, deforestation, waste disposal,
ozone layer depletion and climate change.
Over the last few decades, the exploitation of
Learning Objectives our planet and degradation of our environment
have gone up at an alarming rate. As our
•• Gain knowledge about our environment and its actions have not been in favour of protecting
importance.
•• Get to know about the effects and after effects of this planet, we have seen natural disasters
human activities on climate and ecosystem. striking us more often in the form of flash
•• Realize the need and importance of forests. floods, tsunami and cyclones.
•• Know about eco-friendly practices
for pollution mitigation. “Every individual should be environmentally
•• Acquire insights into solutions to aware, regardless of whether they work with
environmental problems. environmental issues or not.”
•• Understand the need for peoples’
participation in environmental
protection. 12.1 Pollution
•• Know about the global level Pollution is any undesirable change in the
conventions on climate change.
physical, chemical and biological characteristics
•• Understand the importance of clean environment.
of the environment due to natural causes and
human activities. The agents which cause
pollution are called pollutants. Pollution is
213
Pollutant emissions
Lightning Fertilizer
Wildfires Volcanoes Oil & Gas Cities Industry, power plants, Airplanes, Cars, Trucks,
Sewage treatment Buses and Three & Two wheelers
on organisms and human health. Along with •• Area sources – agricultural - wood /
atmospheric factors (humidity, precipitation, stubble burning, fireplaces
wind, air currents, altitude) prevailing at a place •• Natural sources – wind-blown dust,
and time, its effects can be far reaching and wildfires, volcanoes (Fig. 12.1).
catastrophic.
12.2.2 Effects of Air Pollution
Air pollutants can be •• Affects all organisms as they depend on the
• discharge of dusts or particulate matter atmosphere for respiration.
(PM: 2.5 ,10) •• Causes irritation in the throat, nose, lungs
• discharge of gases (SO2, NO2, CO, CO2) and eyes. It causes breathing problems and
Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced mainly aggravates existing health conditions such
due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. as emphysema and asthma.
Automobiles are major causes of CO pollution •• Contaminated air reduces the body’s
in large cities and towns Automobile exhausts, defense mechanism and decreases the
fumes from factories, emission from power body’s capacity to fight other infections
plants, forest fires and burning of fire-wood in the respiratory system.
contribute to CO pollution.
•• Frequent exposure to polluted air increases
With rapid urbanization, major amount of the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide (SO2) is Breathing air that is filled with fine
released in the atmosphere. From automobiles, particulate matter can induce hardening of
aeroplanes, power plants and other human the arteries, triggering cardiac arrhythmia
activities that involving the burning of fossil or even a heart attack.
fuels (coal, oil etc.,) CO2 is the main pollutant
•• People who exercise outdoors can
that is leading to global warming.
sometimes be susceptible to adverse effects
Nitrogen oxides are also major air of air pollution because it involves deeper
pollutants. Fossil fuel combustion and and faster breathing. Hence it is advisable to
automobiles exhausts are the source of walk or jog in the mornings in places with
nitrogen oxides. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen ample tree cover.
oxides are the major causes of acid rain.
•• Gas leaks can be lethal or affect the quality
Particulate matters are tiny particles of
of air in the affected area.
solid matter suspended in a gas or liquid.
•• CO in the atmosphere interferes with O2
Combustion of fossil fuels, fly ash produced
transport since haemoglopin has greater
in thermal power plants, forest fires, asbestos
affinity for carbon monoxide. At low
mining units, cement factories are the main
concentration it causes headache and
sources of particulate matter pollution.
blurred vision. In higher concentration, it
12.2.1 Sources can lead to coma and death.
The main sources of air pollution are:
•• Transport sources (Fig.12.1)– cars, buses, ameer, an App provides
S
airplanes, trucks, trains hourly updates on the
•• Stationary sources – power plants, National Air Quality Index
incinerators, oil refineries, industrial (AQI) published by CPCB.
facilities, and factories
spreads on the water surface, prevents the 2. Water (Prevention and Control of
entry of light and oxygen into the water. This Pollution) Act, 1974, sections 17 to 40
increases BOD and COD, resulting in mass prohibit the pollution of a stream or well
death of organisms and degradation of water by disposal of polluting matter.
quality. It also clogs fish gills and the feathers 3. The Central/State Pollution Control
of aquatic birds. Boards have the power to advise the
central/state government on various
On January 28, 2017, two cargo ships matters concerned with the prevention
collided off the Ennore coast in Chennai and control of pollution of water.
causing oil to spill into the sea. Due to wave
4. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and
action and the southern current, the spill
Climate Change (MoEFCC) is the nodal
spread over to 34 km down south affecting
agency of the Central Government for
the coast. Beach sand also got spoiled by
the planning, promotion, co-ordination
the oil sludge. It took more than a thousand
and for overseeing the implementation
volunteers to clean the oil sludge.
of India’s environmental and forestry
2. Humans and other organisms can get policies and programmes.
affected by diseases such as hepatitis and
Prevention
typhoid by consuming contaminated
•• Regulate or control of pollutant(s)
water and food. Excess of fluoride in
discharge at the point of generation.
drinking water causes fluorosis. In many
poor nations, outbreak of water borne •• Wastewater can be pretreated by scientific
diseases and epidemics are a result of methods before discharge to municipal
contaminated water and poor or absence treatment sources.
of water treatment processes. •• Setting up of Sewage Treatment Plants
3. Water pollution can cause eutrophication (STP) and Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP).
due to nutrient enrichment. This causes •• Regulate or restrict the use of synthetic
algal blooms which affect the quality fertilisers and pesticides.
of water bodies (Fig. 12.3). Red tides, if •• Public awareness and people's involvement
occur, can be lethal to aquatic organisms. is essential.
