Nptel MT Lec1

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology -Part-1
Module-01
by
Prof. Shantanu Bhattacharya
Hello and welcome to this lecture on manufacturing process technology module 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)
This is part-1 module-1 and I am Shantanu Bhattacharya, I am an associate professor at the

department of mechanical engineering at IIT Kanpur. And I will actually be teaching you or
taking you through the whole sequence of steps which are needed to understand the
manufacturing processes in great details. So let us have a sort of a brief introductory overview of
what I am going to talk toady.
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I am going to actually tell u some of the manufacturing system approaches.
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Then I would also discuss some basic manufacturing processes like casting, forming, fabrication,
material removal. I would also like to describe some of the advanced machining processes ECM,
EDM, EBM, LBM, AJM, USM processes etc. And then micro manufacturing processes Etching,
Deposition, Lithography, Replication and molding, Dip-pen lithography, Compression molding,
Nano-imprint lithography so on so forth.
So this is only an introductive lecture it may go over several modules, and the idea is that you
should able to know at a glance the processes before getting into the aspects related to the
modeling of the process technology. This course could be actually intending to given insight into
the people who are process designers and it would really be a parametric analysis of all these
different processes.
But we have to organize the way that the processes are laid out in sequence and that is why this
introduction lecture is very, very important.
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So when we talk about manufacturing through a system’s approach what is important is that
manufacturing facility is really a value adder okay. So as you can see here right in this figure,
there is a facility which is adding value to an input material which is actually more in the form of
a raw material which may not have otherwise any value. But once the value is added by the
manufacturing facility the output which actually comes out of such a facility generates wealth
because the output has some value coded in it.
And so therefore, it s very important to plan the facility in a manner, so that this value can be
added according to the aspirations and needs of various sections of the society. And if you can
add the value in the right manner then the product can be positioned in the right manner it will
definitely generate a lot of wealth which is actually the reason why a manufacturing facility
exists.
So a definition, manufacturing technology really provides the tools that enables production of all
manufactured goods these master tools of industry magnify the effort of individual workers and
give an industrial nation the power to turn the raw materials into affordable quality goods
essential in today’s society. So if I look at such a system which has this manufacturing facility it
really comprises at the heart a set of manufacturing processes and really it is the processes which
is the key to the wealth generation.
So one side there are various inputs like sales fluctuation, raw materials, cost and availability,
business environment, social pressure, sources and plans and in other hand production rate and
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quality, you have the deliverables which are actually the products coming out of the
manufacturing system you also have profits and reputation to keep in business which is also
important for such a system.
But really this system would be balanced at work well if the key to it or the heart of advanced
manufacturing processes is well balanced and well designed. So therefore, in this current trade is
no longer stenciled over emphases how important manufacturing is for our country and our
society. And the processes there for automatically become the bread and butter for such
manufacturing systems.
Let us talk about some of the very commonly available processes for example, if you really look
at the paradigm of all processes the manufacturing processes can be split up into primary
processes and secondary processes. The primary processes are really those were the overall
shape or size of the object can be given. Let us say for an example, we talk about casting process
which is the primary process or a forging process where there is a different shapes of iron, but
you are actually heating it up and trying to shape it.
So that there is some overall shape which is incorporated or overall size which the material is
constrained and so this overall shaping of the material is known as the primary manufacturing
processes. The secondary manufacturing processes comes into play when you talk about such
primary products coming out of primary processes in assembly. So that they can develop
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something like a power in and power out kind of the system or alternately you may have some
kind of joining exercise between two.
So that the complex shape can be created, but overall those process are categorized into the
secondary manufacturing processes. So let us call the primary manufacturing process like casting
process, these are the only process where liquid metal is used, so casting is one of the oldest
known manufacturing process. And if I look at how the casting process is accomplished it is
done by something called preparation of a mold, this mold is normally made out of sand but then
are many other variance of the mould which can be used time again when the process is differ in
terms of its output etc.
But the mould is basically something which is the negative of the shape that you want to produce
using the casting, and the mould is needed because it is essentially a containment for the melt of
the material which would then solidify and come out as a solid object of exactly the negative
shape of the mould. So if you have to make a spherical ball you need a cavity which is the
negative of a ball as the mould.
So the mould is prepared typically by using some kind of flasks which are also known as cope
and drag, and the some material which is refractory material. So refractory material really is a
material which retain its strength at high temperatures, sand is a very good refractory material for
example. So what it do is that you have a flask set which is shown right here which will also you
can see this is the assemble view of the whole mould with different flask set and you have
different layers of this flask and each containing one flask and the flask there in containing
refractive material.
So you start with such a flask this is one flask for example where you are actually pouring the
refractive material sand and setting up the mould. So for doing that you really need something
called a pattern, A pattern is really the shape or size that you want to cast. So you putting a
pattern inside the sand, and then you trying to hammer the sand or compress the sand in the
manner, so that is forms a mould around the pattern.
And such pattern can be in several pieces, so therefore different levels or different flasks would
contain different pieces of the pattern. And thereby you have now when we take out the pattern
for example, the pattern would actually create a cavity in the sand, and this is the cavity which
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you really need to fill with the molten material. So once you do that then, obviously you have a
something called a mould.
Now the mould has in addition to the pattern several other regions which is very important for
the metal transfer process. So there is a liquid metal that you are pouring, so you have to run the
metal through a substantial section of the mould before it enters the pattern so that the
momentum etc, is reduced and the mould does not get damaged. So there is a riser, there is a
runner and the risining section is normally because you need to have an indication from outside
that the metal is also losing out after filling out the whole cavity.
So from one side the liquid metal is coming filling the cavity, the mould cavity and from other
side the liquid metal is coming out. So there is a combination of this riser, runner and the mould,
and then obviously into the runner you need getting device where you have pouring basin etc,
where the metal is poured. So therefore, this is the process really where you are trying to guide
the liquid metal within this system of the mould, so that the material goes and comes into a
cavity which is of the shape of/ negative shape of the material or of the part that is to be
produced the size that is to be produce. And that would really create the mould.
So once the mould is ready, on the other hand if you have liquid metal so obviously you will
have to heat the pieces of metals together in a furnace and take it to the melting point, so that the
material gets flowable or fluid or liquid in nature and then this material can be further super
heated also if you wanted the solidification process to be more controlled etc. So therefore, the
liquid metal is poured into the mould and the pouring of this liquid metal in the mould.
The mould is taken off after the solidifications of the materials happens and so the material is
extracted, the solidified material is extracted from the mould, and the mould is reused so you can
reclaim the sand of shaking out the mould and you can use the sand after some more preparation
for modified for other application into other mould flask and so on. And what comes out is
basically a component where you have to clean the component.
So you have to sort of stream of the component, let us see is figure for example. So in this figure
you are pouring the molten material through a ladle into this section which is the runner and it
goes all the way into this particular part where the part is again filled with some kind of a core.
The core is normally used if you want to create a hollow casting, so the material moves around
this core and comes back into the riser size.
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And that is how when you get this solidified metal it will be having the basic part which is
probably the part in this particular region plus the runner side. Because this is also going to get
solidified and the riser side, so you have to remove the risers and the runners from the part so
that you can extract the basic part, you can also do a short blasting, so that whatever small sand
impurities are left on the surface of the materials actually goes away.
And then finally you do the inspection and you can add a secondary manufacturing process like
machining here or may be even it treating it further through certain thermal cycles, so that it gets
heat treated and the strength gets modified according to the requirement. So that is how you can
finish a casting part. So typically a casting process is necessitating the preparation of a cavity in a
refractory material, and also a step where there is a molten metal being poured into that cavity.
Further followed by the material in the cavity getting solidified because of heat transfer across
the mould and then the object after solidification is finally removed and processed, so that you
can have a shape, overall shape given to the object that is why it is a primary manufacturing
process. So this is a overview of how a casting is done, but there are many intricacies and many
modalities in terms of process modeling where you can actually figure out what is going to be
the length of the runner versus raiser, what is going to be the time it takes for the liquid metal to
reach and during that time what is the impact of solidification on the material.
Or for example, when the gets to fill the cavity after that what is the impact of the solidification
into the overall green structure, all these aspects need to be revealed in great details when we do
the section of the casting area or process modeling for the casting. The other process that we
would be studying in great details is pertaining to the secondary manufacturing process at least
this particular part or module that is how I have structured the material. And this secondary
process is related to material removal really.
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So it is all about machining process, and here the idea is whenever there is a primary shape being
incorporated either by the casting are else we see later to forming processes, the engineering
parts that are so made have to go into assemblies or structures where more than one parts are put
together for having some sequences which would do for example motion transfer or power
transfer. And that is how machine is realized.
So therefore, for such material removal processes are very important because there is an issue of
fitment with respect to each other and there has to be certain processed tolerance or certain fitted
tolerance that are needed between the different parts which come out. So that they can be put
together in an assembly, so therefore the material removal process become very important they
are secondary manufacturing processes where additional unwanted material is removed and they
are removed in the form of chips from blank material.
And typically by using a harder surface which is also called the tool and the harder surface
actually heats into the softer material and that is how the chips are being processed, so that the
final desired shape can be obtained that manner. So material removal is the most expensive
manufacturing process because more energy is consumed, and a lot of waste material is
generated in the process of manufacturing of the material using this secondary process.
So there is an impatient of course, nowadays that can be really do without the need for this
secondary material removal wasteful expensive process, and that is why people are going into a
additive manufacturing and components made as is in the finished state which is actually one
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advancement over whatever this conventional way is of casting followed by machining, so that
material goes into this.
So there are many process that we discussed would be turning process which is typically done
lathe machine, where the work piece is rotated and the tool moves and linear manner with
respect to the work piece either radially or parallel to the axis of the rotating work piece. We will
talk about shaping where there is going to be , let say this operation here is illustrating form
cutting, there is a tool which is in a shape or a form and produces the counter shape by scribing
on the material surface.
And so there is a downward feed that the tool has while the surface is moving back and forth
against this in a perpendicular direction to that particular feed. We will also talk about milling
processes where there are multiple point cutting tools which are being utilized, so that there is
material removal. We will talk about drilling processes, grinding, and sawing. And apart from
that probably we will try to see some basic understanding into the chip formulation technique.
How the material can be peeled off by taking the material to really the ultimate yield strength of
the material where there is a peeling off in from of chips from the material. So that is how the
scribing process causing the material coming out as chips happens okay. And so that is a very
important process, so this is the section that we will cover in such conventional material removal
processes and machining processes.
Refer Slide Time: 17:04)
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So the other material removal processes which are available are also called the nontraditional and
nonconventional processes where there is no really, not really direct metal to metal scribing
action per se which is there. But it is a set of processes which other uses at various forms of
energy like mechanical, thermal, electro chemical, chemical energy, but to be actuated on the
surface the material which you want to get removed by virtue of that energy.
And although there is some kind of a mechanical energy which may seemingly look like what
happens in conventional machining where there is scribing and reaching of the material to the
ultimate yield strength value of the material. But in this particular case the energy mechanical is
given by impingement, and this impingement is normally achieved by throwing a set of sand
grains or a set of abrasive particles at a very high velocity to the surface which can create little
fracture.
And these processes have generated because there were a lot of requirements for a different
range of material classes including ceramics, or metals where the conventional machining
process particularly ceramics etc. The conventional machining process would not work that
efficacy, so in general all such material removal process that you can see right about here is
classified into traditional and nontraditional processes.
These classes would also be covered during this course which talks about chemical machining,
electrochemical machining, electro chemical grinding, electro discharge machining, laser beam
machining, compression jet machining, water jet machining, plasma beam machining and
ultrasonic machining and so on so forth.
And the traditional machining would have really cutting where you have circular shape through
turning, boring, drilling and various shapes through milling, planning, shaping, broaching,
sowing, filling, gear forming , gear generating so on so forth and impression using bonded
abrasives or loose abrasives like in case of polishing and buffering use loose abrasives. And this
is very important particularly for the painting processes and the finishing processes of the applied
paint waterproof and others engineering products.
And then you have the grinding, honing coated abrasives which are more bonded abrasive
process. So I am going to sort of when we talk about material removal processes, I go across all
these different domains with an insight into how the removal process is taking place, what is the
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kind of limitation of parameter design for the process which is needed for this chip formation to
happen and get activated.
And what is going to be the outcome once the chips gets generated in terms of temperatures of
the substrate or for example, the surface finish of the average roughness of the surface. So these
aspects we are going to cover when we talk about these material removal processes. So in a
nutshell what we are trying to do here is to cover with one primary and two sub secondary
processes.
One is obviously the conventional and the non-conventional material removal process. In the part
2 of this lecture we will probably try to cover the remaining manufacturing processes like the
joining processes or forming processes in great details. So I am going to close on this module in
the interest of time, but in the next module I will start with the history of machining and how
machining came into existences.
And then what are the kind of tolerances which are achieved as machining grew or progress
starting from the first machine tool which was power driven all the way to now some of the
advanced CNC machine systems. So with this I will close on this module, thank you.
Acknowledgement
Ministry of Human Resources & Development
Prof. Satyaki Roy

Co – ordinator, NPTEL IIT Kanpur
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
13
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia
Shivendra Kumar Tiwari
an IIT Kanpur Production