Assessment by CPCB
The number of polluted stretches in
India’s rivers has increased to 351 from
302 (in 2006), and the number of critically
polluted stretches – where water quality
indicators are the poorest – has gone up
to 45 from 35 (Source: The Hindu, 17
September, 2018).
Fig. 12.3 Algal bloom
Case study
12.3.6 Control Measures
Namami Gange (National Mission
1. Right to clean water is a fundamental right
for Clean Ganga) Programme is an
under the Indian Constitution.
sensation or numbness.
Large
2. C
olony collapse syndrome in Honey fish 1,000,000
Producer
1000
(Phytoplankton)
1
Water
1
wildlife and our environment. The following Solid Waste management includes the
are major sources of solid waste (Table 12.1). activities and actions required to manage waste
from its inception to its final disposal. This
includes the collection, transport, treatment and
disposal of waste, together with monitoring and
regulation of the waste management process. It
is all about how solid waste can be changed and
used as a valuable resource.
Case Study: The Corporation of Chennai looks
Dr. Sultan Ahmed Ismail is an Indian soil
after clearance and management of solid waste
biologist and ecologist from Tamil Nadu.
His work has centered on techniques in Chennai. Every day around 5400 Metric
for recycling biodegradable waste into Tonnes (MT) of garbage is collected from the
fertiliser using varieties of earthworms, city. Door to door collection of garbage is done
and on soil bioremediation. in most zones apart from sweeping, collecting,
Dr. Ismail received a D.Sc. in Zoology and storing the waste in the specified bins.
from the University of Madras for his At present garbage generated in Chennai is
research on the role of earthworms in dumped at two sites. Proposals are there for
soil ecology and waste management. remediation of the existing landfill or scientific
He works on vermicomposting as a closure and to have integrated waste processing
sustainable ecological practice. He has facilities with waste to energy plants as one of
been instrumental in introducing as well the components at the existing Kodungaiyur
as spreading awareness on environmental and Perungudi sites.
issues, solid waste management,
vermicomposting, organic farming, 12.9.1 Waste management practices
vermitech and waste management to a) Source segregation
several educational institutions, industries b) Composting
and organic farmers in India and abroad. 1. Aerobic 2. Anaerobic
and legal responsibilities of people working in can lead to adverse human health effects and
healthcare centers. environmental pollution.
Waste disposal: Involved by incineration, Recycling and disposal of e-waste may
chemical disinfection, autoclaving, encapsulation, involve significant risk to the health of workers
microwave irradiation are methods of waste and communities in developed countries
disposals. Final disposal includes landfill and and great care must be taken to avoid unsafe
burying as per norms inside premises. exposure in recycling operations and leaking
12.9.4 E-Waste of materials such as heavy metals from landfills
Electronic waste or e-waste describes and incinerator ashes.
discarded electrical electronic devices as well 12.9.5 Plastic Waste – Solutions and
as any refuse created by discarded electronic Remedies
devices and components and substances Plastics are low molecular weight organic
involved in their manufacture or use. Their polymers that are non-degradable in the natural
disposal is a growing problem because electronic environment. They are used in several items,
equipment frequently contains hazardous
including cars, bulletproof vests, toys, hospital
substances. In a personal computer, for example,
equipment, carry bags and food containers.
there may be lead (Pb) in the cathode ray tube
Packaging materials used in supermarkets, retail
(CRT) and soldering compound, mercury
outlets, manufacturing industries, households,
(Hg) in switches and housing, and cobalt (Co)
hotels, hospitals, restaurants and transport
in steel components, among other equally
companies are major contributors to plastic
toxic substances. E-wastes are basically PCB
waste generation. Plastic waste constitutes a
(Polychlorinated biphenyl) based, which are
non-degradable (Fig12.7). major part of municipal solid waste.
on the Brahmaputra). He had just completed Man of India’. Later, the President APJ Abdul
his Class X exams in1979 when he started to Kalam felicitated him with a cash award in
sow the seeds and shoots on the eroded island Mumbai. The same year, he received the
covered with sand and silt. ‘Padma Shri’.
Amrita Devi was a brave lady from Khejarli The Indian Constitution also stresses on
Village of Jodhpur District, Rajasthan. the importance of the role of the People in
She sacrificed her life to maintain Bishnoi protecting their environment.
Dharma. In 1730, Maharaja Abhay Singh,
ruler of Marwar, Rajasthan state wanted to 12.14 Ecosan Toilets
log green Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) trees About 150 liters of wastewater at an average
to burn lime for the construction of his new is generated by an Indian individual daily, and
palace. Since there was a lot of greenery in a large amount of it is generated from toilets.
the Bishnoi villages even in the middle of Ecological sanitation (EcoSan) is a sustainable
Thar Desert, the king ordered his men to system for handling human excreta by using
get the wood from Khejri trees. When she dry composting toilets. EcoSan toilets not
came to know about the cutting of trees only reduce wastewater generation but also
by the King’s men, she and many others generate the natural fertiliser from recycled
had hugged the Khejri trees to save from human excreta, which forms an excellent
cutting. But king’s men killed Amrita Devi substitute for chemical fertilisers. This
along with more than 363 other Bishnois. method is based on the principle of recovery
It was a Tuesday, black Tuesday in Khejarli. and recycling of nutrients from excreta to
This incident took place to save trees and is create a valuable supply for agriculture.
recorded in India’s history. ‘EcoSan’ toilets are being used in several parts
of India and Sri Lanka.
Summary
Degrading natural environments, depleting
natural resources, pollution, vulnerability to
large scale environmental changes and hazards
are the core Environmental issues of today.
Air pollution by fossil fuel burning and other
anthropological activities like industrialization
To commemorate her bravery, the
is reaching alarming levels and affecting human
Government of Rajasthan and Madhya
health and testing the survival of sensitive species.
Pradesh have initiated the prestigious state
level award named as ‘Amrita Devi Bishnoi Domestic and industrial sewage, and
Smriti Award’ for excellent contribution to agricultural run-off are the most common reasons
the protection and conservation of wildlife. for pollution of water bodies, resulting in reduced
dissolved oxygen and increased Biochemical
Thirty-six years later he had converted the Oxygen demand of water bodies. Eutrophication
once unproductive land into a forest. Payeng’s and algal blooms are regular occurrences today.
Industrial wastewaters are often rich in toxic
forest is now home to five Royal Bengal tigers,
chemicals, heavy metals and organic compounds
over a hundred deer, wild boar, vultures, and
which harm living organisms and may even
several species of birds. For his remarkable result in death of aquatic life.
initiative, the Jawaharlal Nehru University
Noise pollution is a threat to human and
invited Payeng in 2012 on Earth Day and other animals. It can affect health and disturb
honoured him with the title of the ‘Forest
9. Which among the following always 17. Discuss the causes and effects of global
decreases in a Food chain across tropic warming. What measures need to be taken
levels? to control global warming?
a) Number b)Accumulated chemicals 18. What would Earth be like without the
greenhouse effect?
c) Energy d) Force
19. Write notes on the following:
10. In the E-waste generated by the Mobile a. Eutrophication
Phones, which among the following metal b. Algal Bloom
is most abundant?
20. What effect can fertilizer runoff have on an
a) Copper b) Silver aquatic ecosystem?
c) Palladium d) Gold 21. How can we control eutrophication?
11. The Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 22. Why does ozone hole form over Antarctica?
are the compounds which have the 23. Mention the causes of enhanced use of
following molecules: ultraviolet radiation.
24. Discuss the role of women in protection and
a) Hydrogen b) Carbon
conservation of forests.
c)Chlorine d)Fluorine 25. Discuss the role of an individual to reduce
12. SMOG is derived from : environmental pollution.
a) Smoke b) Fog 26. How does recycling help reduce pollution?
c) Both A and B d) Only A 27. What is the primary purpose of the Kyoto
Protocol?
13. Excess of fluoride in drinking water
28. In what way Peyang conserves the forest?
causes:
29. Discuss briefly the following :
a) Lung disease b) Intestinal infection
a. Catalytic converter
c) Fluorosis d) None of the above b. Greenhouse gases
14. Expand (i) CFC (ii) AQI (iii) PAN c. Ecosan
15. What is SMOG and how it is harmful for us? 30. What are some solutions to toxic dumping
in our oceans?
16. List all the wastes that you generate, at home,
school or during your trips to other places. 31. Describe how deforestation might
contribute to global warming.
Could you very easily reduce the generation
of these wastes? Which would be difficult or 32. How does forest conservation help to reduce
air pollution?
rather impossible to reduce?
Dinosaurs - a term coined by Sir Richard Owen ]Galaxy – a specific arrangement of stars.
for giant extinct reptiles. Group of animals that Gene bank-A facility established for the ex-situ
have bird-like and lizard-like facial appearance Conservation of individuals, seeds, tissues or
(Mesozoic). reproductive cells .
Distribution – The occurrence of different Gene pool – the total gene content of a whole
organisms in a given area and the way they are species.
distributed in their space, specific time and Genetic drift – an alteration in the gene
utilization of their resources. frequency.
DO – Dissolved Oxygen is the amount of Geology – the study of origin and structure of
gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water. Earth.
Ecotourism - Travel undertaken to witness sites Glaciers– A large mass of ice that moves slowly.
or regions of unique natural ecological quality Group of individuals of the same species living
the provision of services to facilitate such travel. in a given area at a given time and reproduce
El Nino– Unusual warming of surface waters in among themselves.
the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Haemophilia – A medical condition in which
Emphysema– A serious medical condition that the ability of the blood to clot is severely
occurs when the lungs become larger and do not reduced, causing the patient to bleed severely
work properly, causing difficulty in breathing. from even a slight injury.
Endemism-The phenomenon in which the Haemozoin - Toxic malarial pigment that
organisms are exclusively restricted to a given causes malaria fever.
area. Hallucination - The sensation of seeing, hearing
Endometriosis – An abnormal condition in or sensing something that does not exist.
which endometrial tissue that normally lines Heterochromatin – Heterochromatin is a
the uterus grows outside . tightly packed form of DNA or condensed
Eohippus – ancestor of modern horse. DNA.
Euchromatin – Euchromatin is a tightly packed Homeostasis– It is the state of steady internal
form of chromatin that is enriched in genes, and conditions maintained by living things.
is often under active transcription. Immune reaction – The production of
Eutrophication - Excessive richness of nutrients antibodies in response to antigens
in a lake or other water bodies frequently due to Interferon - An antiviral protein produced
run of fertilizers from the land causing dense from virally infected fibroblasts and leucocytes
growth of plant life. induces antiviral state in uninfected cells.