@copyright reserved
14
Course Title
Module-02
by
Welcome to this manufacturing process technology part -1 module-2.
Last module we were discussing about the briefs of some of the processes that we are going to
cover in this particular course. Today we will actually look a little bit into the history of
machining and how machining had evolved right from the Paleolithic to the new Paleolithic
times and then to the modern times. So really If you look at some of the historical facts earlier
about 2.5 and 2.6 million years ago.
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The genus called Homo habilis used to use these choppers, burins, halls and these are some of
the most ancient Paleolithic stone tools that a person can think off. Then obviously during the
upper Paleolithic age also there were certain modifications made to these sort of primitive tools
and the nets and bolas were invented. And also the spear thrower the bow and arrow. And so
these bolas are basically typically held in a rope.
So the rope is tied around this and then there is a hurling action so that it moves in a round path
and then you throw it because this gathers momentum and this momentum is suddenly, the rope
is suddenly released. So the body can fly tangentially to the circular path that it is taking and it
hits the concerned target once it is been thrown. So see these are some of the very, very early
applications history of what you can call tools okay.
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Now obviously the age changed and you know the Bronze Age came and you have several hand
held tools that you can recover from the bronze age of one million years back. This for example,
is this Bronze Age weaponry and ornaments there are certain all different types of shapes and
sizes that had been made possible. So the mankind could know how to actually make the metal
bronze, and they could also know how to cast all this into different implements on tools.
So almost up to the seventeenth century all the tools were either hand operated or done so by
other elementary methods. This for example is a ceremonial dirk which was obtained in France
and it belongs to an age 1500-1300 BC for Christ, it very, very old again some were around same
time as this Bronze Age.
So, the introduction of powered tools from the hand held tools really came after the seventeenth
century and you know there were various energy source like water, steam, and later electricity
which were used as useful sources of energy and which lead to the concept of power driven
machine tools.
So basically we are talking about now not normal manual operated systems, but also power
operated systems. So in fact if you look historically John Wilkinson in 1774 first constructed a
precision machine for boring engine cylinders and this was powered by steam that is shown here.
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Then obviously if you go further you have 23 years later Henry Maudslay who made further
advancement in the machining when he devised screw cutting engine lathe okay. James Nasmyth
invented the second basic machine tool for shaping and planning. So you can see some of these
tools here the screw cutting engine lathes or the basic shaping and planning tools. And so this is
how the machining industry sort of developed.
So the first universal milling machine was built by J.R. Brown and that was in 1862. This is the
snap shot of how the milling machine really looks like. And in the late 19th century the grinding
was finally invented with change the paradigm quite a bit because it could actually now use the
grinding for doing finished machine parts which would go into again assembling etc… So the
advanced form of this process grinding is also known as the lapping which was used to produce a
high quality surface finish and a very tight tolerance.
There were various sort of you can say variance of the grinding process which actually evolved
were there would be either loose abrasives or bonded abrasives, and then there will be honing on
one side and lapping or buffing or polishing or another. And so, these would all typically do the
same job or finishing super finishing of surfaces which was a very, very critical requirement of
the industry.
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So that is how the machining paradigm kind of historically emerged, and so if you look beyond
the early part of the nineteenth century or even twentieth century the machine tools became
increasingly electrically powered. The basic machine tools had further refinements, for instance
multiple point cutters for milling machines were introduced. The whole machining paradigm was
however still related to the operators judgment who by looking at a part and using his skills
would set up an operation sequence and use this for machining the work piece.
Accuracy of such a product would develop solely on the operator. And this was the major
problem for the industry, because when we are talking about human angle in it is a matter of
perception and the two different operators may have a different perception of how to carry out
machining or they may even have different skill sets and there would not be a large variability at
the outcome which is the product.
So in order to able to curtail that it is important that we could sort of organize all this and it
would shift from manual controlled to machine control, and that would give you a repeatability
or accuracy of the performance of these machines. So that is why the numerical control was
introduced that is in1953, this lead to the direct control of machine tool by numeric’s, so you
either had computer executing, the numeric control, or direct numeric control system.
And in the present capability of these tooling system if you look at enormously increase due to
development in electronic controls, probably computers, or high speed computers. And the
present capabilities in able complex shapes will be produced with finishing accuracy as close as
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plus minus 1 micron. So the walk way from early seventeenth century all the way to the current
day has lead to the emergence of increase of flexibility almost these days you can do anything
using machining and that would surface finish level of about plus minus 1 micron.
So that is the historical walk of the machining industry.
Then evolve the modern machining practices and this is some were we want to really model and
look into different processes were these modern machining activities really emerged because of
a lot of requirement of the industry in terms of new materials, new composites, new high strength
systems etc… and there was a lot of harder, stronger and tougher materials which were
increasingly being designed by the engineering tools of the requirement of the growing
industries which were either automotive or aerospace or things like that.
And it was very difficult to cut such systems with the conventional machining paradigm and
therefore, there was a need for giving some other nonconventional or nontraditional way of
removing the machining which would make the machining independent of the material
properties that are being deployed for various applications.
So now these nonconventional machining tools would use energy in some form which could
either be mechanical, or thermal, or chemical, or electro chemical, and the mechanical energy per
se is the energy which was not because of a direct metal to metal contact, but because of
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throwing grains or in pinching grains onto the surface, the grains would be an abrasive grain
which would create a little fracture.
So mechanisms like for example, abrasive jet cutting or abrasive jet water machining emerged
and there were lot of flexibilities again which paned over different domains of materials to be cut
in different complex shapes, different surface integrities and this whole new business of
nontraditional machining were started. Slowly people realize that they could actually have a
hybrid strategy were you would actually need to machine something using a combination of
processes be it conventional or non conventional.
And these days the most important aspect which is emerged out of all this is so quality hybrid
machining approach and which can be translated over different domains of even scales there is a
scale of machining which is particularly done at dimension of the object that we are considering
is probably in the micron at least one of the dimensions is in the micron range and that is called
micro machining.
People have gone further beyond the micron range where they have been able to reduce the size
of at least one of the dimension of the component to less than a micron and this is called the sub
micron machining or the mesoscale machining systems. So a lot of these have evolved they are
very recent applications which have come up in micro machining, which includes silicon glass
micro machining , excimer lasers, photolithography a bunch of different processes.
And this have been also in new of the fact that another industry called the electronics industry
generated during the late 60’s and continued. And some of the processes were really geared to
making small things miniature things for that particular industry. So now you can have the
different generations of this machining listed up to the most recent times when you can actually
be able to do all sort of micro nanomachining using different routes and that is all the historical
machining has evolved.
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So if I look at some of the machining accuracies and if you look at year wise break up of this
accuracies. So on the right here I have made the equipments and machine tool that are being
deployed on the left side here is basically the accuracy in terms of microns of the machining.
And then you can see year wise break up here in this scale really talks about the different years
along which the machining has generated.
And you can see that the machining accuracy if you look at for the different domains have really
increased in almost all the domains. For example, if we talk about these set of equipments were
turning and milling machines, graining machines, CNC machining centers, lapping and horning,
jet boring, and grinding these systems they have sort of reduced the machining accuracy from
about 100 micron all the way to 1 micron.
So this is the normal machining paradigm if we talk about precision machining which talks about
1 to 10-2 micron range we have difference systems like optical lens grinding machines, precision
grinding, super finishing, diamond grinding and turning examples, and then obviously again you
can see that there is a change in the machining accuracies from 1 to 0.01 microns which start
from 0.1 microns and go all the way to .001 microns that is about 10-3 or 1 nanometer.
And there are various different machines here which are deployed for example, high precision
musk liners, ultra precision diamond turning tools, turning and milling machines, electron beams
and soft x-ray lithography, ion beam machining and then, obviously you can have a atomic and
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latest separation based again built up systems which concerns with molecular beam project CD
or iron implementation so and so forth.
There is this whole new paradigm of self assembly processes were materials get self synthesized
and that can give you again atomic spacing or atomic layers. So now you can really manipulate
the materials to the level of the atoms and be able to produce such a system of accuracy. So that
is how the machining accuracies are evolved through the different years from starting from 1940
to 2000 as it can be reflected in the particular curve.
And so having said that we now have covered historically what was the walk way for the
machining industry which is come to the most latest processes and we have also given a brief
glimpse of machining accuracies as the function of number of years for different processes.
So in brief if we really want to categorize all the material removal processes, they can be either
traditional processes or nontraditional processes. Traditional processes again deploy cutting
which can have various shapes like circular shapes or other various shapes, circular shapes are
typically were either the tool or work piece one of them should actually move or actually rotate
along the axis, and the other either the tool of the work piece move in relation to the rotating
work piece or the rotating tool.
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So that is how circular shapes are created other various shapes for example flaxier etc.., can be
done by plaining, shaping you can also do complex profiles on the surface by using milling. The
other processes broaching, sawing, filing, gear forming, and gear generating processes where we
you can do complex topologies, complex gear shapes etc. So this can be again done by
traditional machining you have a section of a traditional machining which concerns with
mechanical abrasions were you have either bonded abrasives that means the abrasives bonded
either to a wheel or a stick.
So you can actually call them either grinding or honing operations or these are normally with
coated abrasives okay. And then, you have loose abrasives based processes for example policing
and buffing where you have a slurry, abrasive slurry and there is a tool which actually comes
very close to the slurry which is on the surface to be finished and rubs the abrasive grains by
dragging them along in the slurry.
So the grains per se are lose, but then the tool forces them to go around in round paths or some
define trajectory while scribing along the overall work piece and make good surface finish.
These are the traditional side or the nontraditional side either uses chemistry to do machining
which is called chemical machining, you do electro chemical. So make one of the surfaces anode
the other cathode.
And you can either do electrode deposition or you can do electro chemical subtraction or electro
chemical machining. You can also do electrochemical grinding by allowing some mechanical
action and a majority of it electro chemical action on the machining surface you can also do
electro discharge machining. So here you use the thermal means to erode the material where
there is a spark which is created, and the spark is at a very high frequency.
And this actually generates a local melt in the material, because the spark gets generated in this
way. And then this material melt is the main cause for the material removal action in this
particular case. You can also talk about laser beam machining where again the thermal energy is
utilized by the beam of the laser, so there is a photon to phonon conversion, and there is some
kind of lattice vibrations which are induced because of this, and it basically tries to locally heat a
small place away.
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So it can be melted and then later on vaporize. You also have abrasive jet machining which is
basically the pining grain action throwing grain action, you have water jet machining were a jet
of water loaded with abrasives are used for again perform brittle fracture with the materials
ceramics for example, are in lot machine with these two processes per se. You have the plasma
beam machining were we talk about the thermal temperature increase by the plasma beam, very
hot beam of ions and electrons.
And you can basically raster the beam on the surface and perform local heating at the various
places of the surface where there is melting and vaporization which happens, so that is another
way of doing machining. And then you have ultrasonic machining which takes care of abrasive
particle coming between the vibrating head and the work piece and causing brittle fracture in
random to the work piece. So that you can actually have the machining.
So these are the variety of the nontraditional machining processes that look at. So we have
covered the history of the machining and we have also the classification of the different
machining processes. So we hereby close this module 2, and then we will be doing more about
nontraditional machining domain etc., in the next the next module, thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
11
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
12
Course Title
Module-03
by
Hello, and welcome to this manufacturing process technology, part 1 module 3, we are going to
discuss little more and the nontraditional machining processes, and how they evolved.
1
So let us look at, you know as I discussed last time, the nontraditional machining processes
emerged because of the increasing requirement of the manufacturing industry to machine new
and novel materials which would be applied to the aerospace or the, you know the automotive
sector and they would typically be high strength, high ductility, high hardness, stronger, and
tougher, kind of materials.
And sometimes the nonconventional domain would be necessitated because the conventional
would not work for such materials. So let us look at some of these processes which has been
figured out or, you know the first process that I would like to give you an illustration is the
ultrasonic machining or the, you know where there is a abrasive particle which is involved
typically.
And so, it can be either a ultrasonic machining process or a water jet machining process which
are typical examples of single action mechanical nontraditional machining processes. The
machining medium is solid grains suspended in a abrasive slurry in the former while a fluid is
employed in WJM process. The introduction of abrasive to the fluid jet enhances the machining
efficiency and is known as abrasive water jet machining.
And basically it means mechanical energy that is number one, it also means in one sense, you
know you use ultrasonic components which I am going show later in great details, and how this
ultrasonic machining is going to work. And so, there is a sort of a vibrating head here which
2
comes and presses on these abrasive which is on the slurry form and it activates on the work
piece by other freely throwing the grain or pressing the grain against the work piece.
In the second domain is the AJM or the, you know the water jet machining where the jet of water
at a certain presser with abrasive loaded with presser was used for a work piece which is
submerged, and it is used for the purposes of taking of the material.
So let us talk about the first mechanical material removal process which is the abrasive jet
machining process. So in the AJM the material removal takes place due to impinging of the fine
abrasive particles, so you can see here for example is a nozzle, and this nozzle is basically, you
know made up of tungsten carbide or some other hard and tough material, which can withstand
the abrasion of moving abrasive particles.
There is a high speed air at a velocity of about 150 to 300 meter per second, and there is a
loading of the abrasive particles into the air. So the way that it mandates out from the nozzle is
the combination of the high speed air and the abrasive particles, and these particles are thrown at
a certain nozzle tip distance which is about 800 microns to the machine surface and this abrasive
particle come out.
And they generate a mechanical action within the work piece surface which results in, you know
brittle fracture of the surface. So basically what is going to happen here is that the abrasive
3
particles typically about 25 microns in diameter, and they are forced by air discharges which are
at a pressure of several atmospheric pressures and it causes brittle fracture, you can see here
abrasive grain coming and striking the work piece at a certain velocity.
And therefore, a fracture is created in the work pieces you can see here and the fractured particle
is now moving by the flowing air out of this cavity. So that is how the fracture of the work
surface and the formation of the cavity comes out. So the abrasive particle impinging on the
work surface at a high velocity at this impact causes a tiny brittle fracture, and the following air
or gas carries away the dislodged small work piece particles.
So that is how the abrasive jet machining processes are individual. The other processes which are
of concern is as I told ultrasonic machining process again a mechanical process where you can
see there is a slurry of the grain and the abrasive powder. And this slurry is actually applied by
shooting the slurry into the work piece surface through a nozzle, and then there is a vibrating tool
head which basically is in a ultrasonic frequency which is frequency over and about 20 kilohertz.
The amplitude of motion of such a tool is about 15 to 20 microns which is similar to the grain
diameter which is there, and the purpose of this tool is to sort of apply a feed force, so there are
two cases, one where the particle get deflected from the moving surface at a high velocity. So it
is called the free grain case where this would cause some mechanical action on the work piece,
the other case would be where the particles is entrapped between the vibrating head and the work
piece which would actually create again a tiny brittle fracture on a surface.
So both these combine together would result in MRR or material removal rate, we are going to
model extensively when we do this process in the details later on. So therefore, you know you
will have the grain hammering as well as the free throw grains is the main cause of the material
removal here.
4
The other technique that I would like to illustrate is thermal machining where thermal energy is
applied. So this energy could be in form of short dischargers, which is done in the EBM. So it
could be in case of electron beam rastering and scanning over the surface, where you can super
focus the energy to the very small area, so that you can directly penetrate through a few layers
and go into and create wiper pocket which comes out okay.
And then you have laser beam machining where again the energy is much more intensified and it
is a direct vaporization on the surface, because of the photon to phonon conversion. So you can
see here the EDM case has a dielectric fluid deployed because the idea is the spark would not be
formulated unless there is a dielectric. And, you know it has to break down the dielectric and
formulated a spark.
So in case of, you know electron beam there is a accelerated electron beam which is created by a
perforated anode and a thermally heated filament which is also the cathode, and by thermionic
emissions the beam is generated and is focused the magnetic fields into very, very small area
which can induce the flux density of the beam to be very high and this creates some kind of a
thermal imprint on the material.
You have plasma beam machining where the same thing is done by plasma which is the hot ions
and electrons combination. And, you know the two here PBM and EDM are really media based,
so you either in one case gas plasma and other case there is a dielectric break down which is
happening. The one which carries the electrons on the EBM is actually typically done vacuum
5
because of their ion molecules they will again get ionized and they may not have the same
impact as the EBM machine.
And there may be in particularly small writing cases where you need a consistency of the
momentum delivery, and also a high momentum where the wavelength would reduce you
remember the famous λi=h/p formulation. So the momentum is high and the wave length is low,
so one of the reasons why more momentum is gathered together by EBM is also to sort of reduce
this wavelength, so you can write at a higher resolution using E-beam.
So they have constructed EBM lithography for example, other processes where very small scale
writing can be done with this particular method. But here the idea is that is has to be done
without a medium, so it should typically be a vacuum column and therefore it limits the sizes of
the work piece that you are wanting to machine using these process. Then there is a ion beam
machining again similar to the principle of more or less similar to the EBM only thing in this
case it are ions generated heavy ions generated through a vacuum chamber, and striking on the
surface.
The ions can either be a accumulated on the surface, so that you can have a additive micro
machining or they can be used for taking off the material from the surface. So that can be
subtractive micro machining so on so forth. And then you have laser beam machining where
there is a photon to phonon conversion leading to a local melting of a work piece. So thermal
machining removes the machining allowance by melting or vaporizing the work piece material
many secondary phenomenal occur during the machining, these are micro cracking formation of
heat effective zones, striations, etc.
And the source of heat could be either a plasma as either a discharge as, you know EDM or
plasma in case of PBM, or photons as during LBM, electrons in EBM, machining and ions in the
IBM machining etc. So that is the thermal machining process, so you did mechanical and
thermal.
6
The other important process is the chemical and electrochemical machining process where either
you use the, you know Faraday’s laws to either deposit material electro chemically on a surface
or take off machine subtract material away from a surface. And here what you do is typically you
take an electrolyte which has a certain level of conductivity and you dip or insert two electrodes
one of them gets coated up and another get material subtracted from its surface.
So immediately when you do that there is a formation of a dual layer between the electrode
which comes in, and the electrolyte which is there. And there is charge transport across this dual
layer, and this charge transport is what is the cause of either taking away the material from one of
the electrodes, and depositing the material on another electrode. So you can either use it as a
machining or a building up process if you just reverse the polarity or reverse the electrodes.
And here what it is going on is that if you want to use it as a machining process, you need to
ensure that whatever comes out of the one of the electrodes, which is suppose to get machine, the
ions which come out thereby interact with the solution or the medium, which they come out into
and they convert into a chemical which otherwise get precipitated. So therefore, without
depositing it on the other electrode you are generating a mechanism through which the material
that comes out gets precipitated.
And precipitated means, it does not dissolve in the electrolyte solution per se, and its goes down
okay. So in case of machining steels or irons, there is a tendency of ferric ions to form ferrous
hydroxide. And ferrous hydroxide is something which can be precipitated, so therefore the idea is
7
that, if I flow the electrolyte now very close to this electrode and apply a potential whatever is
coming out of the electrolyte is getting carried away as precipitates, and you can re circulate that
electrolyte by filtering that precipitate off okay.
And so that the machining process, that is the how you do ECM, electro chemical machining.
You also have processes of chemical or photo chemical machining, where obviously there is
going to be either a chemical deposition or a chemical etching which happens because either
there is a plasma for example, of ions, you know which can create some chemistry on the surface
it can go beyond the surface, and also be able to influence the bonds.
And there you can either use a gas like medium as a plasma as I told, or even non plasma which
is like a gas etching gas or etching environment, you can also use a etching liquid, and these
process are more so generated, because of the requirements of the semiconductor industry.
Because these are systems were very accurately you can control the etch depth for example or
even the etch geometry, and there are many process associated with this, we will do some great
detail investigation in this chemical and electro chemical processes as well when we talk about
the traditional, the nontraditional machining domain.
So we have covered now three different domains the mechanical abrasion based machining, the
thermal machining, and the chemical, electro chemical machining.
8
So that leads us to the utility of all this micro fabrication particularly MEMS fabrication. And so
we will have a small module towards the end if time permits to study about this area of how
some of these processes can be utilized for fabricating MEMS structures. So in micro machining
or let us say MEMS machining, MEMS grade machining you do various techniques like etching
deposition, photolithography, oxidation, epitaxy, etc.
You do deep RIE, thick plating, and these techniques would discuss in great details, and then the
idea is that either you do bulk or surface micromachining where in one case, you subtract the
material away, you can see here the material is been subtracted away by the etching processes.
And here you can see the same thing been deposited into. So there is a subtractive machining
which is either the, which is also known as the bulk micro machining, or there is additive
machining here, where you can actually build on.
So this additive process and that is how you basically, able to generate micro features and
structure on the surface. So whatever we would be doing in nontraditional would actually end up
into may be generating some of these MEMS based process also which can do micro machining
on surfaces. So that is going to be the brief overview of what is going to be taught in this course,
and I would like to start with the engineering materials in the next lecture, where we start
discussing with some of the mechanical properties of the engineering materials, some of the
properties related to how solidification process would happen.
And some of the properties related to post solidification how we can do the treatment, so that
their strength, or ductility improves, and you can actually tailor the engineering properties for a
certain application for that particular material. So with that I am going to close this particular
module, thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
9
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
10
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology-Part-2
Module 04
By
Hello and welcome to manufacturing process technology Part -1 Module -4.
Today we are going to talk about the basic materials related to engineering.
1
Cover a small topic on structural materials also discuss about the material properties as a
function of the basic molecular structure, also as you know the solids are known for their
capability to retain definite shapes, and thus the bonding mechanics between the molecules
forming a solid is very important thing. So we are going to actually cover that aspect in this
particular topic.
2
So let us look into the basic theory of bonding between solids. So let us say you have two atom
of systems, and these atom systems are sufficiently closed to each other, and have their outer
electron shared by both the nuclei which results in a attractive forces between the two atoms. The
force increases with the decreasing in the distance between the two atoms or the two atoms do
not collapse.
They remain at a certain equilibrium distance where there is a repulsive force as well which is
generated because of the nuclei coming to close to each other and there is a attractive force
between the electrons of one and the nuclei of other. And these two attractive and repulsive
forces they are in equilibrium with each other, so that is really the position where the two atoms
would come and be stabilized and we call this equilibrium as stable equilibrium okay.
So obviously why we call it stable equilibrium as a different issue that if suppose we have to plot
the force let us say between the atomic system per minute the distance between them. And you
can see that the attractive force is given by this dotted lines right about here, and the repulsive
force is given by the solid line. And you can see that beyond the point of equilibrium A which is
corresponding to distance D between two atoms, the repulsive force suddenly increases and the
attractive force slope at the attractive force may not be that type.
So therefore, if the two atom systems are to be taken closer then the equilibrium distance the
repulsive force would out grow and would like to go back. And similarly, at the other end of the
equilibrium let us say for example if you cross D and increase the D the attractive force becomes
3
relatively larger in comparison to the repulsive force. One the reasons why this system is really a
stable equilibrium.
So the equilibrium inter atomic distance D is really that the distance where the attractive and
repulsive forces are balanced, and you have already seen that this balanced point is really a stable
equilibrium point for two systems when you are talking about bonding of solids. So the
mechanism that we talk just earlier is only one reason why the atomic system should want
various possible other interactions which are also known as covalent bonding where there is a
sharing of electron between the atoms we should make the atomic system stabilize.
So in a given solids one or more bonding mechanisms may be simultaneously also active and the
nature of bonding mechanism depends on the electronic structure of the atoms which are
evolved. And some mechanism and solids may be something like lets us say metallic bonding,
Vander Waals bonding so on so forth. So as we all know that metallic bonding there is a large
number of free electrons which are present.
And then there are different atomic centers which are there typically they are the nuclei centers.
And this atoms of free electrons they formulate a common electron cloud they move through a
bulk orbital which also a conduction band of such metals. So the rest of the system consist of
positively charged ions you see reflected here of positive charge ions for example, which are in
these places.
4
And then the electrons, the C of electrons move around in the common orbital. So this is one way
where the metals are normally participating and the metallic atoms are normally participating in
bonding, and also because of this electrons the metals develop something call the luster and
shiny surfaces as we have seen commonly.
So having said that the other mechanisms which are systems like alloys etc, where similar
bonding mechanism would interplay. And the problem is when the atom becomes inert in nature
and they have, let us say filled up outer most orbital’s, then in that case the sharing can really not
take place and this results in something called very, very weak short range force attraction which
is also known as Vander Waals bond.
The origin of this force is attributed to a rapidly fluctuating dipole moment. And I will just show
you how this Vander Waals bonds would work.
5
So let us look at the figure right here which talks about the origin of such bondage. The figure
shows two molecules at a distance d, and each of which has a symmetric charge distribution. So
let us say there is a tendency of the one of these atoms to have negative charge towards one end
and positive charge to another end. So there is some kind of the symmetricity in the charge
distribution.
There can be many such forms of symmetricity for example, this case 1, this is case 2, this is
case 3, where you can see alternate charges of opposite type facing each other an alternate
charges of same type being in alternate flanks between the atoms. So all the three different
overall configurations of charge distributions lead to the development of an attractive force
through the individually, the molecules are neutral.
But then there is some kind of a force which develops between this negative charge center to
positive charge center for example. Or even when we are talking about criss cross interaction
between this center and this center or this center and this center so on so forth. And this
continuous throughout the crystal, throughout the solid where these atom pairs are available you
think of it as if there are different pairs of such atomic system, so one end of the solid to the
other.
So obviously there are going to be some forces because of these charges and if you look at single
atomic system it does have something about dipole moment, because of this charged separation,
and might do this dipole moment can also available to variation if you subject such atomic
6
systems to external fields or magnetic fields or something like that. So they are going to be these
dipoles formulations in such atomic systems.
And what people are absorbed is that, if this is really the cause of the bonding the force varies
inversely to the distance to the power of four between such atomic systems. And therefore, this
bonding is very, very weak, and then the distance force is slightly away the reduction of the force
is substantial. And so, therefore this type of bonding is very weak, and it is active in weak and
low melting point materials.
And this can be something like paraffin wax or plastics or these kind of materials where
generally you find the melting point to be quiet low. And one of the reasons are that whichever is
the metallic bonding system which is stronger in this case the bonding forces they vary as the
inversely proportional to the distance to the power of four.
So a little bit of atomic vibration would lead which is actually proportional to the amount of
thermal energy that you are delivering to the system it will lead to the separation between the
atoms or enable the atoms to be come into the fluidic state or flow state and which is the cause of
a lower melting point of such materials.
So it is obvious that the strength of the bond controls the properties for example melting point of
the material, so that is how the Vander Waals system of the bonding would work.
7
And typically when we talk about metallic systems there the atoms formulate certain organized
patterns and you can call it that this arrangement of atoms is earlier long range order and such
systems are known as crystals okay. So typically there is a certain arrangement, a basic
arrangement which is the smallest unit and you can think of it that this unit is assembled
especially with respect to each other block by block, so that the whole system comes up.
So there is some kind of repetition of the arrangement of that one unit as for as the whole solid
system is concerned which is being composed of this small, small unit cells. So these systems are
known as crystals. And the property of the material very heavily depends obviously on the bond
strength, but also on the arrangements of atoms in such crystal lattice and if you have an
arrangements which is very well ordered, well structured, then obviously the strength of that
system would much higher in comparison to materials where such arrangements does not exists.
So such solids are commonly called as crystalline solids and large number of situations the whole
solid is now composed of one single crystal instead it has large number of small randomly
oriented crystalline grains from the whole solid you can see such composition here that, this one
grain or for example, this one grain they are having a long range order for arrangement because
this structure is repeating as you can see here or as you can see here.
But then the structure does not repeat beyond these boundaries which are also known as grain
boundaries. And such systems are typically known as polycrystalline systems of arrangements.
So the learning experience is so far that we have learnt how, what kind of bonding systems work
between different atoms, so that they can be strengthen corporate about the arrangement systems
which would be there over a longer range or a shorter range which would enable structure to be
called crystalline as supposed to noncrystalline or polycrystalline. And so the topic could be that,
what are those small blocks which actually composed of this crystalline structure.
8
And so the three commonly absorbed crystal structures in terms of those small units also called
unit cells or blocks the body centered, cubic structure, the face centered cubic structure, and the
closed packed hexagonal (CPH) structure out of which the FCC and the CPH have the most
dense amount of packing that is imaginable.
So the inter atomic distance of such crystals is of the order of 10 -7mm for an Armstrong unit. And
typically when the material solidifies particularly in case of metals where there is a possibility of
the crystal grow, the round that is taken as we start with the liquid metal, and then after
solidification, the solidification centers are well arranged centers in terms of unit cells which
have dimension of Bowdon Armstrong i.e. 0.1nm.
And there can be several such arrangements body centered cubic, face centered cubic, hexagonal
closed packed, or then there are crystal structures which can change as the function of
temperature allotropes so on so forth. You then formulate the repetition of these unit cells which
leads to the long range order of the arrangements of materials called crystals. So you have, now
in these crystals lattice imperfections, dislocations so on so forth, and these crystals either would
be formulating single crystals or poly crystals.
Single crystals of course, are used for very specific applications where you really need a defect
free predictable behavior of the material one aspect that is very, very different which are
differently in case of some materials is that the predictability of the material behavior may not be
that certain. So poly crystalline materials are suppose to not be completely predictable in terms
of their mechanical behavior.
9
But at least single crystalline materials are used in solid state devices for example where you
need to predictably a certain the electronic property of material or for turbine blades where
things like mechanical strength and compressibility or load bearing nature of the materials are
very important. So there typically tend to use the single crystalline material. So the poly
crystalline materials on other hand can be used for regular applications where the predictability
of the strength may not be of that way of concerned.
For example, you can use the paper clips, bolts, springs wherever you are deforming materials to
be used post form state like I beams, aircraft so on so forth. The grain boundaries in such poly
crystals are very important. The concepts of plastic deformation in isotropy are very important in
recording such poly crystalline. And we are going to look into some of the aspects as we go long
so let us look at the three different structures which we talked about.
So let us look at the three different crystal structures which we have talked about. The first one is
the body centered cubic structure, and what you can see here is that there is a central atom which
is placed at the centre of the cube and there are contributions of 1/8 th of the atom coming from all
different edges of the cube. So that is how you are able to make a unit cell something which can
be more clearly illustrated by a wire diagram like this.
10
So obviously this particular section is an 8th of the total sphere. And so the 8 such small
contributions together would formulate one atomic units. So there are three different structure in
fact one is called as hard-ball model which is represented here this is the unit cell model, and
single cell crystal with many such unit cells. So you can think of the packing of the
arrangements.
So one of these cubes is what we are referring to here as the unit cell and you are repeating them
in three dimensional space for being enable to envision how the system looks like. So obviously,
geometrically, if you want to find out the diameter of radius of the atom we need to get this
number in atomic spacing or the size of the unit cell which can come from fraction of some other
experiments.
And you actually be able to now predict the atomic diameter based on the lattice distance which
can be recorded by experiments like Bragg’s diffraction. So let us look at what is the geometric
relationship available between the radius and this lattice distance. So basically if I just look at
diagonally what is going to happen here for example, you have radius r, radius 2r, and radius r
combined together.
So you have a total 4r and this results in the diagonal distance in the unit cell which is actually
equal to AQ is √ a2+a2+a2. So typically that is how you represent the diagonal distance of the cube
of length A. And so you have a√ 3 =4R or in other words the radius R can be represented as a √
¾. So if you have this from an experimental evidence this is also a lattice constant which would
come up in Bragg’s diffraction plod or something.
You can easily calculate what is the radius of such a atomic system which formulates this body
centered cubic structure. So we will also similarly discuss the face centered cubic can be closed
packed hexagonal structures in the next module. So this module is closed here, thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
11
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
12
Course Title
Module 05
By
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology on module 5.
1
We are discussing about the various crystal structures and started with the body centered crystal
structure, here in this particular case we obtained that you have a unit cell which would be able
to predict based on latest constantly, radius.
2
Let us do this similar kind of the thing for the face centered cubic structure as well which is
represented here. In the face centered cubic structure you have half contributions of the atoms at
all the six faces of the cube. And then there are these one eighth contributions of the atoms with
the corner which results in the building of this unit cell recorded us face centered cubic structure.
So here as you can see the diagonal length of one of the faces is composed of R+2R+R=4R, and
this results, this actually can be recorded as the face diagonal of a cube of size a which is nothing
but a √2. And so R can be correlated to the latest constant a by just dividing the a by 2 √2.
So that is how you can constitute the face centered cubic structure or similar behaviour can be
obtained for the hexagonal close packed structure.
3
So here each plane of the hexagon would have six atoms and would be the central atom which is
in the particular plane. So if I just look at one of these hexagonal faces build up here let say, and
these are faces of a regular hexagon. And when we were talking about just interconnected
vertices of such hexagon. So obviously because it is a regular hexagon the angles that these
triangles would formulate are all 60° and they would be lateral triangles and each of them has a
unit cell size A as can be recorded here in the closed packed hexagon structure.
And so obviously the total amount of distance that you would have between this and this atoms
is basically R+2R+R=4R, and this results in because it is a lateral triangles all sides are equal and
this is equal to 2a, so obviously the R becomes a/2, similarly I would like you guys to find out
what is c value, which is between this different planes of the materials for this atoms.
So having said that you have looked at the hexagonal close packed structure and you have also
looked at the face centered cubic and the body centered cubic structure, and how the atomic
radius can map to respect to the latest spacing.
4
Let us look at some of the materials commonly available which can be classified into the various
structures we have discussed for example material, chromium, tungsten, vanadium,
molybdenum, iron, there is obviously one temperature range of iron in which it formulates the
bcc. Similarly, in the temperature range in a different temperature range, it can result in the
formulation of a face centered cubic.
Some other materials are aluminum, copper, lead, nickel, silver which are actually unit cell is
like face centered cubic, iron of course within this range 910-1400°C is formulate of face
centered cubic structures whereas any other temperature range it is actually more like a BCC or a
body centered cubic. So such materials do exits well there are more multiple lines states and
particularly in case of iron it is more temperature it is specific that the FCC state gets formulated
in a certain temperature range with the iron can be kept.
So those materials are known as allotropes where you have more than one such crystalline states
which are possible. There are many other materials which can again classified into the third close
packed hexagonal structure like titanium, zinc, zirconium, magnesium, cobalt so on so forth. And
so with this you get to feel of what are the different classifications of the commonly available
engineering materials in terms of the crystal structures.
5
So having said that now let us look at little more into the aspect of what this crystal structure is at
having an issue and how it gets started or formulated. So the atom is always as in a flow able
state and there is a liquid metal with the atoms are very less bondage, because of the high
thermal energy or the high kinetic energy of the atoms with respect to each other.
So as the liquid metal solidifies by cooling the atoms arrange themselves and regular space
lattices formulating the crystals as you can see here, the crystals are just about starting to take
place. So such centers are known as nucleation centers where this nucleation center is basically
the start of the activity of solidification and regularizing of the unit cells and these centers are
many across the whole liquid stream whenever there is a temperature which comes to the
solidification point and that can be any were within the liquid matrix there are development of
the small centers of the small crystal growth.
Unfortunately, the crystals are growing, because of the randomness of such nucleation sites of
centers in all possible directions. And therefore, there are definitely some point of time the
crystals would go against each other. For example, in this case, the crystal is growing in a
different directions as you can see from this nucleation side and the crystal from the nucleation
side is going in a different directions.
And they are going to sorted of face each other and not be allowed any more to expand in the
regular direction. And so therefore, you formulate limited growth long range order areas which
are also known as the grains and the boundaries where these because of the randomness of the
6
directions of this arrangement, the boundaries are really of those points were growth is no further
possible, because of the limitation of the other boundary which has come very close.
And that point is really were you have the grains and grain boundary just as in a poly crystalline
material. So I have already discussed that most metals have only one crystal structures, but a few
have can however have more than one, so those are known as allotropic materials. So the reason
again why we are trying to study this different kinds and units cell arrangement of crystal
structures, because the material strength are some of the other material properties be at electronic
and mechanical they would heavily depend on the overall crystal structure.
So let us study one system of materials which is very commonly used in microelectronic
fabrication and they are like silicon.
As you know that the silicon is very, very widely used material most of the silicon and its
compounds like lead oxides, nitrides, polysilicon and they have variety of different layouts
7
including spanning from crystalline, single crystalline, to poly crystalline to amorphous range
and they can formulate very suitable material for the electronics industry.
So you have again some of the materials like lead oxides of silicon, etc., which are completely
amorphous state where there is no long range order at all or the single crystalline or poly
crystalline silicon also commonly known as poly are again two different structures were one
there is a reputation of a BCC body centered cubic cell and the other the poly crystalline
structure is for particularly deposited silicon etc., through LCVD or PCVD processes.
And I am going to touch upon these things later on when we try to cover some of the
microelectronic material, but the idea is that this is a system which is very commonly available
in all the three different forms of crystal structures. And in single crystalline materials almost all
the atoms in the crystal would occupy regular positions as we talked about lattices. And because
of that the silicon becomes very useful materials particularly for the microelectronic applications.
So if we talk about crystalline orientation of silicon and its surfaces, typically the classification
would be based on something called Miller indices as shown in the figure here right in this
corner. And in the Miller indices if you want to represent the crystal direction particular direction
would be indicated in the square bracket like [100] for example in this particular plane the 100
directions would be one along the x axis, 0 along the y axis, and 0 along the z axis.
8
So this direction right here in this particular direction the x direction is called 100. So you have
to represent that by a square bracket. If you wanted to represent a set of equivalent directions it
is described by an angular brackets again in a crystal, you have many such unit cells or lattices
and you have to describe commonly what is the 100 directions. So you would actually make a
angled bracket in order to represent that and if this directions is normal vector of a plane that is
the noted by the parenthesis is 0.
The (100) so direction represented by []square brackets, set of directions represented by {}
angular brackets and if you wanted to represent the plane that is perpendicular to the direction
100, so the plane that is perpendicular to the direction 100 the shaded plane represented here
right. So that is the plane perpendicular to the 100 direction. And so this plane is now recorded as
circular bracket (100).
And all such kinds of planes would be then represented by these braces (100) that is the
representation in which the planes and the directions and the group of directions and the group of
planes are represented respectively. The single crystalline silicon is mostly fabricated with
Czocharalski’s growth method and I am going to touch upon this method in trying to do some
may be thermal module to illustrate that what are the operational parameters which need to come
out particularly while growing such a matrix highly purified silicon material.
So the other method is obviously the float zone method which may be discussed later on when
there is a polysilicon broad which is heated and converted into a single crystalline materials, but
then we start with the Czocharalski’s growth.
9
So the Czocharalski’s crucible is represented here in the particular figure which is really a
vacuum chamber where first of all you evacuate and then you flow inner gas, so that there are no
reactive constituents available in the crucible. The crucible here is right about in this particular
place is really a graphite cup and it is loaded with polysilicon materials. And you have to heat the
walls of these cups. So that the silicon which is the poly silicon which is here gets converted into
liquid melt okay.
And what happens step by step is the following that a small seed crystal with the given
orientation is dipped into a highly purified silicon melt, you can see the seed is dripped in this
direction and the seed was probably somewhere here which started this all activity of the crystal
and what really happens is that the seed is slowly pulled out of the melt while the crucible
containing the melt is rotated.
So the crucible is rotated and the seed which is being pulled out in perpendicular direction to the
rotation plane of the particular crucible. So what is going to happen is that depending on the
relative velocity between the direction of rotation of the crucible and let us say the rotation of the
seed. There is going to be difference in the way that the melt would adhere to the surface of the
seed.
So therefore when the foreign object is now a solid object is emerged in this liquid obviously
there is going to be forces of cohesion and forces of addition. The forces of addition are going to
10
be between the melt and the seed and the forces of cohesion are between the melt molecules as
such, and therefore, if we can utilize this clean to the surface phenomena based on the various
speed of rotation of the dwell times, because on one hand you are pulling the seed out.
So you are trying to bring it to a lower temperature, so solidification would start happening and
in one hand you are actually trying to limit the amount of dwell time by increasing the rotation
speed of the crucible. So there is a behavior of this material to formulate different diameters as a
result of this process delay as suppose to the rate at which the seed is being pulled out. And so,
therefore there can be various diameters of solidified materials and the solidification has been
initiated by the central seed crystal which already have a certain direction.
So this process therefore converts the polycrystalline silicon which is actually 99.999% pure very
very highly pure polycrystalline silicon into the direction which the seed has the crystal direction
that the seed has. So therefore, that brings you a bowl of the material here the material is
evacuated you can see the moment it comes out it becomes solidify. So this particular material is
actually the solidified.
They are all grown in the direction same as the seed crystal, and so there is a single crystalline
growth within this particular bowl. So the seed crystal is obviously small chemical crystal load
into the contact with the melt and this is always suppose to give direction. And this must be
carefully oriented since it will survive the template of the growth of the much larger crystal. So
therefore it is slight misalignment of the orientation the result in the different direction of the
growth one has to be very, very careful about this Czocharalski growth process.
11
So if I looked at the one dimensional thermal transport in this such a system, we would like to
look at the particularly this zone which is semi solid, semi liquid and then let us assume that the
temperature below this particular zone is the temperature of the melt T1, so I will just say melt
temperature and T2 which is outside atmospheric temperature which is much lower than the melt
temperature.
So T1 obviously is much much higher than T2 in the particular case and therefore because of this
temperature gradient there is going to be a heat flow across this particular boundary from liquid
into the fusion zone into the solidification zone and then there is a heat outflow from the
solidification zone into the solid metal which is Q2. So there is a rate at which heat is flowing in
to this zone of you can call zone of fusion or zone of solidification.
And there is a rate at which the heat is flowing out from the other boundary here which is from
the zone of fusion into the solid material. So obviously the amount of heat transport Q(x) would
depend on the thermal conductivity of the material the area of the interface and also the gradient
dt/dx of the material. And obviously the direction of the heat flow in this particular case would
be from higher temperature, direction of heat flow is from T1 boundary to T2 boundary okay.

Q ( x ) =−kA dt /dx
12
So having said that let us assume completely one dimensional flow and you can actually record
the heat flow to be −k l A dt /dx of the liquid side which is actually the heat flow because of
liquid into the zone of fusion this particular boundary and thermal conductivity here is the
thermal conductivity of the liquid on this particular side. And this minus the heat transport across
the other face from the zone of solidification to the solid side were the thermal conductivity
determinant of heat flow would be that of the solid −k s A dt /dx which excess in the solid
side.
And this really would be determining the amount of heat which is trapped in order to built the
solid material which is also known as the latent heat of solidification in the particular case times
of dm/dt, which is actually equal to the rate of the formulation of solid mass. So you can see that
this is the really the thermal balance which is created across the zone of fusion. And we can just
indicate this here just the small section as the zone of fusion, the liquid face zone of solidification
or melting as you look at it and then you have solid face.
So better known as the zone of fusion actually, so A is the area of cross section which we can
assume to be equal in all this cases, so A is the cross sectional area we assume that this is quite
uniform this particular area. So A is the area is the cross sectional area, and so as the zone of
fusion and therefore the equation can be further modified as
13
dt
( )
( k s A dt /dx )s − k l A dx =L Aρ dx / dt becomes equal to L times of area times of rate at which
l
you are pulling that is the way that the volume is emerging.
So this is the rate of volume of solid mass, time, density which keeps the grade of mass which
comes out of the solid face. So basically representing the dm= Aρ dx and that brings you to a
dt
point where the LPA obviously (
LAρ ( dx /dt )=( k s A dt /dx ) s − k l A
dx )
l
and further the A can be
taken off I can say that the maximum pull rate here can only be if liquid side this conductivity,
this value becomes numerically 0.
k s dt
And so the maximum pull rate ( dx /dt )max= ( )
Lρ dx s
. And I am going to talk about this in the
next module interest of the time I am going to close this particular module. And in the next
module we will discuss about t
he pros and cons of what happens because of this formulation, and how you know the maximum
pull rate will be really depend on the temperature gradient.
But on the one hand it is temperature gradient and on the another hand it is how much
temperature gradient you can maintain, because otherwise there may be thermal warping and all
sort of changes in the crystal. So we are going to discuss this topic in the next module as of now
let us close this module, thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
14
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
15
Course title
Manufacturing Process Technology - Part-1
Module – 06
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 Mmodule 6.
1
We are talking about Czochralsky’s growth method for getting single crystal line silicon. And we
have mentioned about one dimensional heat transfer case which is analyzed right here. You can
see here that there is a crucible, there is a vacuum chamber which is filled with, first of all
evacuated and filled with organ gas. And then there is crucible which is heated from the walls,
then there is poly silicon or poly which is actually 99.99% pure present here and the core of the
hearth, and hearth is heated up, so that there is a liquid silicon.
And then, there is a controlled lowering of seed crystal with is chemically polished and which
would give and provide the direction and then as the vacuum chamber rotates and the crucible
rotates, and also the opposite direction the seed rotates. You basically change the rotations for
both and try to make a larger or smaller bowl of silicon which is obtained by pulling out the seed,
so that it goes suddenly into a solidification zone.
And so this is the zone of fusion or zone of solidification that you may refer to where there is
heat transfer taking place at a certain rate from the temperature T1 which is much higher value
then the temperature T2, which is the ambient this is T2 and this right here is T1.
2
And so, basically there is again a heat out flow Q́ 2 ( x ) which takes place across this other
boundary here. And based on that we had actually formulated, these heat rates we had taken this
from the Fourier law of cooling or heat transfer which talks about the proportionately of the heat
rate to the negative temperature gradient. And also the thermal conductivity of the medium
which is in question.
So here from one side the thermal conductivity property that would be utilized would be that of
the melt or the liquid because the heat is mandating from the liquid side into the zone of fusion.
And on the other side the heat maintaining out, so basically the case that of the solid silicon
which is formulated. So this part is solid silicon as you can see the solid phase this is zone of
solidification this is liquid phase.
So this is really Q́1 ( x ) and this is really Q́2 ( x ) , so obviously the Fourier’s law can be
written in term of thermal conductivity of the liquid, times of area of interface, times of the
temperature gradient across the liquid phase to through zone of fusion, and for subsequently for
the solid phase. So this heat which is released in the form of heat conduction across the liquid to
solid transition also accounts for the bond formulation process.
Because obviously more heat will be pumped from this side into the zone of fusion, but less heat
would be pumped out. So the total amount of heat accumulated in the zone of fusion is really the
difference of the heat inflow minus the heat outflow, and that heat is converted into the bound
energy because there is formulation of the solid.
3
And let us say the rate of which the formulation of the solid mass takes place if we consider that
to be dm/dt, then L. dm/dt where L is the latent heat permanent mass is basically the heat rate
that is getting lost into the zone of fusion by virtue of the solid bounding formulating because of
change in temperature. So then it is left to a very reasonable approximation where we can
convert this dm/dt as basically the area of interface times of the density times of the upward pull
rate dx/dt of this particular seed crystals.
So it moving by dx/dt. So that is the only variation in time which is happening we assume the
interfacial area the zone of constant and the density also does not vary much. So therefore from
the zone of fusion into the solid zone. So therefore, if we just solve the equation it comes to have
dx dt dt
a form Lρ =k s the solid phase minus kl in the liquid phase area gets cancelled
dt dx dx
off.
And obviously the maximum pull rate that can be obtained is a condition where mathematically
this part of the right hand side goes to zero. So if we assume that the total amount of latent heat
that is lost within the system is heat that is extracted it out. And so, you can write down this
maximum pull rate dx/dt as ks/Lρ dt/dxS okay. So let us just rewrite this here as v max, the
4
maximum pull velocity of the seed crystal dx/dt which you can now write as ks/ρL dt/dx of the
solid side.
So obviously the maximum pull out rate of dx/dt therefore is proportional to be dt/dx of the solid
meaning there by the increase the temperate gradient in the zone of fusion to solid transition,
obviously more is this gradient the more would be the pull rate or in the order to for the heat
balance, or for the heat optimum balance to take place to pull out can be increased with the
temperature gradient.
But in reality the maximum pull rate is really not the one which is used normally and one of the
reason is the crystalline quality which is a sensitive function of the pull rate okay. So one hand if
the material is near the melt it has a very high density of point defects. And if supposing if we are
quickly cooling the material, then it will really prevent these defects go into formulating the
crystal.
However too much gradient on the other hand may create the problem of thermal warping, or
thermal stresses, large thermal stresses within in the crystal material. So on one hand we are
trying to make the pull rate little faster, so that the point defects may not be enable to get into the
system on one hand, we are saying that if the pull rate which depends on dt/dx, the dt/dx is very
high, then they are going to be thermal stresses.
So they are going to be dislocation, or defects just by virtue of thermal stresses. So it is a trade
off you know. So you have to really have an optimum balance where without including the point
of defects, in the silicon melt to go into the crystal, you should also be able to ensure that the
thermal stress are by enlarge, neutralized, or they not present and gradient is not too much over
shoot. So that is the trade the silicon industries have to play in order to get the single crystalline
silicon.
5
In other method that is very commonly used is float zone which is used normally for a smaller
wafer and here the method is little different, because here the rod of high purities polycrystalline
material held in chuck while a metal coil driven by a high power radio frequency signal is slowly
passed along its length. So it basically a non contact mode of heating and there are not many
thermal stresses or thermal gradients by enlarge because of eddy current material heats
uniformly.
And so alternatively you can also reduce this to focused e beam also, that can also do the job of
heating the rod. But the idea is that the crystal is lowered from this end from the top end as you
can see here and this crystal is the one which causes the growth to happen, and so whatever the
liquid is created in this area because of heating and the rod has been fed inside, so the liquid
would ooze out from here and fill up this and this would be a melt and the seed crystal what is
coming out in this particular area you are pulling out.
So that the same constitution is of the quality only thing is the heating here is not a wall mediated
heating but uniform heating of the material, so in this technique the thin neck of 3mm diameter
and out 10 to 20 mm long is pulled and the pull rate and the temperature lowered to shoulder the
crystal out to a larger diameter. So that is how you can actually get this kind of a larger diameter
constitution even though the oozing out only through a small orifice small cavity.
6
So you cannot go really for the big size here there would be issues related to incomplete supply
of the fluid or extremely slow pull rate which would determine the overall size of the crystal etc.
So that is another way of growing single crystal line silicon.
So I would now come to the crystal imperfections and as you probably, as you are aware of some
of the properties of the crystalline solid, that really depend on the crystal structure on thus that
should be vary a lot , based in imperfection in such structure. So the study of crystal imperfection
and effects on the property of the material is a really a very, very wide domain of research or
study where various properties including.
Let us say the mechanical properties, electrical properties so on so forth depend on these defects
and I am just showing you a small table here which talks about what are the properties which are
depended on the basic crystal structure vice versa what is property dependent on the crystal
imperfection. So on one hand it is the structure which is determinant on other hand it is defect of
the imperfection which is determinant.
So for example, property like density would depend on the crystal structure in specific heat,
quotient of thermal expansion, melting point, plastic constant, hardness and ductility these are
something which are structurally dependent. On the other hand if you look out properties like
electric conductivity they are definitely going to be dependent on crystal imperfection. Think
about it you are having doping material like group 3, or group 5 material into the silicon and
7
changes the properties, electrical properties of the silicon, makes n type in one case if it is group
5 makes p types in other case if it is group 3 okay.
So a small amount of imperfection of this material may change the electrical property
considerably. Illustrate for example, creep, fracture strength, semi conductivity, work hardening,
fatigue strength, these are some of the properties which are utilized by you know change in the
crystal imperfection.
So if you look at how and what kind of classification we can give to the crystal imperfection
really there are three different kind of defects which are important. One of them is called the
point defect, whereas the name suggest the defect of the imperfection is about single point, there
8
can be line defect, where we are talking about several such arrays of points together to formulate
a whole line.
And then there can be a surface defect, where across the whole surface, it is some kind of the
complete movement of the surface, from the regular orientation within the crystal which may
change the nature of the crystal. So let us look at theses individual defects in a more classified
manner. So points defects for example, they can also be sub classified into the different point
defects one is, where the atom can mess, the regular sight.
And another is where the atom can be of a different constituent of occupying the normal atom, of
a particular sight, and the third is where let us say within the interstitial phases, where there was
suppose to know about atoms in the regular arrangement of the crystal, there is impurity which
gets plugged in okay. So based on this the point defects is classified into vacancies, obviously
the name suggests that vacancy is a sight which is created because in otherwise regular atom has
been moved out you can see this particular figure here.
There was an atom which was supposed to there, but it was moved out and so this creates a
vacancy. The other is interstitial impurity where the interstitial that is the sight where the atom is
not supposed to be present, there is some kind of the atom of the same kind or of a different kind
present in such an interests, which actually relates to the bulging out of crystal you change in
shape and size of crystal.
And that can be a very pertinent cause of the mechanical, change in mechanical properties,
because of the induction of such a defect in the crystal that is basically made the crystal to
already we pre trust from its regular orientation. And then there is substitution impurity which
means that any regular sight of the atom is replaced by different material all together. It is not the
same atom that is substituting, but different atom which is substituting, regular sight locations.
So that is how you classify the defects, as vacancies, the point defects is vacancies, interstitial
impurities and substitution impurities, how they formulate what is the usual order, of the
vacancy. So at about 500 degree of Celsius, for example, it can be about 10 10 and it increases to 1
and 300, and about 2000°C, if we talk about above a certain particular lattice. So it is possible to
increase the vacancy density at a given temperature, by rapid cooling or extensive plastic
deformation okay.
9
So that is how you create the point defects, then there are line defects, now as the name suggest,
there are more than one points which are in an array and like a line and that moves. So here you
can see an example a two different kind of such a line defects, edge dislocation and screw
dislocation. For example, there is a complete line across many such point together which comes
up, and there is because of this line, and additional plane.
So if you look at this particular lattice varying from here to here, there is an extra plane X dash, y
dash, XY and additional plane which has come up here for having edge dislocation. So whenever
there is mechanical work which is done on the particular lattice, there is movement of this extra
plane which leads to probably a quicker, response of a crystal to a mechanical deformation, this
is called a edge dislocation.
So the dislocations can also be that instead of pumping and additional plane of atom if I really
tried to sheer apart or tear apart by few phases, by few atomic units the crystal can look
10
something like this which is called screw dislocation, you can seen that one part of the crystal,
this part has been short of in shear with respect to the other part, and there is one plane
movement okay, of one part with respect to other based on that, so that is the screw dislocation
okay.
So the dislocation density is something is very important term here, so you can say that it is the
total length of all, dislocation lines per unit volume and so in this particular case, if I had let say
15 nano meter, line defects about 15 numbers, and in about may be 1 centimeter cube of the
material. So you can think of how would be this dislocation, density so you have about 25
hundred nano meters 10-9 per cm3 which makes 10-6 m3 and 100 cm.
So therefore, you can think of the dislocation density by virtue of only 50 nanometer lines in
1cm3 volume of the crystal, to be high as 2.5 per meter square. So that is how you can calculate
the dislocation density.
So typically in a crystal the minimum attainable dislocation density of the order of about 100 to
1000 per cm square would be in the range of 2.5 times of 10 4 cm2, so that is 2.5*10-4 per cm2. So
you can think of it that the actual tenable dislocation density is the order of 100 to 1000 which is
about the 106 this value. So they are definitely maximum most of the lattice which is basically
pre stressed because of the all these conditions.
11
And that really gives a very wonderful insight into why such dislocation are what is going to be
the effect on the overall mechanical properties of the material. So it so happens when I going to
now do may be in next two slides that the actual modules of the elasticity of the actual shear
modulus, if you modulate from a lattice view point, and then if you try to see what happens
because of dislocations, you will see that the modulus are quite far apart probably 2 or 3
hundreds magnitude apart.
And one of the reasons is that when you doing a pre trust lattice and trying to sheer it or stress it
obviously the dislocation are going to help you out ok to do that. So having said that let us see
the third different kind of imperfection which extends over a surface, so imperfection is known
as a surface defect for example you can see here the lattice was moving in this direction, and
suddenly because of the stress to this letters as can be applied from, you can seen by this arrows
here.
The plane has changed into an all together different direction. And so, basically these results in
the formulation of these two parallel discontinuities between the regular direction of the crystal
either way and these are known twin plains, and this imperfection is known as a surface defects.
So the figure shows a common type of surface defects known as a twin which are normally
produced when the metal is stressed at low temperature.
And you can see that the grain boundaries in a polycrystalline solid can be also considered as a
sort of surface defects, because here is where there is discontinuity in the direction of the crystal
ahead already I mentioned that the polycrystalline grain you have one direction in this particular
manner, you crystal growing in this direction another direction may be, on another grain may be
in different randomized direction.
And so, between those direction there are the discontinuities which exists which are called grain
boundaries, so this grain boundaries are similar to the twin planes that is how you can probably
an vision it.
12
And know the difference that you can see from a external point of view that lets say a object is
stressed longitudinally.
And so, the way that twinning would happen would be represented here, where permanent
deformation of the single crystal under a tensile load acts or looks like this. The slip planes tent
to align themselves in the direction of the pulling force, so that is generally a reduction in the
cross sectional area, as you pull the specimen okay. So that is how you can envision that how
twinning helps in sort of overall longitudinal extension process. Whereas, this is a pure shear
stress from which the atomic plains are dislocated with respect to each other.
13
So here we are talking about the formation of a slightly different zone with a different orientation
of the crystal itself between those carded planes which would try to angularly try to shift like a
pack of cards and try to reduce the cross section of the material as you can here right in the
example. So that how slip and twinning can be defined. So in a general polycrystalline material
you can have several of these slip, surface slips which are happening.
And you can see that here for example you have a band of such slips which are together so, these
are all then different bands you can see how it has deformed in a particular direction, because of
a shear stress which is applied to this crystal in two parallel, twenty parallel directions on both
sides. And so, you can see that the sort of slip lines that are generated here are about 100 atomic
diameters in our regular polycrystalline material.
And approximately the quantum of the slip in the shear direction that is happened is about 1000
atomic diameters. So that is how you can generate the slip lines and slip bands. So a sequence of
such slip lines in a poly crystal, as you can see here is normally know as a slip band. So with this
I would like to finish this module, and the next module you will see how numerically the values
can be calculated with the keeping the whole crystal structure in view and then trying to pile
dislocation to see what are the actual values.
And we will see what is quantum of the difference between the modulus of the rigidity may be as
the presumptions shift to dislocation driven as supposed to be an polycrystalline. So I am going
to do that topic in the next module as of now, good bye.
14
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
15
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology –part-1
Module 07
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 module 7.
And in the last section we were talking about the different crystal defect which could be point
defect which line defect or surface defect and then in the context of that and observed how the
presence or the absence or the particular lattice side and filled with the particular atom of the
either the same species or the different species are different in the terms of the crystal defect we
also saw in the several atomic spacing and the continued over the long line together able to move
together and in the more and in the line in the dislocation we further observed if there is the
sudden change in the direction and the crystal and in the continuity and in the way was
proceeding.
1
This normally happen because zone one and zone two observed by two different lines called the
twin planes. it is normally known as surface defect in the context of that we also saw the how for
a multigrain structure you can visualize these surface defect are the what we call twin defect
formula in the defect and then today we are just going to investigate in the numerical values for
the material property really get influenced because of these dislocation.
And in the moving in the lattice matrix and see in there would be a heavy influence of the defect
on the material properties. Let us look at the first the elastic and the plastic deformation.
And within the crystal sand you know that the most of the conventional manufacturing process
particularly the secondary level processes like machining etc. involve the deformation of the
work material. So let look atomatically what happens so the absence of the any external force the
distance between there are the pair of the atoms which are there and there are separated by the
distance d equilibrium distance and the called in the de for example and in the atomestically the
absence of the any external force the this de is because the balance of all the forces acting on the
atomic system which as spaced in the distance d is 0, so there are the obviously going to be the
forces of the attraction between the electrons and the nuclei and there are going to be forces of
the repulsion between the two different nuclei.
And so you all these forces acting in there balanced manner would create an equilibrium
situation where the lattice spacing is consider to be d. So let us look at the inter atomic force
2
obviously in order to the hold these atoms together at the distance d and you need some amount
of forces for doing that and net interatomic force here and non zero as you can see at the distance
d and supposing under the application of the external tensile force and in the interatomic distance
increases beyond d to maintain the equilibrium.
So we apply and the external tensile load P and the interatomic distance should be the let say
some value da because of the external applied force, there is going to be a change in the lattice
spacing between the atomic systems. I am only talking about diatomic system this time. I am not
concerned with how the atoms are arranged in crystal. So then the interatomic distance should be
da so that interatomic forces become an attractive forces of the same magnitude so that it can take
the configuration back to the equilibrium distance de, once the force P is removed i.e. the tensile
load is removed so it should just go back are take back the distance of the separation between
these atoms and the atomic system should the de from da. So the question is does it happen for
all the different spacing da or is it governed by the some limitation where there is a finishing of
the you know the effect of one atom on another beyond a certain cutoff distance, etc. which
would not lead as such da would converted into de.
So if da is not very much different than de, let say order of the 5% then upon the removal of the
external force atoms would attain more or less in original position but similar thing happen for
the compressive force (da) obviously. The actual distance because of the application of the
external force would be lesser than de and so when you remove that force then there has to be
repulsive force generated in the system which will take the system backto its equilibrium
distance de but this is only limited to about in the 5 %in the change in the d but beyond 5 % the
distance is so much that the influence of the primary atom finishes and then the system may not
restore back to normal condition. So this is 5 % da increases distance is something which you
can probably recall as the elastic region of the material but beyond this d if the atoms
displacement is more than the distance 1.05d let say then you have plastic range flow
deformation. So having said that let us look at the you know in the very primary model where
consider a crystal lattice with regularly space atom as shown in the figure below right here and
3
you having the external force influencing just in the shear force as you can see and the shear
comes probably along right here and in the upper portion being moved by the force towards the
right and the lower portion towards the left and. So when the applied forces reaches sufficiently
high value the crystal lattice look something like this in the figure 1.2 b. here all the atoms are in
the equilibrium and it will be remain thus if the external forces removed and thus a permanent
deformation is produced in the crystal lattice. All the atoms are in quilibrium will be remain thus
if the external forces removed and thus a permanent deformation is produced in the crystal
lattice.
This permanent set deformation the fact that the crystal doesn’t come back to the normal regime.
This is known as the plastic deformation and it can’t be recovered even after the withdrawal of
the external load. so this is like supposing this slip happens one plane over the other by some
distance you know. And it is no recoverable and this is known as the plastic deformation.
That’s how you can understand what atomistacally happening when referred to different region.
so let us look at the some of the associated value related to the amount of the that in the shear
stress which is needed.
4
2 πx
τ =τ 0 sin
a
2 πx x
→ τ ≈ τ0 =G
a b
G a
→ τ 0=
2π b
G
→ τ 0=
2π
The amount of deformation which would the executed because of the shear stress. Shear stress
obviously is the force unit per area. so let us next find out the amount of the shear stress
necessary to effect the slip between the two layers of the atom and this is across the shear plane
which actually moves the upper half of lattice with respect to the lower half of lattice and the let
us see in the last figure and this is a perfect lattice which doesn’t have any defect, point deffect
and so on so.
So this is just sort of the level of the what may happen. As a first the approximation, the shear
stress τ and the amount of the movement of the layer X can be related to the each other
mathematically. Let us look at how, so think of it that this is the atomic system that we are
talking about the X is the distance which is being moved from a position which was in the
equilibrium position and because of the movement and the movement is executed basically
because of the sheer force obviously.
Let us say this was the old position the dotted one is the old position and this is the new position
and moving at the X distances. if you look at the really at the crystal structure earlier this is the
5
equilibrium position and. so this is the basically the atom lattice the over the shear plane is
exactly at the equal distance from the atomic pair which is below the shear plane in the particular
case. so this is the 0 condition where all the forces are 0 because of which the atom stay in the
equilibrium distance with the respect to the each other and analogically.
Last to the last slide. here when we move it from the equilibrium position by the distance X and
that is obviously going to be some forces which goes into interplay and the this forces would the
cycle of the forces would continue And the net force will continued and the unless and the until
the dotted portion comes to the let say the other kind of the position And this atom comes to
position where exactly at the centre between this particular you know the distance between this
atom pair. so that it can formulate similar part of the equilibrium as you saw before okay.
At so the position here again has zero forces, the position in the centre which is started at the
zero forces in between the some forces were you know atleast half way the through this whole
atomic moment by a lattice spacing A. their should be a sort of the force so the getting in the
back to the previous position and for the latter half of the A, there should be the forces would get
this atomic system to the later position means. you know the later position is that this atom is
really comes all the way to the centre place here in this particular figure as shown here where the
equilibrium forces or where the with the net forces are 0 and it is another equilibrium position.
So how will you describe the mathematically so if I say that the variation of the τ that is the shear
stress which the crystal is giving out in opposition to what is been given to it from outside is
2 πx
actually equal to τ =τ 0 sin then is the purpose let us look at it when x=0, obviously the τ
a
is going to be 0 so therefore there is no shear expression is given back by the crystal if τ=Fx=a/2
in that even the amount of τ is again equal to 0 because now it is in a position where again in the
central position where it would really have equal amount of the positive and the negative forces.
And beyond this so basically τ is 0 again if x is a then again the τ become equal to 0 so these are
probably the position over which the atomic system is going to be happy. So obviously between
the x=0 to x=a the force would be as if the crystal can come back to the initial position and
between a/2 to a ,the force would change directions and it will be the crystal can go back go to
the final position where as I told you this dotted circle right about here moves to this center
position here.
6
Where there is again equilibrium condition. in between obviously there is a condition which is
stone here by the solid line where the forces between these atomic systems should be equal to 0
and it will also be equilibrium. But a/2 also is going to a net stress given out by the crystal which
is equal to 0 and it is going to be in equilibrium. So this is actually represented by this condition
obviously as you see here x=0, τ=0, x=a/2, τ=0 and is going to x= a τ=0 again.
So basically talk about sine wave of wave length a, where a is actually lattice spacing. so once
we have done that we are in enable a sort of c what is going to be the you know the stress strain
relationship given this shear stress value with respect to the position x of the layer above this
shear plane respective layer below the shear plane. So we are going to for small value of x/a
make a small assumption here make a τ is τ 0 2πx/a okay the sine is converged to 2πx/ a and
therefore the shear strain produced in such circumstance.
If we assume the total vertical spacing in the lattice to be equal to b at this time let us unequal
lattice spacing which seldom happens which is the crystal you have more or less regular
orientation of the atomic planes with respect to the each other whether you go in the each other
vertical or horizontal is does not matter and the lattice spacing is one constant a so these actually
2a for the regular kind of the crystals. But here for the models sake we are assuming this to be
different value.
So shear strain is produced there would actually be equal to x/b because x is the movement and
the original distance that was there was b. so basically if you are moving this lattice from a you
know cubic position or let us of straight position to some angular position the distance of
movement is x here this being b. so shear strain obviously x/b and so stress strain related to each
2 πx
other and therefore we can say that the total amount of shear stress is τ, which is τ ≈ τ 0 .
a
And it related to the modulus of rigidity shear modulus times of the shear strain by simple Hooks
law and we could say that the τ0 in this particular case in assuming b=a for the lattice comes out
to be equal to g/2π. So that is going to be the amount of stress required in order to execute. you
know any kind of motion. so this is going to be actually say the ultimate shear yield stress value
which would be needed for creating the motion which is in question you know between the
atomic plane.
7
You can see that τ0 is corresponding to the maximum value when probably the x= a/4 or will 3a/4
so in that situation the value here for the a/4 would be actually sin π /2 which become equal to 1
and therefore 3 /4 would be 3π/2 is again sin π/2 and this also going to be -1. So in one case the
maximum value of the τ, the τ is actually 0 in other case this is – τ0 it can be seen from this plot
here so having said that.
It means that the experimentally observed values should at least have same order of magnitude as
G
the that I have formulated the last step. This is completely untrue. the actual experimental
2π
values has been recorded or found to be much less about 100 times lesser than the value
G
calculated . so this discrepancy is due to the crystal imperfections. You can see for
2π
example here and extra plane the line dislocation is available in upper half of the crystal.
So assume that if I put shear stress the use of this movement of this already you know prestressed
plane would much more or much easier in comparison to generating an additional plane
movement for the example in the lower half plane. So that is you can easily apply a small stress
and get this misfit plane already in corner more easily to comparison to or otherwise it will take
for a regular lattice without any imperfection so in order to just explain this from a real life
example
8
Let us see what happens a thick heavy carpet how move it right so let say we have of thick heavy
carpet which know needs to be moved by a distance � .let say in this direction you want to move
this carpet from the point AB to the point to A’ B’ where the A’ is should be �. Two ways to do it
one is that lift to the whole carpet. So in this particular method you will need much more forces
obviously the carpet is very heavy being thick and very you know heavy high density material.
So it is very difficult for you to move by lifting the whole thing and move.
So there is a simpler way which is there that you create a kink created in a way that exactly
moves � and whatever left over portion you create a kink. So create a kink and move the kink so
here probably you can only a single person you can do the job so you can see the kink is moving
here and so the kink moves all the way to the end of the carpet so that now carpet has moved by
distance � from AB �β. so this actually the locations the kink is basically a dislocation is create a
kink in a particular crystal is otherwise a regular crystal is always easier to move the crystal
plane will respect to each other.
So obviously there are lot more to this because so far been considering on the single crystalline
orientation. But supposing to there is a polycrystalline grain, you already you know what is
polycrystalline grain is. Obviously all these locations multifarious in nature and there are many
dislocations per unit volume and whenever you apply a stress they start moving towards each
other or away from each other. So basically there may be a situation where such dislocations are
9
unable to move because there are so densely jamming or packing the way of each other so it is
like a traffic jam.
This also this phenomenon crystal particularly polycrystalline material is known as strain
hardening. whenever we have too much of stress induced in to the crystals because of the this
dislocations starts moving in all different direction. they pileup ,the jam each other path and they
are not able to move anymore okay. So obviously the ultimate yield strength will increase
because of that. So this phenomenon of strain hardening etc we would consider in great details.
In next module as if now would like to close this module thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