Fibroids – Fibroids are abnormal growths Intersex – An individual showing a combination
formed on the outside, inside or in the walls of
of male and female characteres.
the uterus.
Intra-Uterine Insemination (IUI)-Processed
Foetus – Developmental stage extending
sperm sample is infused into the uterus, by
from the ninth week of development
passing the vagina. Intracytoplasmic sperm
to birth.
injection (ICSI)-injection of a sperm directly
Fossorial – Fossorial (from Latin fossor,
into the ovum.
meaning "digger") is an animal adapted to
Intra uterine transfer (IUT)-Transfer of
digging which lives primarily, but not solely,
embryo with more than 8 celled blastomeres
underground. Some examples are badgers,
naked mole-rats, clams, and mole salamanders. into the uterus.
233 Glossary
Glossary 234
Polypeptide chain– It consists of smaller Sewage - Domestic waste water containing various
subunits or amino acids that are linked together. solid and liquid waste materials including human
They are the building blocks of proteins. excreta.
Postpartum – Period of life following childbirth. Single cell protein (SCP) – A protein derived from
Precursor– A substance from which another is a culture of single celled organisms used especially
formed, especially by metabolic reaction as a food supplement.
Primer – A short oligonucleotide that hybridizes SOD– Sediment Oxygen Demand is the rate at
the template strand and gives a 3’ – OH end for the which dissolved oxygen is removed from the water
initiation of nucleic acid synthesis. column during the decomposition of organic
Probe – The probe is a single stranded DNA matter in streambed or lakebed sediments.
molecule that is ‘complementary’ to the gene of Solubilisation – Dissolving the feed stock in water
interest in a sample under study. to make a slurry for anaerobic digestion.
Pseudopodia – Blunt temporary protoplasmic Speciation – formation of new species from the
projections found in Amoeba or in some amoeba- pre-existing ones.
like cells. Structural gene – A gene coding for the structure
Psychoactive drug - A chemical substance that of a protein.
acts on brain and affects the mind and behaviour Taq DNA polymerase– is a thermostable
of user. DNA polymerase obtained from thermophilic
Puberty – Period of reproductive maturity bacterium Thermus aquaticus. It helps in the
Pyrolysis– Decomposition brought about by high synthesis of DNA.
temperatures. Transgene– The target gene responsible for the
Recombinant– A cell or organism whose genetic development of transgenic organism.
complement results from recombination Trophozoite stage – In Plasmodium life cycle,
Redia – Larva in the life cycle ofmost trematodes. cryptomerozoites in the RBC become round and it
Rheoreceptors – They are receptors in fish modifies into a young trophozoite.
and some amphibians that respond to water Umbilical cord – Structure bearing arteries and
currents. veins connecting the placenta and the foetus.
Saltation – single step large mutation. Variations – dissimilarity between the members of
Satellite DNA – Short highly repeated the same species.
eukaryotic DNA sequences, usually clustered in Vitrification– Transformation of a substance into
heterochromatin and generally not transcribed a glass.
Saltatorial – Saltatorial is an animal adapted to Volatility– A liquid or substance is one that will
leaping. They have large, muscular hindlimbs and quickly change into a gas.
sometimes, reduced forelimbs. A few example Withdrawal symptoms - The reactions
for jumpers in the animal kingdom include fleas, experienced by an addict after he/she stops using
froghoppers, grasshoppers, and frogs. drugs.
Schizogony - The process of multiple fission, in Woolly mammoth – A hairy relative of modern
which one organism divides to produce many elephant that lived in cold climates.
daughter cells. Zoogeography – study of details with the
Schizont – The trophozoite of Plasmodium grows geographical distribution of animals.
in size to form the schizont. Zygote intra fallopian transfer-(ZIFT)transfer
Selection – choosing the better adapted alleles of zygote or embryo with 8 or less than 8 celled
from the mixed population. blastomeres into the fallopian tube.
235 Glossary
References 236
• Goldsby, R.A., Kindt, T.J., Osborne, B.A. • Jordan E.L and Verma P.S.,(2010),
and Kuby, J. (2003). Immunology.Fifth Invertebrate Zoology, 14th Edition, S.
Edition.W.H.Freeman and Company. Chand & Company Ltd.,
New York.
• Joseph, B. (2009). Environmental Studies,
• Goodwin TM, Montoro MN, Muderspach McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.,
L, Paulson R, Roy R.(2010). Management New Delhi.
of Common Problems in Obstetrics and
• Kardong Kenneth V 2005, Biological
Gynecology, 5th Edition, Dec 2010, Wiley-
Evolution, Washington State University,
Blackwell. ISBN: 978-1-444-39034-6
USA.
• Gopalakrishnan T.S ,Dr. Itta Sambaswaiah
• Klug W.S and Cummings M.R., Concept
1684, Dr Kamalakara Rao A.P (Three
of Genetics, Seventh Edition. Chepter 5
Author book) Principles of organic
evolution, 7th Edition Himalaya • Kotpal R.L., (2016), Modern Text Book
Publishing House, Chennai. Of Zoology- Invertebrates, 11th Edition,
Rastogi Publications.
• Guyton. AC. and I.E. Hall. (2000).
Endocrinology and Reproduction. In • Kotpal R.L., (2012), Modern Text Book Of
Schmitt, W., R. Gruliow and A Norwitz. Zoology- Vertebrates(Diversity - II), 3rd
(Eds.). Text book of Medical Physiology. Edition, Rastogi Publications.