10
@copyright reserved
11
Course Title
Module 08
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 module 8 we were talking
about how dislocations help in changing the overall ultimate yield stresses of material and what
was deciphered was that because of the presence of the dislocation the modulation the shear
modulus of rigidity gets changed by almost a hundred folds meaning thereby that the ultimate
read strength goes down in shear by about 100 folds.
So how do you actually do these testing or how you actually get this data of elongating a
specimen is also known as tensile testing so typically in the tensile testing the standard specimen
is prepared.
And this is elongated at a slow constant rate and the corresponding force is recorded so the
stress-strain curve is plotted which I am going to explain just in the next figure so next slide so
stress strain curve is plotted and that is basically showing the engineering stress which is actually
the applied load P by the original cross-sectional area is A0 and similarly the engineering strain.
Which is equal to the increment in length of the change in length ∆l per unit original length
l0 or so this is a geometry independent stress strain that we are talking about a geometry
independent stress strain. so the stress-strain relationship in case of mild steel has been very well
recorded and well used.

And known so basically this is how the you know plots are being made with the strain or
percentage elongation as I defined earlier on the x-axis and the stress in Newton per millimeter
square on they-axis so you can see here that the stress-strain relationship is linear up to a point a
here for example if you look at this particular section of the curve, it is a linear increase so you
know you can say that the stress per unit strain probably is constant or the slope is constant.
So also this A because of this phenomena proportionality between the stress and strain is known
as the proportionality limit on the stress-strain curve .the point B as you can see here just above
the point A is called the elastic limit so up to the point B the idea is if the specimen is extended
up to the point B it will return back to the same path and it will just return back to this original
dimensions.
So that is why this is called the elastic limit so elastic limit and it is really if we look at
definition what elastic limit means the elastic limit is defined as the greatest stress up to which
the material would deform elastically which the material would deform elastically meaning
thereby that supposing you know the material you know goes beyond the elastic range so it will
not be able to come back to the normal shape and size right.
That is how we define elasticity so beyond this AB the strain that is there let us say is recorded as
eb here so beyond AB the stress value drops suddenly as you can see so any further strain
increase beyond be registers a drop in the stress value that is why the curve actually is dropping
down here as you can see so for any further deformation the material does not resist as much as it
was resisting up till the elastic limit.
So this is supposed to be the yield of the material so beyond eb the stress value drops suddenly
and the material is said to yield so this is actually a very strange situation that you know if you
are applying more stress to it or if you are applying let us say the same constant stress to it the
strain value keeps on increasing because of that so in other words it does not resist as much the
external force as it was resisting before.
So the point Y above the point B so this is not visible really here but then if you look at the B and
the way B goes beyond be there is a point here Y Which is also known as the upper yield point
where the actual flow behavior of the material start to take place so beyond B and threshold Y
and you know you see that the stress comes all the way down to this point C here from the upper
yield point.
So if I shall two more external force obviously the material is going to be strain hardened as I
told you earlier that there is going to be a lot of dislocation movement within the material
creating a traffic jam which will not allow the material to extend further or it resists the process
of dislocation movement within the crystal lattice so here in this case also similar kind of a
hardening behavior is observed and the stress again rises as you can see all the way to the point
D.
So it goes to this particular point right here so C is basically recorded as the lower yield point
just as Y was the upper yield point because obviously this is the point beyond which again the
stress pattern would change and hardening would start to take place so this material is really the
strain hardened part strain hardened material so the stress value finally reaches a maximum at the
point D as you can see the point right here and this value is known as really the ultimate limit
often stress beyond which the material can hold no longer the additional forces.
And it would get deformed or it will start you know necking or fracturing beyond the point D so
we call this D the ultimate tensile stress so the point D is really the point up to which the material
is integrated but beyond that there is going to be some kind of a fracture or necking which will
start take place so having said that the corresponding stress at Point D is known as the ultimate
tensile stress of the material also that is how the mild steel stress-strain characteristics are
described a few points which need to be just the take homes the strength of material in the elastic
and the plastic regions are represented by the yield stress sigma Y ultimate strength sigma u the
capability of withstanding plastic deformation is another important mechanical property of an
engineering material as you saw in this particular curve that you know beyond the point C that is
a beyond the point Y there is a flow state of the material which would really be the plastic state
so this reflects the property of the material to distribute the localized stresses thus lowering the
tendency of crack formation properties commonly referred as ductility of the material.
And ductility is expressed by percentage elongation that is the percentage strain at the fracture
point does the larger the percentage elongation that is percentage strain at fracture point the
larger elongation means higher ductility so inability of the material to sort of distribute all the
localized stresses more uniformly moreover the strain at the point D were making starts
represents.
The amount of plastic strain a material can withstand without such localized deformation beyond
which there would be a localized deformation and fracture and further in the linear region the
constant of proportionality between the engineering stress and strain is known as Young’s
modulus or modulus of elasticity so therefore this slope that is stress per unit strain is known as
the modulus of elasticity of the material.

So unlike mild steel most other materials do not have a sharply defined proportional limit or
yield point for example look at copper here the stress-strain engineering stress graph of copper
there looks somewhat like you know what you can see here so this is the true stress and this is
the nominal stress also known as engineering stress so you can see that it is not that sharp or it
does not have that many features like the well-defined yield point or the well-defined portion
where the necking or breaking would take place as the mild steel case.
In such instances yield stress is really because there is no it is one continuity there is no point
where there would be a sharply defined upper real point as the case of mild steel so the way that
you define it basically is by drawing a line parallel to the tangent of the stress curve so the
tangent of the stress curve If you look at here in this case is somewhat in this particular region
okay so you are drawing a line parallel to it at point two percent strain and wherever it intersects
with the particular stress strain curve is basically the point what we are calculating.
So the typical stress strain curve for a brittle non ductile material is shown in the figure here
where there is going to be a breakage after a certain stress as crossed over and as can be seen the
material fractures with very little or no plastic strain so if percentage elongation is less than 5%
the material is quite brittle you can see the percentage train here is 0.1% or near about let us say
Oh 0.5% beyond which the material breaks down so such materials are known as brittle
materials.

And the other property which is important is toughness and toughness can be really described as
the area under the stress-strain curve as you can see herewith these hashes so both these materials
for example the mild steel and high carbon steel may have similar area under the curve although
their behavior are quite different you know but so they are considered to be equal toughness
material so the index commonly used to describe the toughness as I told this area under stress
strain curve.
So it represents that the work done on a material per unit volume and because obviously if you
look at the stress strain product its force per unit area times of length, change in length per unit
original length and I have dot L is basically the work done so it is work done per unit volume
okay dimensionally and it represents the so the figure on the bottom compares two different
materials one of which is stronger the other is more ductile as you can see here.
Which is more ductile is probably the one which has more strain percentage so in this case the
mild steel is much more ductile in comparison to the high carbon steel although the ultimate
yield strength of the high carbon steel may be higher in comparison to the mild steel so referring
to the stress-strain curve it is obvious that when the deformation of a specimen is no longer
negligible the actual stress should be defined as a ratio of the load the instantaneous area Ai .
And this is typically known as the true stress of the material just as we did the engineering of the
nominal stress or the material as the applied load per unit the actual area which is actual cross-
sectional area without any changes to that area but in this particular range when there is a change
in the area obviously the instantaneous area is going to be much different than the real area and
so P/ A i is a new ratio it is known as the true stress of the material.

So similarly you can actually have true strain when the instantaneous length is Li from an
original length Lo you can define the strain as the change in length dl per unit l and integrating
li
li
that makes this come out to be ∫ dl/ l=ln
l0
()
lo
if we assume e to be the engineering strain by
l i −l 0 li
definition e should be equal to e= and which means that the which we are seeing
l0 lo
here as the e to the power of the true strain ∈ should be equal to the 1 plus the engineering strain
e and so the relationship that exists finally between the true strain ∈ and the engineering strain is
that true strain is equal to the natural log of 1 plus the engineering strain.
So for typically the cases where the engineering strain is much less in comparison to 1 you can
assume the you know ∈ to be equal to a very small number e and so we already know here that
the limit of ln ( 1+e ) / e , limit e tends to very small let us say e becomes equal to 1 so therefore
the ln ( 1+e ) can become equal to e at certain you know cases where e is very small smaller in
comparison to one okay.
So that is how you can record this engineering strain to be equal to the true strain at small values
of strains which is true if you look at the curve up to here where the true strain and the nominal
stresses are following a similar pattern but beyond which you can see the true stress strain curve
to be quite different in comparison to the nominal stress strain curve so that is how you will
basically arrive at all this theory.
So this curve shows a continuous strain hardening of the material up to fracture point a
phenomena not revealed by the stress-strain curve so that is how we define the true stress and
true strain idealize the stress-strain curves.
There are many materials which can be idealized in terms of their stresses and strains. For
example, let us say if there is a rigid plastic or an elastic plastic or elastic linearly strain
hardening material these are the strain curves stress-strain curves you know which represents the
various ideal situations so for example in a rigid plastic gate there is a there is a ultimate stress
value beyond which the material comes into the plastic flow region there is no coming back as
you know post deformation coming back of such material to the original shape and size.
If it is a elastic plastic then you have a region where the material can still come back if the four
are released linearly in a certain region beyond which the material comes into the plastic flow
strain and if it is a elastically elastic linearly strain hardened kind of material so beyond this you
can see that because of the hardening strain hardening there is an increase in the overall applied
stress as a strain proceeds.
So that is how you define these three idealizations of the material and so particularly in this
elastically elastic linearly strain hardening kind of a material if the material is unloaded from the
point B for example the end you know the unloaded curve BC is represented in this particular
region this is kind of parallel to the elastic region OA of the curve and you know if you always
have something called a permanent strain recorded when there is a linearly hardening material.
Obviously mild steel is not a linearly hardening material but still you have a something called a
permanent set which comes up this is the permanent set when the material has crossed its upper
yield point and is still there is a possibility of returning which is up to the point B remember in
the case of mild steel it was a point C up to which the lower yield point would be reached beyond
which the material will not be able to recover and it would have a permanent stress permanent
set induced.
If you release the load at the Point C in the same manner here also if you release the load at
point B the material would come down so the amount of strain which is recovered is given by
CB’ okay so this is the amount of strain which is recovered and thus the total strain at B is
thought of consisting of two parts except the elastic part CB’ which is recovered on the plastic
part or C which has been set in the reloading curve will follow the line CB and BD as you know
obvious.
So it will not go back anymore because it is starting from a new deformed size OC so that is how
you should visualize the elastic linear strain hardening material so having said that I think I will
come to the end of this module in the next module we are going to start looking at some of the
other properties like for example friction and wear and material and how the material gets into
different phases as it gets already fired from the liquid form thank you so much you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology – Part- 1
Module- 09
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1, Module 09.
We just like to recap what we have done so far.
1
We learned about crystal imperfections we also talked about point defects for example the you
know the different kind of crystal imperfections like point defects line defects, surface defects
etc… we also discuss about the elastic and plastic deformation from an atomistic point view
point of view by understanding at two atoms system we further considered the model for
understanding shear yield stress and found that really it depends on the dislocation what is going
to be the ultimate shear yield streets then talked about hardness ductility and toughness some of
these parameters and also discussed in details about.
How do you do the tensile testing for mild steel and some other metals were we did models of if
we try to just understand models where the behavior of the metal could be an idealized rigid
plastic behavior or idealized elastic plastic behavior or as a matter of fact elastic linear strain
hardened behavior so on so forth. today we are looking to going to look at another very
important property which is related to all the machining.
2
Which is called friction and wear okay so it is well know that whenever a solid surface slides
over another resistance force commonly referred to as a friction force develops the friction
phenomena was studied for the first time by Amonton and Coulomb let us consider these two
surface for example A and B in contact as in the figure below so though a surface may appear
smooth in plane really it is not so it is a you know there is no surface which can be recorded as
being perfectly smooth.
There are going to be as asperities in the surface and when asperities are touch each other there
are going to be some shear deformation because obviously the area of contact which happens
because of an asperity touching an asperity of two surfaces which are mating each other I want to
be very small and so therefore the overall you know plastics state of stress is attained very fast
because of the small area, stress level goes very high and you can think of it that as the plastic
stress happens the there is a some kind of a cold weld which develops between both materials
and in the process of it the area increases the area of contact increases.
So these small asperities would have a smaller area but as the plastic flow starts really the you
know interfacial area between two asperities which have mated they would start to increase
because of the plastic deformation so these kind of build up the cold welds and these cold welds
you know when you want to remove or might I mean sort of move one material over the other
would have to be broken down in order for the material to have relative movement with each
other on that interface and that is what really is friction.
3
So in a nut shell if we assume a rigid plastic materials and if σ is the ultimate yield stress in
compression of I can say the weaker material because obviously if the materials are same then
there is no problem because they are going to be the same yield stress but supposing there is a
generic model of two different materials sliding over each other then obviously the weaker
material would be the one which would be talking about in terms of the yield stress of the
compression which would be achieved so of the weaker materials so obviously the stronger
material will try to sort of you know affect more by deforming more the weaker material.
Okay so then the real area of contact all over the mating surfaces, and can be expressed as A real
which is equal to the normal force N by the σ of the weaker material so that is how you can
calculate or back calculate the real area had a certain is since of time and you can assume that
this particular σi is e already reached ultimate yield strength of the weaker material assuming that
the weaker starts the forming faster obviously because the harder material would deform the
weaker material.
And already this critical limit Y has been reached beyond which the weaker material goes into
the plastic flow state so that is how the real area can be calculated so large stresses and plastic
deformation or the upper contamination layers to appear of and the real material comes in
contact, so there is local welding so in order to move one surface with respect to the other these
local valves have to be sheared which is really what the friction force would be.
4
So here if we consider that τ is the yield shear stress of the weaker material then the force
required top shear of a junction with a total area and let us called interfacial area because this is
what the post welded situation is A real let us suppose is F = τ times of A real so this shearing
force is the force of friction as we have already illustrate and obviously we defined this
coefficient which is the ratio between F and N which is nothing but the τ times of A real divided
by σ times of A real. So it is basically the ratio between the ultimate shear stress to the ultimate
and sail stress of the weaker material.
So that is how you understand friction so the model is valid only when the real area of contact is
much smaller than the apparent area of contact and if the normal load N is gradually increased.
The areal increases and approaches the apparent area of contact and areal once reaching a value
equal to A the shear force does not increase any further even if the normal forces and it increase
and such a situation there would be many other mechanisms which will come in to play like inter
locking of the asperities is and you know may be the local welds among those inter-locking
which would actually result in a lot more different condition and lot more unpredictable behavior
in comparison to till and untill this phenomena of a asperity welding or this physics of us
asperity welding is obeyed.
5
So if I really look at the variation of the normal force for a normal force corresponding you know
to the force beyond which the apparent area would go higher than A real the frictional behavior
is completely bizarre. And till and till you can have a situation of a asperity welding and shear
deformation of the welding this kind of limit the friction obeys the normal Coulombs law of F =
µ times of normal reaction N. So that is how friction can be studied, let us look at where so
where is something which is when a solid slides over another.
Obviously the surfaces would be subjected to a gradual loss of the material so where it suppose
friction a phenomena where when we want to dislocate the or when we want to shear the local
welds in the process of doing that obviously there would be a breakage of the weaker material
for the flowing of the top portion or the stronger material over the weaker material.
So if there is a breakage And if there is a chunking action on the top of the weaker material
because of the continuous shear force automatically the material loss would be there from the
surface of the weaker material which we also known as wear. So a fraction of the material loosed
from one surface may be transfer to the other body for example as we saw in the case of friction
or it may just be dislodged in to the medium because there is a sort of a brittle fracture and a
chipping action which happens.
So if the process is a gradual loss you know then you can call it frictional wear. So there are
many mechanisms and which wear can take place abrasion is one of the mechanisms and which
6
one of the surfaces contain very hard particles and it dislodge the materials from the surfaces in
contact during sliding by ploughing action for example you can look at what happens when you
use emery paper or sand paper you know different graders so there are many, many abrasive
particles which are adhering to this paper.
And once you ploughing these adhesive particles or abrasive particles into this softer material it
is going to break and damage and embedded material and you know take away a lot of the
material this way so you dislodged some of the material from the softer materials surfaces and so
we called that the softer materials is being wear because of that so that is abrasion okay.
Because of hard particles being adhesively bonded to one surface dislodging the other softer
surfaces over which this surface is being rubbed the other mechanism is adhesion when the
bodies come in contact are of similar nature the asperities on the contacting surface tend to get
welded and sliding in such a situation would cause fracture of this welded junctions and
materials is lost in both the surfaces.
So you can call it frictional wear or additional wear and there is a third type of wear which would
happen because of a presence of diffusion gradient say for example if there is let us say atoms
and metallic crystals always you know which represent in some concentration distribution so
always there will be a movement from a region of high concentration to that of the lower
concentration.
So there is going to be dC by dX set up between both the surfaces because of the higher
concentrating or higher concentration metals would move to it or higher concentration of the
metals would kind of balance by moving into a lower concentration region but that is actually
mass transfer or mass transport and would be recorded as wear.
So when two dissimilar bodies slide over each of the other the atoms of various constituent
elements diffuse across the junction just a by dC by dx concentration gradient so this can be to
the wear so basically you have three different mechanisms which we have discussed one is
abrasion where there is a set of abrasive particles hard enough bonded to a surface time to
dislodge physically and another is adhesion where there is a let us say weaker and harder
materials in contact whether is a asperities locking or asperities welding.
7
And then you have a forced shear so that material from the softer surface comes off and third is
diffusion where there are two different kind of you know concentration of a single material
which is allowing dC by dx to promote the mass transport of the material from the softer surface
to the harder surface and so on so forth.
So that is wear let us know look at the metals and alloys because we want to do casting etc in a
later modules and we need to understand some of these two phase or multi phase materials how
there are made. So you know that various materials used in engineering today they include
metals, they include alloys ceramics and polymers so on so forth.
Alloys are a major component of the engineering material because of the increased or enhance
property because of the various properties brought in by two or more participating metal atoms.
so in engineering applications metals are hardly used in the pure form and is always you know
show about using suitably alloyed materials so that increase engineering properties can happen.
8
How do we formulate the alloys is a big question for that we need to decipher something called
solid solutions which is basically something like you know it is the same model as liquid in a
solution a liquid solution you have something which is dissolver and then there is solid right so
the dissolver is also known as solvent which is in larger in bulk quantity and the solute is in
probably in smaller quantity and you put the solute inside the solvent and dissolve the solvent,
along with in the same manner an alloy can be defined as mixture of two or more materials of
which at least one must be a metal.
So in case of for example, steel as you know the other face which is the solute in that case is the
carbon okay and it is less than 2% carbon which makes a qualifier to be steel. The other part is of
course the liquid metal which is the iron okay. So the material having the largest percentage
composition is typically know as the solvent and remaining are solutes, so in iron carbon case the
carbon is solute, iron is the solvent and such a mixture is often know as a solid solutions.
9
Only difference here is the room temperature is no longer would remain liquid and they would
freeze up and they would formulate, organize you know poly crystal lines structure, which is the
difference in this particular case. In the case of solution you have the luxury of having them in
the liquid state, in the room temperature itself okay. So you can predict their behavior much more
easily but once if it is solidified and complete stoppage of all the moments, over and above the
dislocations carry forward.
It becomes very difficult and it becomes you know, you have to treated as one, sort of fixed
structure and static structure, unless there are some associated process which come up. So when
the insight of the solute atom is small enough, so that they can occupy the interstitial space to the
solvent matrix, the solute solution is over the interstitial type. So you can see the interstitial
occupying spaces and if supposing the solute atoms are large, so that they have does displace
actually the atoms from the crystal and occupy the position, substitution type.
So in this case there are smaller, let us say carbon is much smaller, so they have a tendency to get
into the interstate or the voids between the metal atom and crystal structure and in case the metal
is to big it has to substitute, the parent metal in order to get into the crystal structure. So you can
categorize industrial and substitution. So for the normal metals the only useful material which
can be accommodated in industry is carbon, as we see in the steel and I am going to do a lot of
detailing in this area.
And some other types of solid solutions is formed when the solute solution occupies regular
matrix position, so such a solution is known as substitution solid solution. I would like to now
sort of go and close on this particular module, but in the next module we will learn the details
about these solute solutions and how they behave on temperature scale, as a function of
temperature and transformation in time thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
10
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
11
Course Title
Module- 10
by
We were talking about solid solutions and we just started deciphering how you know there is a
solvent phase and there is solute phase and then how the solute based on it is sizes can go either
into the interstice space or you can do substantial kind of mechanism using the solid solution.
1
Let us now talk about equilibrium phase diagrams which is very important aspect of
understanding the solutions so the important metallurgical changes that take place when a
mixture of different metals or materials is gradually cooled from a liquid state are best described
with the help of this equilibrium phase diagrams so phases are characterized by boundaries
across which there exits some discontinuity in the physical properties I am going to come to
come to this later when I actually explained the diagram.
So even a pure metal in different phases namely solid, liquid and vapor can be plotted into
something called a phase diagram .so even within a single phase there may be different phase
each characterized by different crystal structure for example as in the case of ion you have a you
know FCC or a BCC structure at two different ranges and these materials are known as
allotropes I think I describe this earlier.
When we are taking about at the being about the engineering’s okay so in a same manner you
have to different structures which is the function of temperature of a certain material which can
actually come in the way of how you take the material from the liquid state to the solid state
through the various temperature regimes okay, so you have different phases even has a single
phase material.
So when cooling is sufficiently slow we can assume that all the phases involved in a
transformation process at a given temperature and equilibrium with each other and this what you
take as a snapshot every time so that you can draw the equilibrated phase as a function of time of
2
a solidification process so through in general the transformation of phases is governed by
temperature from position and pressure the later place and in significant role in the process that
we shall consider.
So mostly we will worried about the once which have temperature meaning there by that
temperature would be the most critical parameter that will get him.
So let us look at the first model which is very simple it is a two phase system comprising of
nickel copper as a convenient way of describing the phase transformation of the system is you
can see here the concentration is plotted on the x axis and the temperature is on the y axis and
you can see that the consternation of the nickel vis – a vis the copper varies between 0 ,100% to
100, 0% meaning there by beyond this 50 line the solute change into the solvent and vis a versa
okay so that is how we are trying to see this diagram okay.
So the word equilibrium particular is indicative of the fact that every temperature sufficient time
is provided so that you can complete all the mechanical slow diffusion driven process and then
the material has come to a stable or equilibrated phase or state okay so you enough time that you
are allowing at these points so the diagram in the left shows phase diagram of the nickel copper
alloy okay now you can see there are various regions of this diagram this particular region is the
liquid region.
3
Where you can see it by the this horizontally hatched region so the melting point or melting
temperature of nickel is about 1452 0C and that of copper is about 10830C obviously when you
formulate an alloy the melting temperature would change based on the percentage of this nickel
and copper because it is going to be taking a different thermal energy for the copper to get
melted and a different thermal energy for the nickel to get melted as well.
So you have something called the liquidus line which basically gives you an illustration of the
point beyond which the solidification will start to happen although not complete and solidus line
which actually would give you an idea of when the solidification process is complete.
So you can see these dotted phase in-between which is actually related to a mixture of the solid
and the liquid that means the liquids is partially solidified so there are some solid chances here
and there and there till and until the unknown the temperature the let us say the temperature
comes to this particular phase from p to q where it has completely solidified.
So complete liquid complete solid and in between this dotted line showing liquid plus solid that
is how the phase diagram is mostly plotted and how will you plotted otherwise for a single phase
for example you know that 100% copper phase, you have a single you know temperature beyond
which the conversion would take place so here you can see on this particular diagram of the
copper is 100%.
The temperature at the convergence is taking place exactly1083 0C which is the melting point of
copper, so if you look at this particular time versus temperature plan you can see that this
corresponds to the phase transition where it is changing from liquid to the solid state, but beyond
this particular time everything is now converted into solid, but the temperature scale level
changes this sheet is fixed as 1083 0C which is the melting point of copper so but in this case
obviously.
There is going to be some transition some change and there is also going to be a zone so in this
particular case when there is some kind of a percentage of copper as suppose Nickel as you see
there are two different points now one is θP value which is actually corresponding to when the
solidifications starts to happen and then there is a solid plus liquid which comes up here in this
particular zone and this really is the θq value where the complete solidification has happen so
there is going to be a latent heat.
4
Phase in the solid and then it is going to go down, so basically what you are trying to do when
the phase changes into two phases from a single phases that you are trying to take this region and
splitted up into this you know fall in temperature versus time where there is partial liquid partial
solid and the latent heat part which is separate and this latent heat part keeps on changing as the
percentage nickel changes, so think of it that when we talk about 100% nickel obviously there is
going to be 14520C temperature.
Where it is going to be just as copper that there is going to be a solidus point so liquidus point
beyond which this solid plus liquid would be there while it exist of the same, so the only
difference that the phases making as that the temperature is changing because one of the phases
is still in the liquid state and it will behave as if the you know as a normal liquid behaves on the
time temperature transformation curve, so that is how we will explain that how a percentage
copper or percentage nickel would make differences to the overall time temperature
transformation and this can be further use this information to plot this so derive this.
So this PQ here the temperature difference is really the temperature difference which starts
between this θP and θQ, okay so you can plot that is a function of the concentration and that
brings you the array of such points which would be the liquidus in the array of such point which
would be the solidus which would lead to the emergence of you know this curve from this curve
write about here, okay so that is how equilibrium phase diagrams are plotted let us look at the
interpretation.
5
To figure on the right describes you know the state of the mixture so, so physical state of the
various phases here so you can see there is a liquid state there is a solid state and this you know
representing by the liquid solid state and you know we may determine the relative proportion of
liquid and solid in this by looking really at the ratio xz by zy let us look back this is the xz line
corresponding to a particular temperature θ.
So we can think of it as if they so the nickel as already solidified, at the temperature θ because
the melting point for the nickel is 14520C so the amount of nickel as suppose to the amount of
you know the total amount of liquid plus solid mass which is present can really be represented as
xz by xy, so this ratio between this much length as suppose to the total, length here would give
you the percentage of solid fraction which is there.
Okay so xz/zy obviously is solid to liquid portion so the composition of the solid portion of the
temperature θ is given by the abscissa of the point y similarly the composition of the liquid
portion at this temperature is given by the abscissa of the point x so it may be noted from the
above figure that when there is no restriction on the solid solubility the solid state of an alloy,
would look like a pure metal as probably here and such an alloy is always known as a single
phase alloy where nothing but the grain boundaries are the only the distinguishable features and
if there is some restriction on the solid solubility it may necessarily not look as a pure one phase
system okay.
6
The situation becomes more complex when two metals having no restriction on solubility the
liquid state are only partially soluble in this solid phase. So obviously in this solid phase you
have to throughout some material you know in order to make the solidification possible. a
solution of this very commonly very use solution is common salt and water which falls in this
category the figure on the right here you know describes such a physical equilibrium diagram.
So from this diagram it is obvious that at a particular composition corresponding to let us say
23.5 % NaCl the mixture would like to be like a pure material as a specific freezing point of
-220C okay at which all these states can co-exist that means there is a transition directly from the
liquid in to the solid state without any intermediate state as such and whatever is formulated here
is a single phase or a single structure you know of the material and this corresponds to only a
certain percentage that is about 23.5% of salt beyond which whatever would happen would be an
excess salt which will come out you know of the crystal as such.
So this signifies the simultaneous solidification of NaCl at -22 0 C write about here anything
below this line the solid okay. So -220 C is a straight line joining the whole thing where you can
assume that anything below this temperature is always solid phase. Now at the point QU in the
liquid directly changes to the solid and we cannot distinguish between the different phases of this
solid because there are obviously going to be salt and water both but it undistinguishable so this
is kind of refer to as the eutectic point which means minimum melting freezing temperature you
know beyond the eutectic the solid would I mean the whole mixture would tend to solid almost
all it.
So the solid portion let us say add the point x which is towards the left of the eutectic point is
again you know going to be solid beyond -220C right so therefore if this particular liquid here at
the point x wants to be completely solid if I did has to come towards the eutectic point or eutectic
temperature, so at 22oC the entire solid is ice and the liquid mixture has eutectic composition for
example here you can see that you have over you know over concentrated ice in comparison to
NaCl or some of the salts or some of the NaCl salt may be in some crystals and some crystals
may be completely devoid of the salt and so you have a mixture of the eutectic point here 23.5%
which is generally lower but then there are certain other solid water or ice just ice which as no
salt as well.
7
Beyond to the so this region is known as the hypo eutectic region where you have excess ice the
eutectic mixture obviously on this other side where the NaCl is more you should have excess
NaCl + the eutectic mixture and this is known as the hyper eutectic point.
So than so you can understand it that you have an excess of salt+ eutectic mixture, the eutectic
mixture which is indistinguishable one phase and then other side ice+ eutectic mixture in such
partially solvable in solid phase kind of system solutions so in other locus situation for metals
again partially solvability means that one component can form a solid solution with the other
only up to a maximum concentration beyond which it cannot hold.
So if that kind of a situation happens again like the ice started throwing out the salt beyond the
eutectic point similar way in metal solutions then it solids state would also start throwing away
the excess component which cannot go into the solid solution and in same manner we have to see
or look at what is the equilibrium phase diagram of such a system okay.
So in case of metallic alloys almost always this is the case that two metals are not completely
soluble in the solid state but they any be soluble to a higher degree in the liquid state and it ends
up into having this ice water kind of a situation as we have just described so in that case a typical
equilibrium diagram is shown right here on the right side.
8
You have two components A and B let say whether this is a certain percentage solvability which
is allowable within the solid phase so you can see there is a eutectic composition here which is
completely you know undistinguishable in divisible phase eutectic at the eutectic point E it is αβ
on the left side you have case where you know you can have complete α which is 100%β you
know.
That is crystal state of complete α at this particular concentration and on the right side you have
this particular concentration where you complete β which is the you know corresponding to
100% A component so some β phase so you have a indistinguishable phase eutectic at the
eutectic point which you call αβ.
And on the left of this αβ line you have the excess of the α phase and on the right of the αβ line
you have excess of the β phase so that is in the similar manner to the ice system we are trying to
generate information from this in the manner. so you can think of it that this is the in
distinguishable phase eutectic phase this is the hypo eutectic phase and this is the hyper eutectic
phase comprising of β+αβ and α+αβ respectively so these are the phases were you have complete
you know solid solutions of a β structure
9
So let us now look into the iron carbon case because that is going to be also very challenging to
plot because of the fact iron as allotropic, so it has a FCC and BCC structure both at different
temperature ranges. So the figure on the right shows the cooling curve of the pure iron okay. So
between 15370c and 14000C, the solid iron exists normally in the form of BCC crystal and it is
commonly known as delta iron. Then you know it is between 1400 to 910 0C it again changes to γ
iron, it is known as the FCC face centered cubic structure.
And then beyond the 900 then limit there is α iron which is again the BCC structure which
comes at okay. so the solid iron exist in the form BCC crystals commonly known as delta iron
from 1400 to 9000c, the crystal structure is FCC corresponding to γ iron and below 910 0c the
structure again changes back to BCC and this phase is refer to α iron. So you are adding an
additional complexity to this whole paradigm by giving 2 different structures at different
temperature ranges.
So the figure on the right lower corner choose the iron carbon equilibrium diagram, so that is
how complexity driven it is. So in this fore shone you can see that there is a γ phase, there is a
delta phase which is here corresponding to this temperature range and then there is the γ phase
for pure iron. Then obviously there is going to be α phase which is the phase or again back to the
BCC structure you know in this particular region. So you have 3 different constitutions
structurally of the iron and obviously you have the dissolvability of carbon varying between 0 to
6.67% rights here where, in one case it is complete.
10
In the other case you know this corresponds to 6.67% beyond which the iron cannot like dissolve
the carbon. So below this there are different phases in 1 half you know, the strength of the iron
increases very highly, upto 2% and beyond 2 and below 6.67 this is actually the cast iron phase.
So in this figure the portion involved delta phase is not of much interest, so far the normal
manufacturing process are concerned. So normally the manufacturing temperature more or less
carried out in a, you know room temperature condition.
And also you know the 1500 to 1400oC this quiet a high temperature range and normally all the
material which is used do not get used up in this particular high range of temperature. So
therefore considering the delta phase in such a system from an engineering point of view, may
not be such significant but obviously the interplay between the γ and α structure would be more
or less very critical, the way the material system behave.
You know when we talk about their equilibrium with respect to temperature. So with this I would
like to end this module but in the next module we will try to look at some of the interrogates of
this iron carbon equilibrium diagrams, in terms of structure extra and there many points which
formulate, namely the eutectic toad and the paretic points, so I would tell about those, transition
points and what is the physically signify.
It is only the way of representation, you know the % composition is the function of temperature
and how they coexist, in one phase and how they coexist, in other phase or maybe there is a
solid, liquid combination. So that is a one snapshot explanation that comes out of this one page
equilibrium diagram of any constitute. So with this I would like to end this module thank you so
much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
11
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
12
Course Title
Module- 11
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1, Module 11, we have been
discussing about the equilibrium phase diagrams and particularly I had motioned about the case
when 2 materials although fully soluble and liquid may have a problem while going into solid
phase and they may not be fully solvable and the solid phase so in context of that we started
doing the ion and carbon equilibrium diagram where this property of carbon going up to an
maximum of about 6.67% in the solid phase remains or prevails and this you know would be
very interesting example of a good equilibrium phase diagram so let me just sort of reiterate
what I had done you know.
1
In this diagram this right here is the ion and carbon equilibrium diagram you can see that beyond
6.67% is 100% ferric stage which comes and we cannot load beyond this and there are many
phases of this diagram for example the phase that can be used for mostly casting process or in
this range of 11250 C which corresponds to more than 2% carbon okay, it is about 4 and 4.3
% as this time you can see here and still it is an liquid form in this particular region so then there
is a region which is important for heat treatemmat of steels which is 723 0C which is the
particular region right here.
And this is you know related to the sort of metal working process you know it can be metal
forming of various kind you know so these are the some other temperatures which are used and
also 7230 is very critical because you can change properties of the material at this particular
temperature by heating cooling and doing various kind of heating, cooling and all sort of you
know chemical treatments or heat treatment process like carburizing, nitrating so on forth.
So this temperature is very critical from a properties materials properties system stand point there
are other there is another yet a another region which is actually important from a materials point
engineering point of view which is this region right about here where there is a phase δ iron
and again which is allotrope you know allotrope of ion and as you are already aware that there
are 3 different states or crystal structures.
And which ion can be present one is below 910 0 which is actually forms the α ion phase which as
a body center cubic structure the movement you go above 910 all the way to about let us say
2
14000 C you have the γ iron just an iron which is actually the phase interred cubic structure and
then the δ again becomes the BCC, so basically it is transitions from bcc to fcc to again bcc
which happens and then this � iron bcc is always above 14000C.
3
If we may remember from the last lecture.
4
We had discussed this you know where we are made sphere how this iron changes states how
distill structures at different temperature ranges so this is also a very important zone particularly
this zone, particular this zone here from the materials engineering stand point although in the
applicative stand point it may not be many much used because at such a high temperature metal
is seldom use for any of the practical applications, so the two zones of this curve which are really
important from application stand point are this zone write about here 1125 0C and this zone which
is about 7230C.
So there are other type of you know transformation similar to the eutectic transformations we
had discussed eutectic if you remember in the last lecture where you know in the eutectic case in
the eutectic transformation, a single phase liquid, changes to two phase solid if you remember in
the ice salt diagram we had talked about salt water which was completely uniform and it gets
freeze below – 220C at a certain percentage of salt and that structure although it is not
distinguishable.
But it is a two phase so basically salt is entrapped homogenously within the ice crystals, so that
is what eutectic transformation is here also the similar kind of a behavior can be observed and
here really a the eutectic transformation point could be this point E write here, where we have a
convergence of the liquid into homogenously available two phase solid structure which has γ
iron which is the fcc iron and Fe3C you know cementite is dispersed uniformly a across the γ
5
iron phase, so there is nothing called excess cementite or something like that it is all one
structure that is there.
And so this is how you can actually change the process and make a one phase a single phase
liquid completely convert into two phase solid, two phase solid meaning that you have the
presence of both the phases throughout the particular crystal. The other point which is interesting
for us to consider is the eutectoid and the eutectoid transformation in this diagram corresponds to
a situation where instead of a single phase liquid a single phase solid changes in to a two phase
solid okay.
So in this diagram we look at carefully this particular point E’ write here we have one hand γ
austenite which is a complete FCC, so in this case as you know the austenite is already a FCC
structure and then you can going to convert that in to perlite which is again you know sort of
again two phase solid structure of so it is you know combination of cementite and ferried,
ferried being the α iron which we commonly known as the BCC crystal and cementite is Fe3C so
basically again it is another case where the solid that is formulated as a continuous distribution of
both the α as well as the cementite the ferrite as well as the sementite although the crystal.
So similar to the composition what is here two phase solid similar kind of a composition exist in
this particular region and this is known as perlite. So that is the eutectoid point, so these two
transformation are very important from the stand point of the application you know application
in the industry but the material engineering properties as I told you comes in this phase where
there is another transformation which is actually known as peritectic transformation.
And I will just defined what peritectic transformation means. So this peritectic transformation
refers to a point of you know is then at a temperature about which all the liquid solidifies and the
atoms diffuse in to already existing solid forming a single phase solid if we look at this point
right about here you have a single phase solid δ in this region over it right so this is ∆r and
you have an δ iron liquid in this particular region which is showed by this so you have semi
solid semi liquid kind of a transition here now if I look at the structure which is just about here it
is the combination of the ∆ and the γ iron you remember δ is the BCC phase and γ is the FCC
phase.
6
So both of them are combined here and the moment it is changing the temperature it is going into
a single phase solid that is ∆+ liquid so whatever is happening to the γ structure you know it is
sort of reorienting itself towards the BCC from the FCC structure okay so you are formulating a
single phase solid above this temperature and below this temperature it is always a two phase
solid.
So basically from a two phase solid to a single phase solid in terms of the structure is converted
when we talk about the paretic point so this is of not much significance although but they
materials is stand point of an engineering stand points material engineering stand points we try to
explore this a particular point of temperature.
So having said that we have this three eutectic, eutectoid and paratactic points in the atom carbon
equilibriums diagrams so let see structurally again so at 1125 o Celsius the solubility of Cementite
in γ iron is limited to 2% so you can see this write about here in this 1125 o Celsius is this
temperature right now and you can see that beyond 2% carbon which obviously formulates Fe 3C
or cementite the phase change is from γ+ liquid okay so any further rise would lead to change the
phase.
And cementite would start coming out .so maximum 2% can be held and that is where the steel
zone really is beyond this starts becoming model casting if so the solid solutions of γ iron and
Fe3C is commonly known as austenite which is actually right here okay you know this γ iron and
7
Fe3C these are the austenite in BCC phase of iron the solubility of Fe 3C in much smaller around .
33% as you can see here this is the BCC phase of the iron ferrite.
So you call it ferrite okay and you know the moment the percentage increases to anywhere more
than 0.33% carbon again the pearlite starts coming out okay as you consider this particular zone
is ferrite pearlite and if it goes beyond certain a point .83 again starts formulating cementite
pearlite rather than pearlite, pearlite remember is the eutectoid single phase I mean two phase
system of ferrite and cementite distributed through the structure homogeneous okay.
So if I look at these structures is here this is how pearlite would look like so it is only uniform
homogeneity in the mixture of ferrite and cementite on the other hand if we look at how the
mixture of ferrite and pearlite can be so there are some additional you know you can see this
white marks here all though these the actual structures but it is just a cartoon indicated of what is
going on.
So you have the peer zone of ferrite you know apart from the pearlite regions which are the two
phase solid you know which we are talking about and in this particular you have the peer zone
the black zones the peer zones of cementite which are over and above the pearlite which is again
combination of fenoid so two phase solid of ferrite and cementite so this is how you understand
the iron and carbon equilibrium diagram.
So the solid solution of Fe3C in α iron is called as ferrite so you have the ferrite in this particular
region the eutectoid composition of ferrite and cementite is pearlite again you have this pearlite
here which consists of alternate thin laminates of cementite and ferrite so that is what I am
saying that the two phase solid you must always the market as a one wear structure there is no
difference represented of both the phases are equal throughout the crystal matrix okay, there is no
separate zone for the presence of the one over the other. So that is how eutectic coed or eutectic
composition would typically happen okay.
But there any where between the before or beyond the eutectic or eutectoid composition, which
are also known as the hypo eutectic or eutectoid, hyper eutectic or eutectoid composition. You
always have this tendency of one phase coming out and becoming independent.
In this case you can see for example, the ferrite phase came out; in this case too saw the
cementite came out. So there are pure zone formulated, over and above the uniform two phase
8
solid structure pearlite which is their okay. So that is how you basically try to understand the iron
carbon equilibrium diagram and the different structures of the various phases of the steels are
kind of indicated here, you have this ferrite Austenite, which is again a two phase solid
combining.
But then three homogenous is distributed around the matrix and then you have cementite and
austenite combination which happens over this temperature, in this particular region, so the
structure of ferrite is thick and rounded, where as the cementite is thin and need a like. Here is
the some of the properties, ferrite is soft, cementite is very hard,. The transformation of austenite
into ferrite and cementite is achieved only when the cooling is slow.
That is the very important factor as well and we are going to do the time temperature diagram
very soon, after this where we talk about the impact of the cooling in the various structures. So if
a rapid cooling rate is for example provided to, you know let us say, austenite it may transform in
to altogether into marten site okay. So the rate at which the cooling happens is also, is going to
enable what is the final structure that gets formulated.
Because you are not giving it enough equilibrium time and obviously the diffusion process are
very slow. So there are going to be some changes in the crystal based on that. So having said
that, that is how you study this equilibrium phase diagram of very important iron ad carbon, and
used very commonly in the industries, so one snapshot go off what phase? What temperature?
What percentage? Let us say structure gets formulate. So you can visualize this entire thing in
the single sheet of paper through this diagram.
So having said that we want to sort of close this module but then in the next module I am going
to do something related to control of material property where the cooling rates become very
important and we will talk about the diagram, which is famously known as TTT or time
temperature transformation diagram. With this I close this module thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
9
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
10
Course Title
Manufacturing Process technology – Part- 1
Module – 12
by
We were talking last time about equilibrium phase diagram particularly in context of iron-
carbon equilibrium diagram and saw the various important transformation like the eutectic,
eutectoid, the peritectic transformation which was talking place in context of the change in phase
of iron in to two phase or single phase so on so forth.
0
So we also discussed about the utility or the point at temperature 723 C which is concerned with
heat treating the material to have different strength or different hardness within the material so it
is extremely high engineering relevant and in context of that we are going to discuss today the
control of material.
1
Properties which are very important you know for metals and even alloys which have to be used
for different engineering applications where the requirement of the hardness or the requirement
of strengths are varied in nature so the material properties of the metals and alloys can be
controlled by various methods to make the material suitable for a given application .
For example one of them is just alloying where your using some trace amount of materials each
of which would create some kind of a difference in you know crystal structure by either pre
hardening it or doing something related to the regularity of the lattice structure of the metal
where enhanced properties can be felt coming out. heat treatment where you can rapidly heat and
cool.
And this can also result in quite a bit of changes in the structure the crystal structure of the
material which can lead to you know the various changes in the material properties and the
obviously the mechanical working and re-crystallization which is another way in which strain
hardening can be induced and then the temperature can be taken just to above you know the re-
crystallization temperature.
So that it can start a fresh and be able to hard to an extent that it want it to be harden. so think of
it and then the manufacturing process when we are talking about a primary or secondary process
and we want a desired property like for example desired ultimately strength or desired hardness
on the surface of a material. you will not only need to worry about the primary or secondary
2
manufacturing process but also the after effect of putting the material coming out of these
process is into use you know use engineering use.
So for example in assembly of different linkages when each of this link as been formulated
through a manufacturing process if enough amount of surface hardness enough amount of
surface stability is not there or in fact if there is low ultimate yield strength of the material then
linkage may completely fail okay. so then that is the reason why these heat treatment process is
become very, very important from the aspect of manufacture. so the first process alloying.
Obviously concerns the way that alloying of steals happen mostly. so let say in the alloy steels
thy have got be classified into two categories, one is called a low alloy steel and another is a high
alloy steels. so in the low alloy steels the total content of the alloying elements such as chromium
Ni, Mo, and V and Mn is kept within 5% and each alloy element imparts of specific to the origin
material. I am just try to assemble some of the properties which would be induced while this
different like aluminum.
Tries to promote deoxidation, promotes de-nitriding restricts gain growth typically a low
percentage is something which is desirable. the material Boron for example increases harden
ability typical percentage 0.001 to 0.003% and using steel with carbon content less than 0.6%
often, which gives the effect of incase hardenability. you have Cobalt which can impair impact
3
strengths impair the impact strength slightly, it contributes to the red hardness, or sustains
hardness during tempering.
You know you have chromium which increases hardenability again increases resistance to
corrosion, abration in where increases temperature strength and typical percentage is which we
need of these chromium material is between 0.5 to 2 to increase hardenability and 4 to 8 to
increase the corrosion and wear resistance. so it is very important material from corrosion aspect
okay. then the material copper which can increase corrosion resistant again typically the
percentage that is linear it is 0.1 to 0.4% so these are some of the materials which can actually
impart desirable Properties are effects by alloying into the basic crystal structure of iron. so you
have a variety of other in the key in the same manner.
For example what Mn does is to sort of contract the brittleness from the sulphur which otherwise
gets generated into the mold, because the sulphur is something that you have to get rid of.
because if otherwise it generates a lot of you know undesirable properties related to brittleness
etc the casting. so typical percentage is about 0.25 to 0.40% to contract the brittleness from
4
sulphur. Similarly manganese can increases hardenability increase resistance reduce ductility and
weldability increase hardenability significantly, percentage again greater than 1 to increase the
harden ability.
Molybdenum in them for example increases strength toughness red hardness and hot strength
when used with chromium manganese and vanadium I mean total. so typical percentage here that
looking at a 0.2 to 5%. in fact Molybdenum is used a lot in high speed cutting tools a particularly
high speed steels you know it is used in forged crankshafts, turbines, rotors, high pressure
cylinders and boiler plates, gears so on so forth.
Similarly nickel would increase toughness and impact strength, improve the corrosion resistance.
these are some of the typical percent in range this 2 to 5% will increase the toughness strength,
12 to 20% will increase the corrosion resistance and mostly nikel would be used in the case of
you know harden parts such as let us say high speed gears ball bearings so on so forth.
Then the phosphorous, which is again used for increase hardenability machinability increasing
strength in low carbon steels and improving the corrosion overall corrosion resistance. so that is
another aspect of the material phosphorus okay, so these are the various effects of alloying.
You know the elements on steel similarly you can say silicon acts as a dioxidizer or improves I
mean magnetic properties are present in large percentages or sulphur which improves machine
5
ability of low carbon steel but it creates a lot of brittleness within the structure which is one of
the reasons you want to get rid of the sulphur mostly in castings etc.
Titanium, which increases the austenitic hardenability and reduces the martensitic hardness in
chromium steels. Again Vanadium, which increases strength while retaining ductility, produces
fine grain size, increase hardenability and tungsten, which imparts again hardness and wear
resistance, significantly improves red hardness and imparts strength and high temperature so
these are some of the consolidated effects of alloying steels by the various trace elements.
In the first stage that you are seeing here are mostly very trace concentrations until something
like you know and it is quite remarkably low sometimes in comparison to even the primary
material which is alloying which is that of carbon actually.
So the other process which is important for me to discuss is heat treatment, so not only alloying
but supposing there is a pure phase unless an alloy phase material which is there let us say, steel
is a alloy of carbon and iron right. So how can we achieve the properties of steel material
properties of steel by not adding any other alloying element but on the trying to see the diffusion
driven transport of the carbon with respect to the overall crystal structure of iron gets at certain
rate you know equilibrated rate and so that gives you and a sense of what is going to be the
overall hardness etc, of the structure.
6
For example, let us say if I had Austenite and if I wanted to heat it very rapidly by water
quenching it and cold water, immediately you will get martensitic state which is known for it is
hardness in fact on the Rock well hardness scale it reads about 65 you know and then it has more
4 2
tensile strength like 175x10 N/mm and it also reduces in area percentage of the reduction is
very low okay.
Similarly if you want to oil quench austenite .for example you not very fine pearlite which also
4
would have 35 hardness and it would have a ultimate yields stress you know of about 56 * 10
4
and tensile strength as of 112 *10 okay. or if I and if you could just heated by air cooling just
directly you know just keeping in to normal room temperature after the heat to be in process.
So that results in fine pearlite now why is this difference structures are produced is because you
now giving it enough equilibrating time in one case when you are rapidly cooling it visible is the
case when you are slowly cooling it, so the equilibrating time for the diffusion and the
mechanically driven diffusion process of carbon and to the matrix happens and the different rates
okay or in to the different cooling rates.
So here for example it is a Furnace cooled case, we are austenite converts in to the pearlite. this
is the slowest cooling process okay. so you already keeping it in the Furnace and allowing the
material to cool in the Furnace, so that is the slowest cooling that you can say for that produce a
difference structure all together, course pearlite which has a very low Rockwell hardness of
about 50 you know.
So as supposed to martensitic which was with rapid cooling you can see these are immediately
coming through where very low harness is recorded only in changing a cooling rate okay. So that
0
is why as I was earlier discussing this 723 C temperature is very important because beyond this,
the Austenite steel is completely γ iron and then you know we just changes from that γ and
various states corresponding to the different cooling rates that are used you know at that
particular point.
So it is does obvious that by changing on the rate of cooling different phases can be achieved and
so in order to address this issue the cooling rates have to be demarcated in one page format, just
like you saw the phase diagram included the phase diagram and so these curves are known as the
time temperature transformation curves or TTT curves and I am going to illustrate you how this
7
TTT curve can be read and what actually is inter predict out of it so let us say the temperature is
plotted you know in the vertical axes where the whereas the abscissa represents the time on a
logarithm scale.
So normally this write about here is what the TTT curves look like. Let me just know it to little
bit more you know then let us say magnify the curve little more.
So here for example as you can see the transformation. it begins from this particular temperature
0
which is probably 723 C and you know when let us say this is where austenite stage is present
we called it as austenite here okay so it is γ iron you can say with the FCC kind of you know
8
o
structure ferrite is represent all through the γ iron phase okay we start at θ0 = 723 and let us say
if we try to cool the iron at certain rate which is given by this slope right about here.
This is time scale and this is temperature so basically when I am saying this slope of this
particular line as I am showing here it is actually the cooling rate is that we are referring to you
know so the logarithm of cooling rate that we are referring to so when austenite is brought to a
temperature let us say θ1from θ0 had extremely high cooling rate which can be considered
almost equal to let us say 0 time.
o
You know because the rate is very, very high so you are changing from 723 let us say θ1 this is
o
just below 600 Celsius at this point we are leaving and then allowing the transformation process
to take place the transformation to pearlite as you can see here begins after some point of time
you know so this much time let us say this is t1 this is spent in waiting so that there is a
mechanical diffusion which works out.
And this phase right here which start after this solid line here is the coarse pearlite phase you
know so this is the pearlite transformation happens to take place at start to take place from
temperature t1 okay. so you have to really at start to take place from temperature t1 okay so you
have to really wait by dropping down to θ1 in almost no matter of time.
And then wait for this t1 time for this the transformation to start taking place from pearlite you
know so once this is done this pearlite transformation sort of completes up to the point B here let
us say this is time t2 so the curve here for example in this particular zone actually represents the
end of production of complete pearlite the region here is completely you know full of pearlite
you have coarse pearlite or fine pearlite towards the curve here or at the border you have.
You know this is sort of Bainite transformation so here for example in this particular case
coming from t1 to t2 that means from point A to point B you know we can call this
transformation is an isothermal transformation and one of the reasons why that is told that you
know doing this transformation all temperature θ1 without change.
So the transformation corresponding to the other temperature θ2 and θ3 for example if this know
allows to cool off beyond θ1 or all shown here for example if you directly goes into rapid
cooling mode where the time spent in cooling is very low and you can see that, so it enters this
into the martensitic phase. So whatever I was showing there diagrammatically in terms of
9
structures and cooling this has been represented in this TTT one snap shot now we can change
the rate of cooling and attain any structure that you would like for the material to come up with.
0
About 500 C, the transformation starts as you can see after minimum laps of time, so this area is
therefore know as the nose of the curve TTT curve and it is sort of you can see that the cooling
rate is almost tangential, if the cooling rate anywhere lower to the rate that the extremely high
arte that as shown here. Then there would be production of pearlite phase which would come up
here ok. Because then rate will start and go through this whole pearlite region before getting into
state.
But if you are having a rapid pointing like this almost zero time then just go tendency with the nose
0
and avoid getting into the pearlite zone and go into the martensitic zone. So below the 500 c
temperature the austenite suppose if I drop it somewhere here at θ2 it would now isothermally
convert into bainite. it will not give you pearlite anymore okay. So beyond this particular and it will
not be able to get into the bainite unless it crosses over the pearlite zone which is here.
As a function of time so ultimately you get the bainite but it comes true this zone wise right here
okay, so that is how you interpret from the time temperature transformation curve in the various
structures, based on different you know time points. The other issue that I would like to discuss
is only about the mechanical working and re crystallization.
10
And as I mentioned here the mechanical properties example strength and hardness of the poly
crystallization material are governed by grain size of the material. You have earlier looked into
the dislocation theory where we assume that if there is the jamming of the dislocation across the
grain boundaries while travelling there is going to be an increase in strain hardness. strain
hardening process would try to take place so that overall hardness is changed because of that. So
here the strength and the hardness of the poly crystallization material are really a function of the
grain size.
So meaning there if I wanted to do mechanical working on the material for example. Let us say
we have shown three cases here and mechanical working is being done. this is then case of
forging so circular grains otherwise are converted into elliptical here. in case of rolling where
there is circular grain being converted into elliptical as you can see by a roll pressure or
machining where the circular grain again are been converted into a elliptical by means of the
tools etc.
So here during the grain deformation processes, there are going to be various you know
mechanically structured grains going to be formulated and obviously the gain structure changes
because of the deformation that is going to be change in the overall ductility or strength
properties of the material. So you can look at it the tensile strength if you can plot as a function
of grain diameter, the increase in the grain diameter that ductility will increase and strength
would reduce ok. So the other aspect here is that mechanical working can be followed by a
recrystalization where there is again fresh grain growth.
Because you are now taking it above 723 degree Celsius to the gamma austenitic phase and
bringing it down okay. so even that recrystalization process can be initiated with mechanical
working so that you can have a control on the overall grain size which would determine your
ductility and strength properties. So in nutshell then we have looked into the various aspects for
how you alloy the material to control the strength. we have also looked to control the strength we
have also looked into various aspects of how you heat treat to control these strength and then
able to read from the single snapshot how the strength is going to change or how the structure is
going to change based on different rates of cooling okay.
And finally you have also looked into mechanical working and recrystallization processes. so the
figure on the right show the grains are deformed by various mechanical working processes. you
11
can easily see that they effective grain size is reduced because the surface area of the grain it
increases where are the volume remains the same. it is possible to restore the original grain
geometry by heating the material up to temperature where the new fine grains are formulated and
that process is known as the recrystalization.
And compute and leave it to achieve this is known as the recrystalization temperature and the
material is kept for a constitution period of time at this temperature the newly formed fine grains
will grow in size and again formulate this similar original property of the material. on the other
hand of material is cooled quickly the grains size are small and it should be noted that in
mechanical working process the grains are deformed where as in recrystalization new grains are
formed and their sizes can be controlled.
So you can play around with the way that you cool after the crystallization and even before
recrystalization do mechanical working to reduce the grain size to a desirable level okay. that
way we determine the mechanical properties with that I would like to close on this module in the
next module we will start understanding the casting process in great detail so I think we have
now enough understanding about material properties for us be able to go into the modeling and
design of casting so with that I would like to close this module thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
12
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
13
Course Title
Module- 13
by
We have finished the engineering materials section and from today onwards we are going to
discuss the first process which is one of the oldest process in the history of manufacturing which
is called casting and so if we look at you know casting really it is one of the first steps of
manufacturing.