W.B. Saunders Company. pp: 916-941.
• Leonard B. Radinsky, 2000, Evolution of
• Hall J. E. , 202, 13th Edition. In Guyton Vertebrates Second Edition, John Wiley
and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology; and Sons, New York.
Reed Elsevier India Pvt. Ltd.,
• MacKenzie, S.H. (1996). The Ecosystem,
• Helen Kreuzer and Adrianne Massey Island Press, CA (USA).
(2005) Biology and Biotechnology-
• Marieb E. N. and Hoehn K, 2011, 8th
Science , Applications and Issues, ASM
Edition. In. Anatomy and Physiology;
Press, American Society for Microbiology.,
Pearson Education Inc.,
Washington DC
• Mudaliar A.L and Krishna Menon M.K,
• Herren, Ray V (2005), Introduction
202, 12th Edition. In. Clinical Obstetrics;
to Biotechnology: An Agricultural
Universities Press (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Revolution, Thomson-Delmar Learning
Inc., NY. • Muthayya NM, 2010, 4th Edition. In.
Human Physiology; Jaypee Brothers
• Ichhpujani R.L and Rajesh Bhatia (1994),
Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.
Microbiology for Nurses, First edition,
Jaypee brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd. • National Population Education project,
Adolescence Education in Schools,
• Jones M, Fosbery M, Gregory J and
NCERT, New Delhi.
Taylor D., (2014), Bridge international. AS
and A level biology course book, Fourth • R. C. Dubey (2003) A Textbook of
edition, Cambridge University Press. Biotechnology, S. Chand and Company
LTD., New Delhi.
237 References
References 238
c) hCG, hPL, progesterone, prolactin b) Out of one pair factors one is dominant and the
d) hCG,
progesterone, estrogen, glucocorticoids other recessive
8. Match and select the correct option [NEET, 2018] c) Alleles do not show any blending and both the
Column I Column II characters recover as such in F2 generation
d) Factors occur in pairs
a. Proliferative phase 1. Breakdown of
3. ABO blood groups in humans are controlled by the
endometrium lining
gene I. It has three alleles – IA, IB and i. Since there
b. Secretory phase 2. Follicular phase are three different alleles, six different genotypes are
possible. How many phenotypes can occur?
c. Menstruation 3. Luteal phase
[AIPMT PRE 2010]
a b c
a) Three b) One c) Four d) Two
A) 3 2 1
4. Which one of the following symbols and its
B) 2 3 1
representation, used in human pedigree analysis is
C) 1 3 2
correct? [AIPMT PRE 2010]
D) 3 1 2
a) □ =○=Mating between relatives
b) ○ =Unaffected male
Chapter 3 - Reproductive Health c) □ =Unaffected female
1. Which of the following is a hormone releasing d) ◊=Male affected
Intrauterine Device (IUD)? [AIPMT 2014] 5. Which one of the following conditions correctly
a) Multiload 375 b) LNG-20 describes the manner of determining the sex in the
c) Cervical cap d) Vault given example? [AIPMT PRE 2011]
2. Assisted reproductive technology, IVF involves the a) XO type of sex chromosomes determine male
transfer of [AIPMT 2014] sex in grasshopper
a) Ovum into the fallopian tube b) XO condition in humans as found in Turner
b) Zygote into the fallopian tube syndrome, determines female sex
c) Zygote into the uterus c) Homozygous sex chromosomes(XX) produce
d) Embryo with 16 blastomeres into the fallopian tube male in Drosophila
3. In context of amniocentesis, which of the following d) Homozygous sex chromosomes(ZZ) determine
statements is incorrect? [NEET-I, 2016] female sex in birds
a) It is usually done when a woman is between 14-16 6. A normal-visioned man whose father was blind,
weeks pregnant marries a woman whose father was also colour
b) It is used for prenatal sex determination blind. They have their first child as a daughter. What
c) It can be used for detection of Down syndrome are the chances that this child would be colour blind?
d) It can be used for detection of Cleft palate [AIPMT PRE 2012]
4. Which of the following approach does not give the a) 100% b) 0% c) 25% d) 50%
defined action of contraceptive? [NEET-I, 2016] 7. Which of the following statements is not true of two
a) Barrier methods Prevent fertilization genes that show 50 per cent recombination frequency
[AIPMT 2013]
b) Intra uterine Increases phagocytosis of sperms,
a) The genes may be on different chromosomes
devices suppresses sperm motility and
b) The genes are tightly linked
fertilizing capacity of sperms
c) The genes show independent assortment
c) Hormonal Prevent retard entry of sperms, d) If the genes are present on the same chromosome
contraceptives prevent ovulation and fertilization 8. A pleiotropic gene: [RE-AIPMT 2015]
d) Vasectomy Prevents spermatogenesis a) Is a gene evolved during Pliocene
b) Controls a trait only in combination with another gene
Chapter 4 - Principle of Inheritance and Variation c) Controls multiple traits in an individual
1. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster was found d) Is expressed only in primitive plants
to be very suitable for experimental verification of 9. A gene showing codominance has: [RE-AIPMT 2015]
chromosomal theory of inheritance by Morgan and a) Alleles tightly linked on the same chromosome
his colleagues because [AIPMT MAINS 2010] b) Alleles that are recessive to each other
a) It reproduces parthenogenetically c) Both alleles independently expressed in the
b) A single mating produces two young flies heterozygote
c) S maller female is easily recognizable from large male d) One allele dominant on the other
d) It completes the life cycle in about two weeks 10. Pick out the correct statements: [NEET-I, 2016]
2. Which one of the following cannot be explained on a) Haemophilia is a sex-linked recessive disease
the basis of Mendel’s Law of Dominance? b) Down’s syndrome is due to aneuploidy
[AIPMT PRE 2010] c) Phenylketonuria is an autosomal recessive gene disorder
a) The discrete unit controlling a particular character d) Sickle cell anaemia is an X-linked recessive gene
is called a factor disorder
Chapter 7 & 8 - Human Health and Diseases and Immunology a) Ancylostoma duodenale
1. Select the correct statement from the given below. b) Enterobius vermicularis
[AIPMT 2010] c) Trichimella spiralis
a) Barbiturates when given to criminals make them d) Ascaris lumbricoides
tell the truth 8. The active form of Entamoeba histolytica feeds upon:
b) Morphine is often given to persons who have [AIPMT 2015]
under gone surgery as a pain killer a) Erythrocytes, mucosa and submucosa of colon
c) Chewing tobacco lowers blood pressure and heart rate b) Mucosa and submucosa colon only
d) Cocaine is given to patients after surgery as it c) Food in intestine
stimulates recovery d) Blood only
2. Match the following [AIPMT 2008] 9. Which one of the following statements is correct with
Column I Column II respect to AIDS? [AIPMT PRE 2010]
a) The HIV can be transmitted through eating food
A) Amoebiasis i) Treptonema pallidum
together with an infected person.