That can be followed in most of the products because the reason being that as I told you this is
one of the primary process which will give the overall shape or size to the product beyond which
you know you can do a lot of suiting of the products to engineering assemblies by many
secondary process so this is one of the primary process of manufacturing so in this process the
material is first liquefied as you know by properly heating it in a suitable furnace and then
poured into a previous sleep prepared mold cavity.
Where it is allowed to solidified so therefore the important aspects of the liquid metal is first
formulated and there is a question of liquid metal vis-à-vis the liquids alloying which happens
because of the dissolution of a second phase in that and then it is a heated in a suitable Furness
which actually takes a you know it is own or it sorry imposes it is own effects by the mode of
heating so for example if the Furnace is induction based than the heating is completely
homogenous throughout the material.
But if a Furnace is something where there is a you know wall based heating or the heating
happens through the walls there is going to be always temperature gradients which are going to
be there so when the product is finally taken off then you can further process it, trim it you know
clean do the concern shape something you know which is more suitable for engineering some
assemblies etc. And so the following needs to be explored for a successful casting process one is
the preparation of molds and patterns.
Which are used to make the mold, mold basically is the housing which would hold the liquid
metal till solidifications, so therefore you need to be able to prepare it with the refractive material
normally sand molds greens and molds are very commonly available, because sand is refractive
material which can withstand high temperature and still be strong you know so that is why sand
is mostly, used and then also you have to melt and pore the liquid metal so there is an lot which
sort of comes into ten way this.
Because you are essentially passing it through a channel which is also known as the metal and
the metal runner and there is a gate which goes or which throws of the metal in to the cavity
where the filling action starts taking place and so doing all this process there is always heat
transfer because remember the mold is always at a lower temperature than the super hot liquid
metal which is flowing through it and therefore there is always a possibility of solidification
before entering.
And so the process should be defined or designed in the manner so that liquid metal really enters
before the solidification happens and then you have to give heat to finally the solidification and
for the cooling to room temperature and one of the reasons why this is important is that you
know we assume that most of the metal goes into the mold from the gate region as liquid metal
and so once the liquid is now station inside the mold and you have obtained a indication from the
other side, which is also known as the riser side.
To the metal as fully full the cavity there is going to be heat transfer of this metal to the casting
walls. casting where a metal mold is what is basically used for finding of the metal so there the
heat transfer rate should really define how the crystal growth would take place and in fact that
also define what is the surface hardness of the casting of vis-a-vis the hardness inside or even
other many other properties, like strength ,overall ductility, yield point etc. So therefore it is very
important aspect to be considered while dealing with casting.
Solidification, cooling so and then obviously once the casting is prepared then you have
obviously it is not free of defect, so you have to have the method for defect inspection so you
first understand some of the defects and the try to inspect and remove most of the time
nondestructively so that the casting material can be used further processing, so although there are
several process associated with casting, the following casting process in context of the four areas
just mention one is the melting temperature of the job and the mold material.
This is very critical because it should not happen in the mold starts melting away and joins the
liquid metal because of the super heat that the material is in, so you have to able to have a
refractory in any event which does not have it is own contribution by melting into the cast okay
that is how the mold would be, molds materials would be the solubility of an the chemical
reaction between the job and the mold materials also is a very, very critical aspect because
obviously there is going to be out gassing which happens from mold or even at sometimes you
know if supposing there is some organic which cannot with stand this item pressure this can be
entrapped is a vapor pocket within the casting material.
And so in some cases these may be very harmful because primarily it may react and make the
casting very brittle like hydrogen solubility a major issue in castings because excess hydrogen
made the casting very brittle, so these are some of the issues there should not be a chemical
reaction which formulates a hydrate or nitrate or some kind of an oxide state which you know
changes the property of the material obviously this solubility of the atmosphere in the material at
different temperature to be encountered in the casting operation is also major issue to be consider
because atmosphere itself has these gases and if there is possibility of solublising the gases
within the liquid metal then it may mean a lot of property changes because of this solubility.
And the thermal property is such as conductivity and coefficient of linear expansion of both the
mold and job materials which also are very important because you have to have engineering
dimensional okay did to some material which is being cast and so therefore you must consider
allowances which are because of these shrinkage phenomena obviously metal port in hot state is
going to cool of which is going to make the volume smaller and then obviously it is also going to
cool down further from this solidification point of the room temperature which is going to be
linearly contracting the material further.
So therefore you have to have sufficient allowances so that what you are getting is the final
dimension and the final dimension to be close to what the plan dimension is or the engineering
dimension is of the particular castings so you always need to give these allowances in the casting
or in the mold design process. So that ultimately what you get is what you are looking for okay.
so that is how you can say that you know castings can be sort of defined.
So let us talk about now patterns and molds these are most important pattern is something which
is needed to formulate the mold okay. So a pattern is a replica of the part to be cast it is use to
prepare the mold cavity. So obviously if we are talking about as let us say you know sphere of
metal that we are going to roll out for casting process so the mold for that should be spherical
cavity in to which the metal would go and then solidify and so be sphere.
So therefore the pattern is exactly the replica of the parts and the mold is exactly the negative of
the part or the replica that we are talking about. So patterns can either be made of wood or metal
a mold is an assembly of two or more metal blocks obviously the mold contains the material
which is used for making the mold cavity and this materials is normally bonded refractory which
consist of the primary cavity where the metal should be filled and the mold assemble typically is
made in to two or more parts because you want to be able to pattern the mold and extract the
pattern out.
So typically the practice that is followed is that make a for a spherical patterns for example or
you know for a very large casting let us say casting of a wheel, you should have a half and half
patterns you know, so therefore there is rapper half of the mold and lower half of the mold lower
half is normally known as drag the upper half is the cope and then these two are actually having
a parting line but the pattern is kept in a manner so that you have this split pattern particularly
that we are talking about you have half inside the lower portion and half the upper portion.
So if we have let us say put this material inside the refractive material and before that you have
put the mold inside and then you have compressed the refractive material like sand and then
when you remove the upper half and the lower half you can extract the pattern away and once the
pattern is extracted and you close the upper half back over the lower half you have a cavity there.
So that is how you basically making the mold, so therefore it is an assembly of two or more
metal blocks as been rightly indicated here.
The mold cavity holds the liquid metal and essentially acts a negative a desire product as I have
already discussed mold also contains secondary cavities for pouring channeling etc of the liquid
metal in to the primary cavity and this is and also sometimes there is a cavity which acts as a
reservoir for flowing the metal. So therefore you have the whole you know pouring basin and
then a runner and then the riser on the other side which are cavities which otherwise would not
be needed if there was no requirement of pouring the metals.
So this is a sort of a metal channel you can say liquid metal channel, so this is also a secondary
cavity obviously this would have solidified and as to be removed once the metal piece is
extracted because the metal which is going to stay inside that cavity is also want to suffer heat
law and get solidified. So there is a trimming action which has to be performed on the casting
almost always after extraction so that these component so these parts that is the raiser side or the
runner side as to be totally chopped off you know and that is how you recover the whole casting.
So it is obviously a wastage of material because you want to design the riser and the runner in
manner so that the wastages very little but still there is going to be wastage of material during
this pouring process. A four sided frame in which sand mold is made is refer to normally as a
flask, so the mold is made off more than one part the top portion is call the cope and the bottom
is termed as the drag as I think I had already entered told you.
And for production of hollow sections the entry of the liquid metal is prevented by having a core
in the corresponding portion of the mold cavity. So supposing you wanted to make a hollow
object so obviously you would like that the metal does not go in to that part of the mold where
they needs to be hollow, so you have to have something called a core and for supporting them
you may have to need something which are like legs where the core can be standing on which are
known as core prints which are within the mold so you have a small central core and some legs
to hold that core in place so that you know when the metal comes around it basically goes around
and you know it is not able to go into that region which has the core so you can exactly you
know make the design in the manner.
So that the core can be extracted later on . so that is how would this kind of hollow castings okay
so core is very important the projection of the pattern for casting the core and the molder called
core prints as I have just mentioned it is like legs which are holding the core and place there are
diverse types of patterns and molds depending on the material the job and number of castings
which are needed.
And the first important consideration which one has for designing these patterns are pattern
allowances. the pattern is always made one what larger than the final job that is to be produced
obviously because the excess in dimensions which are there because of this rapid cooling and
shrinking action of the material is not an ideal you know in an ideal case obviously because of
the thermal gradient or because of a let change in temperature that metal is going to be shrinking
so these are referred to as pattern allowances.
So such excess dimensions are always called pattern allowances there are two categories of
pattern allowances you have shrinkage allowances and then you have machining allowances so
obviously a shrinkage allowances I told is more because of thermal issues associated with the
sudden you know sudden decrease in the temperature of the metallic system.
But you know ultimately this casting or this primary shape has to be fitted into a general
engineering assembly and it needs to be compatible with the tolerances or the overall you know a
matching with that engineering assembly supposing you making a shaft for example it has to fit
into a certain hole so there has to be some tolerances you know there has to be some fits of how
the shaft would made with the particular hole in question. And so there are certain machining
allowances which always need to be incorporated where such fine machining operations on the
casting would ensure that it has to be exacted dimensions and the tolerances that are needed for
that casting to participate into an assembly, an engineering assembly.
So there is a shrinkage allowance because of the metallic the property of metals to contract when
temperature goes down and then there is a machining allowances which is useful because you
want to fit these into assemblies so shrinkage allowances is provided to take care of contraction
of casting as I told you the total contraction of casting takes place in three stages so one is the
contraction of the liquid from the pouring temperature to the freezing temperature.
You have to understand the pouring temperature is way above the freezing temperature and so
therefore there is going to be some kind of contraction of the liquid there is going to be a
contraction associated with the change of phase from liquid to solid so obviously the solid would
occupy lesser volume than the liquid because you have more into molecular forces binding the
atomic system together.
And the contraction of solid casting from the freezing temperature to the room temperature is
another aspect where we are talking about the solid face contraction this is the phase change
contraction and this particular is the liquid contraction prior of pouring it may be possible that
super heat the materials and the pouring temperature and freezing temperature is apart because of
that and because of some reasons because you want the metal to be transported in longer runner
or longer risers.
You do this intentionally that super heat the material above the liquid fraction point you know of
the this is the freezing point so there is going to be a difference in temperature there so that when
this temperature changes obviously there is going to be a change in the overall volume of the
metal which is in question so it must be noted however there it is only the at stage of the
contraction which is taken care by shrinkage allowances.
Because these two stages that is the liquid contraction and the change from liquid to solid the
contraction is very, very minor you know and that need not be considered and probably some of
this gets cleared off because of machining and the other process which follow the casting
processes obviously the amount of shrinkage allowances would depend on the linear coefficient
of the thermal expansion of the solid material that is αL once the freezing has happened.
The shrinkage always the major shrinkage always takes place after the freezing process so the
higher the value of the coefficient so higher is α the more is the value of the shrinkage
allowances and for dimensions L of the casting let say the shrinkage value is given by αL times
¿
θ
of where θf is a freezing temperature at which the material starts to solidified, θ0
L (|f −θ 0 )
¿
is the room temperature.
So obviously when the metal as just frozen to still hot and frozen to solid and from there slowly
there is cooling to the room temperature. So the amount of the ∆l when the change in the length,
which happens is actually proportion to the original length and proportion to the difference of
temperatures and obviously αl is the thermal coefficient which has to be plugged in. It is constant
for a particular material system, so the shrinkage value normally which is given to the casting
are.

Are recorded here for example in cast iron, shrinkage allowances typically 1/196 th and you know
for, if you look at the machining allowances side, for the dimension 0 to 37, so these are thumb
rules, which people are generated have been running these industries. If you have machine
allowances 30m to 60 cm, the for dimension 30 to 60 the machine allowances will be about
4mm, so on so forth.
So similarly you have cast steel, low carbon which as the shrinkage allowances 148 th of the
actual dimension, which is in question? Bronze 3/192 again and brass 1/48 again and then
machine allowances for the dimensions is 3mm, 1.5mm. Similarly 30 to 60 cm for cast iron so on
so forth, so that is how some of the thumb rules are defined in terms of what shrinkage
allowances and machine allowances will take for various material system in question.
Usually the cast surface is rough to be used in the same way, as surface of the final product, so as
the result the machine operations and surface machine operations are needed. I think I have just
mentioned about it here and the other more important factor that I want to consider is that, apart
from these two allowances, there are other which needs to be provided to facilitate the easy
withdraws of the pattern.
So it refers to some kind of taper because obviously if the pattern is straight and it has to be, it
has to be removed from a refractive wall as reserves pattern is tapered, taper always gets
removed quiet easily. So you must have some taper allowances, normally it is ½ degree to 2
degree which given, so for example fore casting a cylinder, you need not to have the pattern
exactly straight but may be a little bit of ½ degree to 2 degree taper, so that is easy to remove this
pattern out, while you are making the whole.
So these are the normally some of the thumb rules used for doing pattern designing. So we will
talk about more in the next module about how further we designed the mould? how further we
designed runner and riser which are two most important things to ensure that the metals flows
well and flows into the cavity before it freezes and also risers at other side, to indicate that the
cavity is full. So thank you as if now, thanks.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
Course Title
Module- 14
by
Just quick recap of the last module we were talking about shrinkage allowance and machining
allowance and casting process and we saw that you know the shrinkage allowance primarily
because the casting needs to lower its temperature from the freezing temperature at which it is
just solidified all the way to the room temperature there is going to be coefficient of linear
contraction because so it is a metal and so therefore normally an allowance is given to the
pattern.
So that eventually after the contraction the casting can be of the size which is desirable and also I
shared with table where we talked about the various materials the various shrinkage allowances
and the more important machining allowance which is used because the casting as for now get
into the assembly into a certain assembled machine and for that it needs to have the respective
tolerance on the surface.
So today we will be looking into a slightly different aspect which is about what are the different
kind classifications of the patterns which can be made in casting processes.
So principally there are about 6 different types of patterns which available one is call the loose
piece pattern, the gated pattern, and the match plate pattern, the cope and drag pattern, sweep
pattern and Skelton pattern, now these are only the kind of patterning techniques available for a
variety of different shapes that you want to cast and some of the limitations are posted by the
shapes itself because of which this varied number if patterns exits.
For example let us say when we talk about a loose piece pattern it is usually one piece out of the
remaining part of the pattern which you know if you want to retrieve form the mold may create a
mold damage, so you have to somehow bolt this piece to the main assembly and then remove the
main pattern first and then before removing the main you unbolt the loose piece so that the loose
piece stays into the sand mold and first extract the main pattern and then the unbolted loose piece
separately.
So that this way the mold does not get damaged and therefore it is a very good technique to do
single piece pattern so usually these are made of wood and you can use these for castings of large
numbers then let us talk about gated pattern similarly to you know it is like concept of high
production where let us say there are many mold which you want to fill with the single in let
channel.
So what do you do is that you make this inlet channel behave like a gate with runners running
form the gate in both the directions into different molds so that therefore you know you have the
gates and runners all sort of you know or many runners attached to a gate which is feeding from
the pouring basin and the raiser can be on the other side of that main runner so it is something
like a network of runners.
Let me just show you hear what I mean by what I am saying actually let us say these are patters
which you want to fill up all at go at one go with the metal so basically you make runners out of
these patterns and connect all of them using a feeding channel or feeding runner and you can
have a either a gate you know or either a riser in this direction you know or any other direction
for example in the single pattern.
So basically the idea is that the fill of this cavity would be illustrated by the liquid metal flowing
in this direction, all the way to this direction and coming up or hosing out from here which can
give you an essence of the whole molding as been filled so these are gated patterns to typically
one or more than one loose pattern with attached gates and runners provides a channel through
which the mold metal can flow from the poring sprue to the mold cavity.
The pattern frequently set on a follow board so which can come from to the patterning surface of
the mold which also helps an easy removal of the pattern after the mold as been prepared, then
you have match plate patterns, in the match plate pattern the pattern is made into two half’s
mounted on both sides of a match plate of wood or metal conforming to the control of then
pattering surface.
Now typically you can also use a core here so what happens is that there is you know one
wooden pattern that you have made and split it up into a exactly two parts, if there is a core on it
there as to be also a core built up separately which can also be done by this matching plate
concept that there are two let us say wooden black blocks which you have developed the core
separately using sand and sodium silicate, okay.
So you can actually use the core as well as the cast by realizing the two half’s of the whole
pattern one on the cope half another on the drag half and bolting them in a way so that they align
to each other with a common board in-between or a common small sheet in between which is
known as the match plate, so once these two upper half’s and lower half’s are separated the plate
is removed obviously.
So you have the invert, inverted you know geometry or the negative geometry of pattern is there
on the match board and you can place a core and then close on the cope half and the drag have
together by removing the match plate, so then now you have a cavity with a core, so this is
actually a match plate pattern it is a you know you can have a match plate in a typically for small
castings where you have more than one components on the pattern.
So basically supposing there is a continued part where there are different features one of some of
them are in the cope half some of them are in the drag half, even that kind of a realization can be
done using the match plate patterns and then there are cope and drag patterns here the cope and
drag half’s of split patterns are separately mounted on the two match plates, so you are doing
instead of one match plate two different match plates.
One match plate goes into the cope half another match plate goes into to the drag half and you
have ensured that the match plate has been fabricated in a manner so that it has you know exact
one to once energy of the components on the half of patterns on both sides of then matching plate
so all it needs is to sort of match the upper half of the plate with the lower half of the plate and
the cast and then remove you know the plates so that there is a cavity which is formulated.
So the difference between a match plate pattern and a cope and drag pattern typically is a that
match plate has a single match plate and in a cope and drag there are two different match plates
with different split patterns which are recombining together then there is a sweep pattern which
are normally again made of wood to generate surfaces which typically induce revolution you
know surface of revolution so basically there is let us say a radius and this there is a certain
shape of this particular radius.
And as the molder moves the radius in a circle around a central point which is fixed you will
actually have a pattern generated by the shape in a circular bases okay and so it is very easy for
particularly large casting processes, so you can have you know the you can also sweep you know
because you are sweeping the radius you can refer to as sweep pattern And it refers to the section
that rotates about a edge to yield a circular section etc…
So it is normally preferred on sort of geometries which are very large then over skeletal pattern
which consists of simple wooden frame outlining the shape of the casting it is used to guide the
molder for hand shaping the mold for large castings having simple geometric shapes so you can
actually go into the skeletal it is not once single pattern okay and the try to hand shape by putting
the sand around the skeletal so that you can exactly have the you know skeletal replicated using
casting process.
So these are generally the 6 different types of patterns and then coming to just look of you know
what are the considerations so while designing a pattern the parting line should be chosen so has
to have the smallest of the smallest portion of the pattern in the cope side obviously because
when you are trying to put liquid metal inside the cast there is also going to be a factor of
buoyancy and this buoyancy would ensure that if supposing a major portion of the metal goes
into the cope half.
Which is the upper half there is a possibility of the mold to be damaged or distributed because of
the huge movement forces which would result rather it is preferable that you have the drag half
the lower half as most of the metal containing you know containment and remaining metal
whatever is left over even a small part could be in the cope half so normally the patterns are not
realized 50-50% in the cope and drag half but obviously the smaller part is the cope half and the
large part is in the drag half.
So as the molding sand as greater strength in compression than in tension the heavier sections of
the pattern should be included in drag obviously you are trying to keep the sand in tacked so that
there is no damage and the casting can be formulated easily these are some of the details this is a
wheel pattern, as you can see this is again a split pattern of this wheel that you wanted to cast so
you can have a cope half and a drag half you know this is a cope half okay. This goes into the
drag half and so this is how you typically make these as split patterns.
So let us now look at the type of molds just as the type of patterns so molds can be classified on
the bases of the material that is being used for example there are greens sand molds there are
plastic molds metal molds and also on the basis of the method for making them like for example
you have the shell molding technique or the investment molding techniques so we will delve into
some of these so metal molds are permanent in the scene that a large number of castings can be
made from a single mold on the other hand the other hand the mold of refractive materials can be
used on the once because you have to reclaim the sand once the casting process is over.
In fact I told you that there is a declamation process associated with all casting in the first few
lecture so generally the greens sand molds are used which we will discuss in detail now so
greens sand mold what it composes of material of greens and mold typically is a mixture of sand
clay and water and some organic additives normally would flour dextrin or sea coal and the way
that it goes is that organic additives get vaporized okay and it always creates a good porosity and
always creates you know the refractory sand to have some scope for expansion with breakage.
Because think of that the sand grains are part of sort of you know put together in the assembly
like a bunch of different balls and there are these small organics inside which gets vaporized so
there are going to cavity created where if the sand expands there is enough space for it to go so
the mold will not be broken because of the expansion of the sand as such so that is reason why
these organic additives are very important.
Percentage of these ingredients on the weight bases are approximately 70 to 85% sand about 10
to 20 % clay this is used mostly as a binder material and about 3 to 6 % water and about 1 to 6 %
additive the ratio obviously may vary depending on weather the casting is ferrous casting or a
non ferrous casting and typically you know that the most inexpensively available you know
material is which is a refractory material in which can hold strength at a higher temperature
stand.
But the problem with sand is that the sand is that stand a long cannot formulate the you know the
desirable properties that the mold most have and therefore this has to be a sort of mixed with clay
and water another ingredients as mentioned and this makes the whole mix which is used for
casting process quite expensive okay so normally it is a higher clay contain than desired and so
sand also as to be clean in away to make pure sand.
Okay so this includes the processing cast so let us talk about now what are the different aspects
of the greens sand mold so I think I have already mentioned about the specified quantity of clay
and the naturally available clay contain may be more but you have to somehow clean the sand of
the clay by washing it then you have water additives content in addition it must have a specified
green size distribution.
This is a another very challenging issues because obviously if it is a if it has a wide green size
distribution it may result in a lower porosity in comparison to if it has a similar kind of green size
so think about it that if supposing the sizes of the grains are almost equal and I am also further
saying that they are spherical in shape and you are going to perk these greens together so
obviously the bulk density would be quite low because these gaps would be very high because
you are spherical claims like it is a pack of spherical balls put together in a an assembly.
So obviously there is going to be a huge amount porosity inside and the density would go down
so the bulk density of the sand makes generally in that case is very low if the grains sort of
almost equal size with smooth round shape on the other hand if the greens where angular you
know and then it had different shapes then obviously there would be all these voids filled up and
the overall bulk density would be very high in that event and the porosity would be low which is
not a desirable condition for doing castings.
So our preference here would be that if the sand grains are all spherical and have uniform size
the we will have a better situation obviously I no need to retain that at higher temperature the
sand expands and it looks at those voids where it can get into without breaking the mold so your
giving porosity just for that purpose and you will actually creating by using some kind of
additives etc.Which vaporize and create this pores so that there is no problem of the sand
expanding and breaking the mold as such so such grains you know result in an increased void
and higher permeability obviously higher permeability permits a easy out flow of the gases
which may otherwise be entrapped within the casting as well apart from the strength issue that I
was mentioning and if you have various sizes and I have sharp corners of the greens.
So then the gas cannot come out so easily and also it cannot accommodate the expansion of the
sand which makes it having a lesser strength overall. so how do you actually do the separations
size based separation of the sand green so you pass it so sieving matrices of different you know
dimensions and collect different grains so that you can actually categories a grain as some grate
size okay or below some grit size and this you can plot by seeing that how much of these grains
are you know.
So basically all grains of a higher size then the grit size would be retrained vis- a- vis all the
grains of the lower grit size the lower size and the grid size would actually passes through the
particular sieve. so it is lot of a sort of filtration system where actually plot what is the quantity
of the you know grain size 1, grain size 2, grain size 3 so on forth.so the amount of sand that
collects in the different sieves is plotted and finally this plot gives you the grain size distribution
with grain size as well as a spread around which the grain size varies.
So as I already told you the clay together with water acts as a bonding agent imparts and tensile
shear strength to the molding sand and the organic additives burn out at high temperatures and
room, for the molding sand to expand and save the mold from crumbling. so these are some of
the issue that I have already discussed and so in.

Regarding green sands again the success of the casting process would typically depend on the
properties of the molding sand for example this must include high strength more permeability so
that the gases can out flow from the casting more deformability and flow ability because
obviously sand needs to get into indicate shapes and set etc particular in complex castings
formulate the boundary and make the cavity so it has to be could you know it as to have good
flow.
And then it should have a good refractoriness and should be able to hold strength at a higher
temperature. so these are the 5 essential characteristics that would be there in a sand molding
sand so the strength actually mostly refers to the compressive strength as well as the casting
proceeds goes obviously the metal is going to formulate you know it is going to be on the top of
the sand and size or weight on the sand which will make it more common even if it is a let us say
if it is in side assign cavity.
It is a buoyancy forces would actually also make the sand compress on the other side of the wall
so it is essentially compressive strength that we are talking about in all casting processes and the
deformation indicates the change in length of the standard specimen at the point of failure okay
so that is how strength can be gauged strength of a material can be gauged by looking at the
maximum deformation that would be allowed without failure without the sand getting failed and
so the other concept which is important is permeability, it is expressed as a gas out flow rate
through the specimen under specified pressure difference.
So it definitely includes the quantity or density of voids and also the void sizes of the particular
mold the other important abilities of flow ability obviously refers to the ability of a sand flow
around and over the pattern and the mold is rammed and the refractoriness measures the ability
of the sand to remain solid as a function of temperature so I think I have covered all these 4 parts
as I mentioned earlier.
The most important part that I would like to illustrate is that this factor permeability and in fact
as a matter of all the other factors strength, deformation, flow ability,. they are dependent on the
percentage water content that the green sand mold would have and let us look at how the
permeability would vary so obviously if the water content is quite low then there is a situation
that the loose clay which is available you know it can actually it is a very small size particles and
these can get into the it is like dry clay powder you can get into the voids and because the water
is not there simply an adequate water is not there simply to formulate a bond and you know hold
them together so there are loose particles so at a lower amount of water mixed into the particular
sand there is a tendency that the dry powder may get into the voids etc…
Of the sand mold so obviously the void overall be filled up and the permeability would be lower
because of that now as the water content is slowly increased that is a point of time when water is
just about adequate for the clay particles to sort of go and coat all the sand particles together, so
now there is a of a bond formulation between the silicate which is there and the you know the
clay particles and so in that situation you can say that all the loose clay which was otherwise
powder into the voids have been taken up and coated on to the sand particles most is spherical
and so still it realizes a lot of voids which where otherwise filled with this loose powder now.
so the permeability would go quite high in that particular case as you can see from here to here
as a percentage of water is increased between to an 8% now what happens after that is that
essentially now all the clay is gone because it is coating the particles the sand particles but if you
put water more in this situation then all the additional water comes back into the voids and fills
the voids so that the permeability can go down so that is how you can see a depth or a decrease
in the permeability with an increased content over and above 8% water into the sands mold.
So this is a very important aspect and similarly explanations are available in the literature all
about flowability, deformation, strength you know as this concept of loose powder clay, coated
powder clay and additional water into the different voids of the sand so with this I think I would
like in the interest of time end up this particular module and in the next module I am going to
again continue some of the issue that related to you know again how to prepare these molds
what can be a high yield process for making mold at a faster rate like jolt ramming etc…
Some techniques and we will also talk about the basics of how there are challenges related to
evolution of gases into these liquid melts and how that can down play the equality of the cast and
also look into some aspects related to how you melt those melts and ensure that there is very less
amount of undesirable gas evolution so with this I would like to close on thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
Course Title
Module- 15
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 module 15 We would
discussing about how to prepare different molds.

And typically the molds are made by hand that is very small in number obviously if you want to
build one component or may be about closed probably ten components still economical that you
make the molds mostly by ramming or squeezing sand by preparing a cope half and drag half
separately and trying to now you know match them together.
So this whole thing can be a hand operation by the molder but the larger number of simple molds
are needed than obviously for the yield purposes molding machines have to be used for example
if you are talking about casting industry which produces that let say at the rate of probably 50000
casting of day or small parts.
So there every time making this kind of indicate molds is not possibility as you know you know
it has to be a rigorous process of aligning a pattern to the core type of casting and for each and
every part if such a process is executed and manually it is going to take a large amount of time so
obviously you have to automate process and have to see how in a better manner this sand can be
thrown or sling or slammed or whatever.
You know and the process has to be fast so that it can produce the patterning of the sand at a
higher rate so we want to discuss some of the important features of the mold making process
which are normally used for making or the system handle better or handle easily the metals in the
liquid state. So one of them is you know using of this parting compound which is also known as
the mold release agent the idea is that you should be able to distinguish after removal of the
frozen metal piece.
You should be able to distinguish the mold half of the mold surface properly with respect to the
piece which you are removing so for doing that you need a parting compound which is normally
some kind of a talc powder you know it is like non wetting talc powder which is dried dust and
which it is sprayed with than intention that whatever absorption whatever moisture was there
within the mold part of absorbed.
And it formulates the layer you know parting layer on the surface where it immediately gets
dried up and gets loose so that it releases the surface and the metal does not have to formulates
some kind of bondage with material on the surface so the mold breakage will not be there then
you can actually able to remove the frozen material properly.
So it is normally dusted this talc is dusted on a pattern before actually doing the molding so it
will also ensure a sort of a finer grain facing by going into the voids etc of the surface because it
is loose dust and so it can go into the voids easily smaller in size and the voids between the
sands.
And so you can have a smoother surface rather than rough surface because of the you know
distributed voids within the top of the sand cast there is also the requirement of a dead weight, it
sometimes placed on the cope flask as you can see here in this particular illustrations three part
mold assembly this is the dead weight on the top so these are normally provided to you know
void the floating because of buoyancy forces or hydrodynamic forces the metals enters the
molds.
Obviously if even if the cope half is the smaller in comparison to the drag half as I discuss before
there is tendency that the floating the liquid metal getting into a high pressure may able to float
up the cope with respect to the drag because of the hydrodynamic forces okay so in order to stop
that it is better that you always put a dead weight on the top of the cope half.
So that it remains intact and it manages to stay back in position instance of all these
hydrodynamic forces are available so dead weight is normally placed .for a larger mold care
should be taken to prevent the sand from falling of the cope flask when it is lifted and that is
mostly to remove the pattern it should happen that you have the pattern implaces and the sand is
nicely holding the moment.
You try parting the upper half the sand starts falling back so therefore the pattern gets damaged
or lost so you have to have enough pressure and you have to have enough percentage of the
water or sand and the clay as high illustrated just earlier module so that you can hold and
constitute an integrated surface the exactly negative of the pattern in place.
So it can be provided you know extra supports and these are sometimes known as gaggers and
which is normally provided within the cope flask to ensure that there is no fall of the sand loose
sand thus damaging the overall pattern surface need cope half the other purpose of the gaggers is
basically because if the casting size is too large than may be the sand is unable to hold such a
weight of the sand over the whole cope half.
And therefore additional support etc which may be of the same metals has you are casting as to
be made so the idea is an metal comes and fills up obviously this metals is gone to melt away
into the parent metal makes which is otherwise, which are otherwise holding the sand cavity in
place but there if it mixes then again hydrodynamic forces come because the liquid state.
And so like to still be compressing the mold on all sides and that hydrodynamic forces said
would keep it stabilize after the liquid metal is poured so the purpose of the gaggers is only from
the point of time that the patterning has been done to the point of time that the liquid metal
reaches the mold cavity so you can also have re-entrance surfaces for casting and that is why
casting is normally carried out in three parts as you can see here this big wheel casting so there is
other half here which actually ease in the cope half.
You can see this particular half you know as been designed to hold the pattern you know the cope
half and you can see this surface here which is really not there in the original pattern and it is the
reentrance surface okay so this surface is basically preventing the metal from flowing out so that
this cross section of the wheel can be obtained it is circular pattern that we are talking about in
this particular things okay.
And so this shape is only obtained because you give additional sand reentrance sand only once
the patterning has been done and it will prevent the metal from going into this place okay so such
parts are also available and so he use now three parts of the mold and normally the name of the
metal part is cheek. So you have the cope half that drag off and the cheek all three clammed
together.
So you have to ensure this clamping arrangement also to prevent the cheek from moving up
because of the hydrodynamic forces its al moving out because of the hydrodynamic forces etc
you have to provide the escape out of the gases by vent holes and this are normally provided in
the cope half cope flask so that some time to time you can withdraw the gases which are soluble
otherwise the metal.
And let us now talk about a little bit high through put production process of the mold so typically
there are different techniques like jolt ramming you can see this is the you know cope half drag
half assemble together with sand and you have poured sand over it and basically trying to pick
up the mold and jolt it by giving a linear motion to and fro linear motion here.
To this surface so that the sands settles down so by you know changing the momentum of the
sand from time to time ensure that sand compresses with respect to each other and there can be
other methods high throughput methods of doing and molding or example you put the sand and
squeeze you know so this can be automated system which can do squeezing action over several
mold.
That single part of time even this can be an automated system were the whole cast is basically
put with all the sand and jolt rammed so that sand con settle down there are slingers which are
even able to increase this through put further were basically sand is thrown at higher pressure so
that it can go and sit on the top of the you know cope and drag.
And squeeze on the top of the pattern so in jolt ramming the mold is lifted through height of
about 5cms on dropped 50 to 100 times of the weight of 200 times per minute some uneven
ramming is here but it is quite suitable for horizontal surfaces, for shallow flask kind of
squeezing is found to be a alternative.
And sand slinging operation is mostly you know when there is a uniform ramming requirement
which is there of the whole sand .so apart from that obviously the process of separating the cope
and the drag half and releasing the pattern as to be automatic so in large foundries this is how
things are normally made.