B) Diphtheria ii) Use only sterilized food
b) Drug addicts are least susceptible to HIV infection.
and water
c) AIDS patients are being fully cured 100 percent
C) Cholera iii) DPT vaccine
with proper care and nutrition.
D) Syphilis iv) Use oral rehydration d) The causative HIV retrovirus enters helper
therapy
T-lymphocytes thus reducing their numbers.
A B C D
10. Select the correct statement with respect to diseases
a) i ii iii iv
and immunization [AIPMT MAINS 2011]
b) ii iv i iii
a) If due to some reason B and T lymphocytes are
c) ii I iii iv
damaged, the body will not produce antibodies
d) ii iii iv i
against a pathogen
3. If a person shows production of interferons in his
b) Injection of dead/inactivated pathogens caused
body, the chances are that he has got an infection of
passive immunity
a) Typhoid b) Measles
c) Certain protozoans have been used in mass
c) Tetanus d) Malaria
production of hepatitis B vaccine.
4. A person suffering from a disease caused by
d) Injection of snake antivenom against snake bite is
Plasmodium, experiences recurring chill and fever at
an example of active immunization.
the time when? [AIPMT MAINS 2010]
11. Which one of the following statements is correct with
a) The sporozoites released from RBC’s are being
respect to immunity? [AIPMT MAINS 2012]
rapidly killed and broken down inside spleen
a) The antibodies against small pox pathogen are
b) The trophozoites reach maximum growth and give
produced by T – lymphocytes
out certain toxins.
b) Antibodies are protein molecules each of which
c) The parasite after its rapid multiplication inside
has four light chains.
RBC’s reptures them, releasing the stage to enter
c) Rejection of a kidney graft is the function of B –
fresh RBC’s
lymphocytes.
d) The microgametocytes and megagametocytes are
d) Preformed antibodies need to be injected to
being destroyed by the WBC’s
treat the bite by a viper snake.
5. Where will you look for the sporozoites of the
12. Which one of the following is not a property of
material parasite? [AIPMT PRE 2011]
cancerous cells whereas the remaining three are?
a) Red blood corpuscles of humans suffering from malaria.
[AIPMT PRE 2012]
b) Spleen of infected humans
a) They compete with normal cells for vital nutrients
c) Salivary glands of freshy moulted female anopheles
b) They do not remain confined in the area of formation
mosquito.
c) They divide in an uncontrolled manner
d) Saliva of infected female anopheles mosquito.
d) They show contact inhibition
6. Which one of the following organisms is scientifically
13. At which stager HIV infection does one usually show
and correctly named, correctly printed according
symptoms of AIDS? [AIPMT 2014]
to the International Rules of Nomenclature and
a) Within 15 days of sexual contact with an infected
correctly described? [AIPMT MAINS 2012]
person
a) Plasmodium falciparum – a protozoan causing
b) When the infected retro virus enters host cells
the most serious type of malaria.
c) When HIV damages large number of helper T-
b) Felis tigris – The Indian tiger is well protected in
Lymphocytes
Gir forests.
d) When the viral DNA is produced by reverse
c) E. Coli – The full name is Entamoeba coli, a
transcriptase
commonly occurring bacterium in human intestine.
14. Match each disease with its correct type of vaccine
7. Which of the following endoparasites of humans
[AIPMT 2015]
does show vivipaity? [AIPMT 2015]
a)Tuberculosis i) harmless virus 5. During sewage treatment, biogas are produced which
includes [AIPMT 2015]
b)Whooping cough ii) inactivated toxin a) Methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide
c)Diphtheria iii) killed bacteria b) Methane, oxygen, hydrogen sulphide
d)Polio iv) harmless bacteria c) Hydrogen sulphide, methane, sulphur dioxide
a) b) c) d) d) Hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen, methane
a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) 6. What gases are produced in anaerobic sludge
b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) digesters? [AIPMT 2014]
c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) a) Methane and CO2 only
d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) b) Methane, hydrogen sulphide and CO2
15. Which of the following is correct regarding AIDS c) Methane, hydrogen sulphide and O2
causative agent HIV? [NEET-II, 2016] d) Hydrogen sulphide and CO2
a) HIV is enveloped virus that contains two e) Consumption of organic matter in the water is
identical molecules of single-stranded RNA and higher by the microbes
two molecules of reverse transcriptase 7. Match the following list of microbes and their
b) HIV is unenveloped retrovirus importance: [RE-AIPMT 2015]
c) HIV does not escape but attacks the acquired a)Saccharomyces (i)Production of
immune response cerevisiae immunosuppressive agents
d HIV is enveloped virus containing one molecule of b)Monasus purpureus (ii)Ripening of Swiss cheese
single – stranded RNA and one molecule of reverse
c)Trichoderma (iii)Commercial
transcriptase
polysporum production of ethanol
Chapter 9 - Microbes in Human Welfare d)Propionibacterium (iv)Production of blood-
shermanii cholesterol lowering agents.
1. When domestic sewage mixes with river water
e) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
[AIPMT MAINS 2010]
f) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
a) Small animals like rat will die after drinking river water
g) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
b) The increased microbial activity releases
h) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
micronutrients such as iron.
8. Which of the following is wrongly matched in the
c) The increased microbial activity uses up
given table? [NEET – I, 2016]
dissolved oxygen.
d) The river water is still suitable for drinking as Microbe Product Application
impurities are only about 0.1 per cent (a)Trichoderma Cyclosporin A Immunosuppressive
2. Select the correct statement from the following. polysporum drug
[AIPMT PRE 2010] (b)Monascus Statins Lowering of blood
a) Biogas is produced by the activity of aerobic purpureus cholesterol
bacteria on animal waste. (c) Streptococcus Sterptockinase Removal of clot
b) Methanobacterium is an aerobic bacterium found from blood vessel
in rumen of cattle. (d)Clostridium Lipase Removal of oil
c) Biogas, commonly called gober gas, is pure methane. butylicum stains
d) Activated sludge-sediment in settlement tank 9. Match Column – I with Column – II and select the
of sewage treatment plant is a right source of correct options using the codes given below:
aerobic bacteria. [NEET – II, 2016]
3. Read the following four statements (A to D): Column I Column II
[AIPMT MAINS 2012] A.Citric acid 1. Trichoderma
a) Colostrums is recommended for the new born B.Cyclosporin A 2. Clostridium
because it is rich in antigen. C.Statins 3. Aspergillus
b) Chikungunya is caused by a gram negative
D.Butyric acid 4. Monoscus
bacterium.
a) A:3, B:1, C:4, D:2
c) Tissue culture has proved useful in obtaining
virus-free plants. b) A:1, B:4, C:2, D:3
d) Beer is manufactured by distillation of fermented c) A:3, B:4, C:1, D:2
grape juice d) A:3, B:1, C:2, D:4
How many of the above statements are wrong?
a) Three b) Four c) One d) Two Chapter 10 - Biotechnology and Its Application
4. Which of the following are likely to be present in 1. Genetic engineering has been successfully used for
deep sea water? [AIPMT 2013] producing [AIPMT RE 2010]
a) Archaebacteria b) Eubacteria a) Transgenic mice for testing safety of polio
c) Blue – green algae d) Saprophytic fungi vaccine before used in humans.
b) Predator star fish Pisaster helps in maintaining 9. When does the growth rate of a population following
species diversity of some invertebrates. the logistic model equal zero? The logistic model is
c) Predators ultimately lead to the extinction of prey given as dN/dt=rN(1-N/K): [NEET – I, 2016]
species. a) When N/K is exactly one
d) Production of chemicals such as nicotine, b) When N nears the carrying capacity of the habitat
strychnine by the plants is metabolic disorders. c) When N/K equals zero
The two correct statements are d) When dearth rate is greater than birth rate
a) (B) and (C) b) (C) and (D)
c) (A) and (D) d) (A) and (B) Chapter 12 - biodiversity and conservation
3. Which two of the following changes ( 1 to 4) usually 1. Select the correct statement about biodiversity
tend to occur in the plain dwellers when they move to [AIPMT MAINS 2012]
high altitudes(3500 m or more)? [AIPMT PRE 2010] a) Large scale planting of Bt cotton has no adverse
A) Increase in red blood cell size effect on biodiversity.
B) Increase in red blood cell production b) Western Ghats have a very high degree of species
C) Increased breathing rate richness and endemism
D) Increase in thrombocyte count c) Conservation of biodiversity is just a fad pursued
a) (B) and (C) b) (C) and (D) by the developed countries.
c) (A) and (D) d) (A) and (B) d) The desert areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat have a
4. Consider the following four conditions (A-D) and very high level of desert animal species as well as
select the correct pair of them as adaptation to numerous rare animals.
environment in desert lizards. [AIPMT PRE 2011] 2. Sacred groves are specially useful in[AIPMT MAINS 2012]
The conditions: a) Preventing soil erosion
A) Burrowing in soil to escape high temperature. b) Year-round flow of water in rivers
B) Losing heat rapidly from the body during high c) Conserving rare and threatened species
temperature d) Generating environmental awareness
C) Bask in sun when temperature is low
D) Insulating body due to thick fatty dermis.
3. The highest number of species in the world is
a) (A) and (C) b) (B) and (D) represented by [AIPMT PRE 2012]
c) (A) and (B) d) (C) and (D) a) Fungi b) Mosses c) Algae d) Lichens
5. People who have migrated from the planes to an area 4. Which of the following is not used for ex situ plant
adjoining Rohtang Pass about six months back conservation? [AIPMT PRE 2012]
[AIPMT PRE 2012] a) Field gene banks b) Seed banks
a)Have more RBC’s and their haemoglobin has a c) Shifting cultivation d) Botanical gardens
lower binding affinity to O2. 5. In which of the following both pairs have correct
b) Are not physically fit to play games like football
combination? [AIPMT 2015]
c) Suffer from altitude sickness with symptoms like
a) In situ conservation: National Park
nausea, fatigue, etc.
Ex situ conservation: Botanical Garden
d) Have the usual RBC count but then haemoglobin
b) In situ conservation: Cryopreservation
has very high binding affinity to O2.
6. A biologist studies the population of eats in a barn.
Ex situ conservation: Wildlife Sanctuary
He found that the average natality was 250, average c) In situ conservation: Seed Bank
mortality is 240, immigration is 20 and emigration to be Ex situ conservation: National park
30. The net increase in population is [AIPMT 2013] d) In situ conservation: Tissue culture
a) 10 b) 15 c) 05 d) Zero Ex situ conservation: Sacred groves
7. An association of individuals of different species 6. Cryopreservation of gametes of threatened species
living in the same habitat and having functional in viable and fertile condition can be referred to
interaction is: [RE-AIMPT 2015] as [AIPMT 2015]
a) Biotic community b) Ecosystem a) In situ conservation of biodiversity
c) Population d) Ecological niche b) Advanced ex situ conservation of biodiversity
8. Gause’s principle of competitive exclusion states c) In situ conservation by sacred groves
that: [NEET – I, 2016] d) In situ cryo-conservation of biodiversity
a) More abundant species will exclude the less
abundant species through competition 7. The species confined to a particular region and not
b) Competition for the same resources excludes found elsewhere is termed as [RE-AIPMT 2015]
species having different food preferences a) Alien b) Endemic c) Rare d) Keystone
c) No two species can occupy the same niche 8. Which of the following National Parks is home to
indefinitely for the same limiting resources the famous musk deer or hangal? [NEET-II, 2016]
d) Larger organisms exclude smaller ones through a) Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh
competition b) Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh
c) Dachigam National Park, Jammu & Kashmir 7. A scrubber in the exhaust of a chemical industrial
d) Keibul Lamjao National Park, Manipur plant removes
a) Gases like sulphur dioxide.
Chapter 13 - Environmental Issues b) Particulate matter of the size 5 micrometer or
1. DB is a standard abbreviation used for the above.
quantitative expression of [AIPMT PRE -2010] c) Gases like ozone and methane
d) Particulate matter of the size 2.5 micrometer or less
a)The density of bacteria in a medium
b) A particular pollutant 8. Rachel Carson’s famous book ‘Silent Spring’ is related
c) The dominant bacillus in a culture to [AIPMT-2015]
d) A certain pesticide a) Pesticide pollution
b) Noise Pollution
2. Which one of the following expanded forms of the
c) Population explosion
following acronyms is correct? [AIPMT PRE-2011] d) Ecosystem management
a)UNEP United Nations Environmental Policy 9. Which of the following is not one of the primary health
b)EPA Environmental Pollution Agency risks associated with greater UV radiation through
c)IUCN International Union for Conservation the atmosphere due to depletion of stratospheric
of Nature and Natural Resources ozone? [AIPMT-2015]
a) Increased skin cancer
d)IPCC International Penal for climate Change b) Reduced immune system
3. In an area where DDT had been used extensively c) Damage to eyes
the population of birds declined significantly d) Increased liver cancer
because 10. Increase in the concentration of the toxicant at
[AIPMT PRE-2012] successive trophic levels is known as [RE AIPMT-2015]
a) Birds stopped laying eggs a) Biodeterioration
b) Earthworms in the area got eradicated. b) Biotransformation
c) Cobras were feeding exclusively on birds. c) Biogeochemical cycling
d) Many of the birds eggs, laid, did not hatch. d) Biomagnifications
4. Which one of the following is a wrong statement? 11. A river with an inflow of domestic sewage rich in
AIPMT PRE-2012] organic waste may result in: [NEET-I, 2016]
a) Most of the forests have been lost in tropical areas. a) Drying of the river very soon due to algal bloom
b) Ozone in upper part of atmosphere is harmful b) Increased population of aquatic food web organisms
to animals. c) An increased production of fish due to
c) Greenhouse effect is natural phenomenon biodegradable nutrients
d)
Eutrophication is a natural phenomenon in d) Death of fish due to lack of oxygen
freshwater bodies. 12. A lake which is rich in organic waste may result in
5. Measuring Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a [NEET-II, 2016]
method used for [AIPMT PRE-2012] a) Drying of the lake due to algal bloom
a) Estimating the amount of organic matter in b) Increased population of fish due to lots of nutrients
sewage water. c) Mortality of fish due to lack of oxygen
b) Working out the efficiency of oil driven automobile d) Increases population of aquatic organisms due to
engines. minerals
c) Measuring the activity of saccharomyces cerevisiae 13. The highest DDT concentration in aquatic food
in producing curd on a commercial scales chain shall occur in [NEET-II, 2016]
d) Working out the efficiency of RBCs about their a) Seagull b) Crab
capacity to carry oxygen c) Cell d) Phytoplankton
6. Kyoto Protocol was endorsed at [AIPMT -2013]
a) CoP-3 b) CoP-5
c) CoP-6 d) CoP-4
247
NOTE
248