So let us know look into another aspect which is melting. so obviously we have now prepared the
sand mold we have also prepare different kind of patterns we are integrated the patterns on to
salve mold formulated the cavity given a riser and a runner and also the gate and pouring basin
so now the next question is that you have to melt in the material.
So that it can come to the liquid state and flow into the mold cavity so proper care needs to be
done during melting it is essential for good and defect free casting the factors that are to be
considered for melting include gases in metals this is very, very important constituent hydrogen
for example makes iron go very brittle so as low solubility as possible would be advisable when
you are talking about making perfect of you know high strength castings.
Then the selection and the control of these scrap is very, very important obviously flux the
furnaces and the temperature which can release lot of gases because of presence oil etc. that is as
over important in this case and so typically what do gases do so the gases in metals normally led
to as I told you faulty castings however the presence of a controlled amount of a specified gases
can be beneficial particularly imparting certain desirable qualities of the casting.
How do the metals or how do gases get trapped into the metals again if you had no proper
venting arrangements for the gases the first trapping that may come is mechanical trapping
because obviously there are gone to be some hydrocarbons or oils within the furnaces which is
going to generate this gas and the liquid has a certain solubility and there are classification of the
materials based on.
Whether there are endothermic or exothermic where the solubility may vary with that the
temperature in a non-identical manner and for example you know the as regards the group which
is called endothermic metals they may include metals such as aluminum magnesium copper iron
and nickel and exothermic metals may include other like titanium and zirconium okay.
So the difference here is obviously in terms of what happens to the solubility of the gases into
this materials at higher temperature or may be during cooling situations. so mechanical tramping
is one aspect so because of the bubbling of the hydrogen and not letting it vent out very easily
there can be also case where let us say two different metals have been casted as an alloy and
there is a variation in the solubility of gas phase and one of the metal systems and it actually
suddenly out gases because of the vent temperature that gas does not have any other way to go.
But to get trapped in the material and then obviously there can be chemical reactions between the
gases and some phases of the material which may lead to again embrittlement of the material .so
these are the some of the ways that mechanical you know gases are kind of introduced within the
casting.
And most common problems which are there in the casting of iron and steel are the two gases
hydrogen and nitrogen and as far the metals are divided as I told you for the solubility of
hydrogen you can divide them into and endothermic and exothermic category the only difference
here is that if you look at the solubility equation.
The solubility equation here as is related to some constant C times of an exponential minus
Es/Kθ, θ is the absolute temperature and you know K is a constant so related to the materials so
this is the absolute temperature K is a constant related to the material and C is also an other
constant okay again related to the material.
And this Es here is really the heat of the solution for one mold of hydrogen so Es is positive for
the endothermic materials so therefore you supposing θ over to increase I am saying
S=Cexp ( −KEθ ) .
s
so if θ were to increase and Es is positive in this particular case.
So obviously the solubility is going to go down as you are going temperature and the solubility
Es
would be more as the temperature goes down okay because now C /exp
( )
Kθ
this would this
term here as a θ goes down would increase and the solubility goes down as the θ goes down also
so there is no problem that in such cases the gases are going to get out gas.
Obviously because from the freezing temperature of the casting you are going to room
temperature and if the process are doing that you are taking the temperature down so as the
temperature is going down the solubility of the gases are also going to reduce as you can see here
from this plot of however is this Es is negative which is the case of the exothermic materials.
The problems starts happening okay because now of the negative Es value the decrease in the
temperature may actually result in an increase in the solubility okay so obviously in such
materials like exothermic materials as the Es value is negative the solubility here will be C
Es
exp ( )
Kθ
and if θ decreases in this particular case obviously this exponential factor is going to
increase and the solubility also increases.
So if the temperature comes down in an exothermic material the solubility of the gas is going to
increase so that is the problem because the gas cannot be precipitated anymore so where does
the gas go so it formulates small pockets small voids within the materials imperfections and such
exothermic materials is very difficult to actually do the casting process.
And you have to somehow the able to play around with this solubility by making some additives
or something so that the gases can start coming out .so hydrogen is wide is so detrimental to the
you know particularly the exothermic materials is that actually dissolves interstitially within the
exothermic material so it causes lot of mechanical energy lots of stress within the lattice by
distorting the lattice by getting it into the interstitial sides.
You know so it is a sort of defect that you are introducing into the metals by adding a hydrogen
species everywhere within that lattice site so the lattice gets prestressed because of it okay and
that is why it is not very good idea to have hydrogen into play particularly with exothermic
materials.
So the solubility is going up with the reduction in temperature so you can see this table here the
solubility of hydrogen in various metals corresponding to one atmospheric pressure and you can
see that for iron although liquid solubility is 270 cubic cm per kg the solid solubility is about 70.
Similarly in magnesium it is 260 and 180, in copper it is 55 and 20, aluminum it is 7 and 0.4 and
this brings the problem that particularly in the liquid state if the solubility is high of the material
an in the solid state the solubility is low so therefore where this is the gas is going to go if
supposing the material is exothermic in nature.
So obviously it is going to be there has gas pockets because now it has not being it has been sell
out of the material and it cannot go because the solid solidification rates is quite fast and there is
going to be formulation of gas pockets so that is how solubility is very, very important from
melting perspective when we talk about castings.
And in a way the other important factor here which would like to see is that if you look at you
know is there is an quantification of the percentage hydrogen present as a function of the partial
pressure of the hydrogen which is around so this is actually given by Sievert’s law which states
that percentage hydrogen present is basically proportional to the partial pressure of the hydrogen
to the power of half.
And this is actually the partial pressure of the hydrogen in the atmosphere over the melts so
when you are melting this you know iron in the furnace and there is some hydrogen pressure
which is there it actually determines what is the percentage solubility or what is the percentage
dissolution within the species.
So the constant K is actually can be evaluated from table 2.2 where you can see these solubility S
to be given in iron and so with that you can evaluate with different partial pressure is one
atmosphere and the percentage present is some X cc per kg as a percentage so then the K
obviously is going to be the value cc per kg as a percentage of hydrogen present.
So you can calculate the table or you can from the table you can calculate this K value of the
various metals assuming one atmosphere partial pressure of hydrogen the primary sources of the
hydrogen in the melt half furnaces dampness air and oil I think I have mentioned this already so
you have lots of excess oil air and dampness or grease.
And this can actually hydrocarbons they can be generate hydrogen and carbon dioxide and these
two and that get added into the melt there is no simple dehydrogenation to eliminate hydrogen in
the form of slag that is an other big problem so you have to really when in case of hydrogen of
avoid formulating at the first place because you cannot remove it has a floating slag layer you
know. so at the partial pressure of the hydrogen can be reduce by bubbling some other dry
insoluble gases.
And that is only way where you can actually reduce the partial pressure and for non ferrous
metals things like chlorine, nitrogen, helium or argon is very frequently used so that the
hydrogen partial pressure drops down and the solubility of the percentage of the hydrogen
present also drops down so over all you can have a good situation with less as less as possible of
hydrogen in the cast. for again ferrous and nickel materials kind of base alloys you cannot use
nitrogen because of them formulating again nitrate which are not very conducive as strength
aspect of the castings.
And it may generally affect the grain size also you know the grain size is an important
mechanical property which brings out the strength aspect of the materials generally better
procedure is to avoid the formulation of nitrates so that this strength can be reasonably control so
there is an increasing trend in the industry you have doing vacuum melting nowadays so it do not
really bother about the various gases.
Because you out gases the furnace before you have started the melting process and so this is
being increasing used though it is expensive and you know it has to really be a smaller furnace
and it cannot be you know apply to very, very large scale melting process because vacuuming a
certain region becomes very expensive but there is a use increased utility of vacuum based
melting methods for producing you know melts.
So I would like to end on this module here but in the next module we will look at some of the
furnaces and then start designing some real castings with you know among the dimensions of the
cavity or the runner at the time of flow of the materials so and so forth thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia
@copyright reserved
Course Title
Module- 16
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 module 16 we are going to
talk about Furnaces.
1
Today and also a little bit of design for the different castings so furnaces use for melting metals
the kind of differ widely from one another there may be for example a induction furnaces, there
may be cupola furnaces there also may be side blow converter, so depending on the heat transfer
modes or depending on how you basically apply energy so that you can melt the material, you
can categorize these various different types the selection of a furnace really depends on mainly
the metal chemistry which is being used.
And also the maximum temperature that is needed and some cases you need to super heat the
material before pouring into the mold so that it can reach longer distances and fill up that serially
plays to molds in a gated pattern or something like that so in that event the, the overall
temperature has to be much have the freezing temperature of the material and that is called super
heat, so not all furnaces can superheat or boil the material of you know because there is some
kind of a rate of heating limitation.
And also the maximum temperature limitation of these furnaces. so the other important factor in
making a selection are the size and shape of the available raw materials, and the metal chemistry
also decided not at all the control of standard elements but also some important mechanical
properties like machinability, so therefore some furnaces is more prone to hydrogen attack and
nitrogen attack and they may not be selected because the material chemistry there which takes
place because of hydrocarbons, oil ,dampness in the furnace gases etc.
2
May not be amenable to develop good machinability or the material .so there is a very important
term called fluidity of the material when we talk about melting the material and the is basically
the optimum temperature after melting which decides what is the overall fluidity level and
fluidity is a requirement basically, so the fluidity can be referred to as the relative ability of the
liquid metal is filled in the mold at the given temperature and normally if the viscosity of the
fluid metal is lower than the fluidity is higher you know and vice-versa.
So if it is thick metal slurry which is or thick metal which is moving thick metal liquid or if it is a
thinner metal liquid which is viscosity falls down, because the temperature so thinner would
move faster obviously. so there are many ways to measure this soluble this fluidity one of the
typical raises to use a spiral channel and see at you know gravity feed how much distance of this
spiral can be covered by this metal before getting solidified, and that can be good idea of what is
the fluidity of the pouring material or pouring metal. so obviously you need a case where you
have sufficiently high fluidity so that the overall reach from, the pouring base and to the runner
all to the gate of the metal cavity or cavities for example in gated patterns as I showed you
before.
That has to be again okay. so the fluidity always checked before you know doing a casting or
pouring into a casting, so that you can see whether the input material the output material that you
are having out of the furnaces of the correct you know fluidity or correct level of requirements
imposed by the molds.
3
so if we examine the temperature fluidity curves for various metals we find the higher the
fluidity of a metal the lower the difference needed between the pouring temperature and the
melting temperature okay, so obviously if the viscosity of the metal at liquid state is lower than
you will need this difference between pouring and melting temperature to be more or less
minimal value, was obviously as soon as it is going to come into the melt it is going to be
flowable the viscosity is what I may not add any super heat.
To make it make the viscosity change with temperature for completely filling up the intricate thin
sections of the mold this is the difference should be minimum so that you can go everywhere in
the mold, and some of the furnaces or shown here which can do this job for example induction
furnace can add heat up to a 1750 0C and the basic principle here is a induction coil it is copper
induction coil where there is a you know magnetic field which is generated because of a flow of
current within this coil.
And this magnetic field induces a small local current show within the material here and this
currents are also known as eddy currents so this early currents should be able to melt the material
completely, by adding I2R T intense heating and this is by the by a non contact mode, you do not
have any problems of temperature gradient from the wall to the center of the furnaces you can
see here so you heating through induction, and you are heating the central core of the material
until it hits the melting point.
4
And you can go to a temperature has high as about 1750 0C so typically the metal is kept in the
crucible so the crucible sustain the high temperature conditions, where the metal gets into liquid
state there is refractory cement which holds this crushable in place so that you know the cement
is able to sort of expand and hold the strength at a higher temperature so whatever outflow of
heat happens from the mold and metal to the furnace can be sort of protected or one hand and
another the strength can be kept intact so that this kept design variance size of shape or does not
go down you know, so that is all the induction furnaces obviously there is a side blow converter
which can heat up the metal up to 1700 0C, so here the metal is seen the lower pocket of so the
metal here is in the lower pocket right about here is you can see and this A theory is basically
humping in the hot air, in do the systems so that there is a heat transfer between this blow by and
the metal which is there and the gases kind of escape.
From the tope side the furnace so these side blow converters can be heated up to about 1700 0C
there are there is a famous cupola furnace which can go up to slightly lower about 1650 0C also a
temperature which has a you can see this is the orientation of a cupola furnace, so this right here
is the melting zone for example and the you know the again the theories are able to sent hot here
throughout this melt where there is slightly into form of air and also which can be loaded and
slack can be extracted.
So we were charging door through which the main charge flows into the cupola furnace and
there is actually a slaking spout here, which can help you to clean the metal slack, so that is how
furnaces is are kind of designed and that is now look at the main important issue of how to
design a particular casting okay when we talk about filling times or you know solidification after
the full cavity has been filled with metal etc.
5
So let us first go discuss the gating design in a pouring process in create details so what is gating,
so you know that after the melt is melt and poured and injected into a mold cavity gating design
kind of ensures the distribution of the metal in the mold cavity or a proper rate without excessive
temperature loss turbulence, and entrapping gases and slacks so obviously one thing that really
comes into picture here is that the liquid metal being very heavy and poured very carefully and
very slowly because it should not be able to damage by its own weight.
The sand mold which has been made and each otherwise is not a very high strength system okay
so it is poured very slowly so as I was just discussing the liquid metal if it is poured very slowly
because you know fast metal form read to is damage of the mold, the time overall which the
metal mold to take to fill up the mold will be very high and so solidification may start happening
even before the liquid metal reaches the mold cavity, so there has to be a proper design and this
is actually a pressure driven flow.
Because there is going to be a pouring base at some potential energy and the metal is going to be
in liquid state, so it could not comes down like a you know from an over head tank and it fills up
the casting space you know the molding or the mold cavity and for filling it up it is through a
channel that it fills up so it is a essentially a piping base a network which would allow the liquid
metal to go into the mold cavity, so there are many issue here one is obviously the gas solubility
because if it is if supposing I heat.
6
Or superheat the material too much then there may be a problem of gas solubility you know
because it may cause a overall faulty metal structures so even that is also not allowed on the
other hand if the liquid metal is poured slowly the time taken to fill up the mold can be rather
long and solidification may start and you know somehow we have to develop a intermediate
solution so that the liquid does not impinge the cast and at the same time, it has enough time for
it flow into the material and it does not also damage the material structure as such by having
minimum gas solubility.
So for doing that let us investigate what kind of gating designs are normally available. so
normally there are three different kind of gating designs one is a vertical gating system as you
can see right here, so this is the pouring basin and this part is the we can say it is a sprue or you
know it can be some kind of a down draft of the material.
And it directly enters into the mold cavity which is at the bottom here at a different height. so
this is a simple vertical gating system similarly you have a bottom gating option where you have
you know the mold being filled up side down from the bottom to the top okay so on the other
side you can how will you open a riser here to see the materials comes and fills the whole cavity
or not, and there is atmospheric pressure on one side which actually gives this metal liquid metal
in the pouring rise to flow.
In a down vertically manner and going into this region which is actually known as the runner
region okay and this right here is a gate region, so these are the two different kind of gating
systems obviously can have horizontally gating as well when you can actually not bother about
using gravity, but actually do pressure like casting by introducing metal at a certain pressure
liquid metal at a certain pressure, so you can become a high yield process okay so let us now talk
about some aspects related to.
7
How we can do this gating design so in the simple vertical gating design supposing we are
talking about the point 1 and 3, so if I want to use the energy balance equation between the point
1 and 3 in this particular case I can have the point 1 at an atmospheric pressure so let us write P
atmosphere here divided by the rho g so that is the pressure had this is the density of the liquid
material this is acceleration to gravity plus the velocity had at point 1 which is assume to be 0
because the velocity is assumed.
At the top of this particular horizontal sorry vertical simple vertical gating design to be 0 so the
velocity here it is 0 plus the potential head which is actually the height HT over and above the
mold surface as you can see right here, this is HT okay and this becomes equal to the you know
the pressure which is there at the point 3 of the material okay so basically the mold we are
assuming os open to the atmospheric pressure, so obviously the pressure at 3 also at the end of
this sprue would also be atmospheric pressure.
So let say P atmosphere here divided by ∂g plus the velocity at point 3 and I assume this velocity
to be V3 of the liquid metal, so obviously the velocity has would come out to be V3 2 / 2g and
then you have the potential head in this particular case, which is actually = 0 because if I assume
this to be the datum line so we are add the bottom so we assume this to be 0 here, and so that is
how you can actually envision this equation so this gets cancelled of and you are left with V3 = √
P atm Patm v 23
2ghT so that is the velocity at the end of this sprue. + 0+hT = + +0 .
ρg ρg 2 g
8
v 3 = √ 2 g hT Write here in the piping design that you are looking at here for doing the simple
aiding system. so let us now calculate the time assuming the velocity at 3 is V3. let us calculate
time of filing of this mold so obviously if the mod volume that we are considering is V here and
Tf is the time of filling so the Tf would become = V divided by the gate area times of the
velocity, so if I assume the gate area to be equal to be A g which is the area write about here let
V
me just rub all this off to tell you about exactly which region is the gate. t f =
A g v3
So this right here is the gate region through which the material is entering into the mold cavity
and so area here is Ag cross sectional area is Ag, so supposing there is a diameter of this
particular tube, also Ag should be equal to πd 2/4 okay, so velocity is V3, gate area is obviously
Ag, so the amount of time which is needed to fill is the total volume of the mold V divided by
the volume flow rate of the liquid molten metal through the gate .so volume flow rate of the
liquid metal through the gate region and here the volume flow rate of the liquid metal through
the gate region is Ag times of V3 .so the area of cross section times of velocity which is the
distance per unit time, so that is an idea of how we calculating the Tf so therefore the total time
of filling is the total volume of the mold times of the gate area times of the gate velocity V3 so
that is how you can calculate Tf and you have to now try to balance that Tf should be at least
equal to time where solidification just is does not happen or does not start to happen.
So it is kind of you know quite simple in way this is simplistic expression although in real sense
there will be many more factors like friction and you know velocity of reduction because of
friction etc. Particularly in the gated patterns of long kind that for illustrated in the earlier
modules so having said that I think we will go to the next design which is actually the bottom
gating system and look into how different this gating system is going to be, but in the interest of
time I am going to close this module this will analysis will be carried on in the next module
thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

9
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
10
❑❑ Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Course Title
Module- 17
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 module 17. In the last
module we were discussing about.
The simple vertical grading system and we try to develop an equation there; you could actually
estimate the timing of filling of a mould volume V, with by estimating again the gate velocity
and having an idea of the area of gate cross section. So let me just tell into that, a little bit just for
recall sakes.
1
So we had a actually investigated this particular design right here and we had formulated this
tf value oaky which were under certain presumptions, that this was essentially based on the
principles of frictionless fluid flow and the formulation came from the integrated energy balance
equation. Further an assumption was made that the pressure at which, the mould is kept is
atmospheric pressure. So this let the estimation of the tf value at the time of filling up the
mould.
Let us now look at into the other design that is bottom gating design and try to estimate how we
can apply, the equation in this particular case okay.
2
So let us say in this (b) part of this figure then if you apply, for equation between points 1 and 3
points 1 is here, points 3 is gate right of here. So at 1 we get that the obviously the atmospheric
pressure here atmosphere, is the pressure at point 1 divide this by density of liquid metal times,
excretion to the gravity low. We have a velocity head here which is completely 0, we assume that
there is no velocity at the top of poring rays and V0 is 0 and so this 0 is the velocity head v 2,
v 21
otherwise and then you have ht as the total potential head.
2g
That is available at the top point 1 here of the poring basin. So this is the point 1 and if we do the
energy balance at point 3, we have the pressure here let us say for example is illustrated as P3
so we have P3 / ρg which is the absolute pressure here. So we recall that this the absolute
pressure at v3 and obviously the gate pressure would be difference to the atmospheric, so P3
minus P atmosphere would really be the gage pressure.
I can say at point 3, so P gage would be the gate pressure point, so this p3/ ρg plus velocity, let
suppose the velocity at this particular point is V3 because the fluid is running from a certain
potential, you know there is the change in the potential energy in the fluid because it is running
from a certain height ht all the way to the datum line, which is somewhere around this corner
here right about where the v3 is estimated. So the v3 2/ 2g and then obviously the height from the
datum line here, that you consider is consider as 0.
3
2
v
Patm / ρg+ 0+ht =P3 / ρg+ 3 +0
2g
v 3= √2 g ht
So really having a head loss between the point 3, 0 line at the datum line, so obviously in this
particular case, we just write this as ρm, just to avoid the confusion ρ m is the density of liquid
metal. So if I now apply the same equation once again, so applying equation now between 3 and
4, so basically we have 1 point here for right about here and the point 3 that we have just
calculated, so we have to do an energy balance between 3 and 4, point 3and point 4, and we
assume we make some assumption here.
One assumption is here, that we assume that the overall dimension of the mould is very large, so
the velocity had at 4 can be assumed to be negligible. Obviously the assumption may not be
seem to be practicable but if you consider the fact that the area that is feeding the gate Ag is to
small in the comparison to the overall dimension of the mold, in this case mould height in
chamber probably the diameter is probably several times, may be 100 times more than the gate
area.
So you can consider that for the instant of time that we are considering, the velocity or the
kinetic at 4, may be negligible because the rate of rise, because whatever the small amount of
metal as entered the mould cavity may not be significant because it get distributed the whole area
of the mould, you know which is very big number. So we assume that to be negligible and so we
can probably also, say that at 3, we assume that there is a complete kinetic energy loss due to the
metal coming out.
So you can see that at this point 3 because the gate region is to narrow and the metal is coming
out into the open into a very large area, we can assume that this kinetic energy which was there
just before the entry of the gate and the moment it has entered the zone 3, that means it is into the
mould now and which is the zone 3 that we are considering here will be. So there the kinetic
energy is completely lost to the system or we can assume for this particular case, the energy
equation will be P3 / ρg is equal to the height h.
So we are assuming v4 equal to 0, we are also in a way to assuming v3 to be completely lost as

the metals enters the mould. So this is just about the same instance of time, the only thing is it
has just entered the mould from the cross sectional area and we are assuming that the amount of
4
kinetic energy to the mould is negligible in comparison to, you know the overall mould sizes
extra. Sorry the kinetic energy is negligible because of the overall largeness of the mould size
extra and it is as if that, if you droplets from the small gate region into a bigger mass of a fluid.
So the kinetic energy addition is very low and so we are assuming this v3 beyond the gate region
is equal to 0 for that reason similarly v4 is 0 and we assume that the P3 is the gauge pressure, so
basically what we are talking about is the difference of pressure between p3 and p at 4 where p4
is equal to p atmospheric pressure. So the gauge pressure is always as you have recalled here
with respected to the atmospheric pressure.
So we can say P3 minus P at atmospheric the gauge pressure here, I will call that p3 okay
because we are now getting a base line of the atmospheric and neglecting the p atmosphere
everywhere, just like we did it in past year where we talked about you know this particular
equation here ht equal to p3/ρmg + v3 2/2g okay. So from here we can probably obtain the value
of p3 equal to ρm gh, if I substitute the value of p3 in this equation write about here we get ht =
p3/ρmg+ v32/2g or in other words this is equal to ρmgh/ ρmg.
Mind you h is the height at the point 4 that is why I am taking the potential at h here, so ρmg +
v32/2g. so this gets eliminated completely and we are left with a situation where we have ht equal
to h + v33/2g by other words v3 becomes equal to 2g ht minus h under the root. So that is what
the gate velocity just prior to the entry that means we are still not entering the mould but prior to
entry of the mould is actually is given by this term v3 right about here. So this we can consider
to be the gate velocity vg in particular case.
Now let us go a little further and try to see what happens you know for the instance shown, so let
us say for the instance that has be shown, the metal level in the mould moves up through height
dh in a time instance dt. So I say the height goes from h to h + dh in time interval dt while the
gate is continuously feeding the metal and the energy balance equation holds in that particular
condition. Let Am be the cross sectional area of the mould and Ag the cross sectional area of gate.
So you have now that Am times of dh, so that is the area of the mould times of dh equal to Ag
times of Vg, times of dt oaky, so v is the gate velocity, A is the gate area and dt is the time
instance which is there. So if I assume all this together and put together, you know what happens
to let say, if I put the value of the gate velocity from the previous equation, which I have
5
obtained here into this equation right about this, we get Am times of dh is actually equal to Ag
times of √2g (ht – h) dt. By other words if I just assembled this equation in the right manner, I
have dh /√2g ht minus h equal to Ag / Am Dt.
A m dh=A g v g dt=A g √ 2 g ( h t – h ) dt
dh A
= g dt
√ 2 g ( ht – h ) A m
So if we solve this equation, let us call this equation A, if we solve this equation I should be able
to get a relationship for the height versus time from which I should be further able to find out
what is the time of the filling of the mould.
So let say, if I just integrate this equation on both sides 1/√2g is taken common 0 to the particular
height of the mould Hm remember the overall height that would happen by this ∆h addition
would ultimately this whole height which is given by height of mould Hm. So 0 to Hm dh/ √ht- h
equal to Ag/ Am times of let us say it takes tf time to fill up the whole mould, so that the heights
goes from the existing h value with dh addition all the way to Hm. So this is how we would
integrate and so the final form that would generate is 1/√2g times of 0 to h m minus 2ht – h that is
what comes from the integral.
h
1
m
dh Ag t
∫ = ∫ dt
√ 2 g 0 √( ht – h ) A m 0
6
Ag/Am times of tf in other words if I just substitute the limits here I should have limits of
1 A
integration substitute we have
√2 g
[ 2 ( √ ht − √ ht −h m ) ] = g t f
Am
or in other words
Am 1
tf=
Ag √2 g
[ 2 (√ ht − √h t −hm ) ] , if the riser is used then tf should include the filling time of
riser, so basically this is what the time of filling of the mould is in case of the bottom gating
system. So in both these assumption whether it is vertical of bottom gating what we have really
assumed is that there is no friction really on changing the velocity head.
For example the velocity at 3 or the gate velocity vg would be heavily influenced, in real case
because of friction which happens between the channel walls or the runner walls and the liquid
metals as it moves. So there would be a higher level of assumption that we have to take can
probably a little higher model which we have to investigate, when we talk about what would
happen, if suppose there is lot of friction between the metal fluids stream or the metal stream and
the side walls okay.
But as if now this assumption is kind of gives a thumb rule estimation of the total timing of the
filling of the mould and we will probably going to some numerical problems and try to see
would vary time wise or value wise, if we go from a top gating to bottom gating system. So let us
say you have these two gating system which are illustrated in this figure and I am going to just
mention this problem probably in the interest of time solve this in later of module.
So we want to estimate the time of filling of this mould which is about 15cm into 25cm to 15cm
and the cross sectional area of the gate is given to be 5cm2, so that is very important here. In one
case the gate is at the bottom of the mould as you can see here and other case it is at the top of
the mould and you want to see what are the different filling times, given your filling just a liquid
iron and the density extra can be assumed of the liquid iron.
So we will see if there is really any difference of time between these two approaches of filling of
the mould. So with this I close on this module and we will try solving this problem in next
module thank you.
Acknowledgement
7
Prof. Satyaki Roy
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
8
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology- Part-1
Module- 18
by
Hello, and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part1 from module 18.
We were discussing about the two different cases of vertical gating and the bottom gating system
and we recorded that the time of filling in both the cases I could be found out from two different
approaches without considering friction.
1
So in one approach we try to estimate the time of filling with the values which comes because of
the bottom gating system and this tf came out to be the area of the mold per unit area of the gate
by into times of 1/√2gx2√ht-hm, where ht is the height of poring basin hm is the height of the mold
Am 1
above same the domain. t f =
Ag √2 g
[ 2 (√ ht − √h t −hm ) ] In the case of vertical gating system as
done earlier the total time of filling was recorded as a volume of the mold times of the gate area,
times of gate velocity v3 and this was recorded as only A g=√ 2 gh t , okay.
So there is a little difference you know in the way that they have calculated and also the
estimation of the time of filling and we tried to discuss a numerical problem where we would
assume a certain gate region and in one case a bottom gating system another case a top gating
system and then actually physically try to calculate what is the time of filling of both the molds.
So let us do that so in this particular illustration as you can see.
2
On the top gate has a diameter of 5cm2 and we can say that supposing we wanted to calculate the
velocity head v3 at this particular point write about here let us say this is the point 3 so the v3
here can come out to be √2g times of in this case h t which is actually height of the mold above
the gate region and I can assume this to be 15 cm, right so this comes out as 2x981cm/sec 2 the
value of gx15cm/sec, so this comes out to be 171.6cm/sec.
And if I calculate the volume of this mold as has been provided in the expression or in the
problem statement it is 15x25x15cm3 okay, and the gate area here Ag has been given to be 5cm 2
so the total time of filling assume the, assuming the first model here the top gating system
becomes equal to the 50x25x15/5x171.6 because 5 is the gate area and cm2 and this is the
velocity gate velocity in cm/sec, okay so this comes out to be equal to 21.86sec.
And the other example problem here for the bottom gating system shows that here the h t=15cm
and hm=15cm as well so the mold height is the same as the height of the riser and so therefore
again if I use the equation 2 here which was about how t f would be calculated as area of the mold
by area of the gate divided by 1 by √2g[2√h t-√ht-hm so in this particular case the, so the h t here is
obviously 15cm as you can see, but you know the differential h t-hm is really over and above what
height is there of the poring basin from the top of the mold, okay. So if I just that is a way that
we have assumed this before earlier.
3
If you may look at you know the problem statement here this h t-hm really is the height from the
top of the mold all the way to the top of the poring ladle, okay so in this particular case if I may
just closely have a look.
4
The height of the top portion or the poring ladle from the you know the total mold height that
differential is only 3cm, so this h t-hm actually although the mold height is 15cm as you can, you
may recall and it is all about how you are locating this datum line for the sake of calculation so
this becomes equal to 3cm okay, so I have tf found out as 50x25 divided by the gate area which is
again 5x√2/√981 that is √2g coming out of these two terms okay, [√15-√3] which in this case
becomes much, much higher 43.71 sec.
So you can see that merely by changing the gating system from a top gating to a bottom gating
system obviously, the metal enters the mold much slower and the overall time that is needed by
the metal to fill up the mold is much, much higher, okay. so having said that, that is how the
gating design system works and then there are very integrate problems associated with casting
and one of the problems we generally come is called aspiration and there is a particular you
know energy balance crisis which will created which is kind to going to kind of in gas or maybe
you know just pull out atmospheric air or dissolve the gas around in the whole casting material in
the liquid metal, okay.
And mold is carefully made permeable with the view point that all the gases which are dissolved
should go out rather than gases being taken in.
5
So for a mold made of permeable material you know you should take care that the pressure
anywhere in the liquid metal stream does not fall below the atmospheric pressure. So obviously
permeability is more to a certain that the pressure inside is more than outside and then the gas
actually which is desoluablizing should be able to escape, but in it should not be that by
engineering design you are able to make some shape or size or venturi where it is the other what
around and the pressure inside falls below the atmospheric pressure so that there is a in gasing of
the atmosphere into the mold.
So this effect is known as aspiration and it is actually only an effect created by geometric
considerations and how it is created can be just illustrated particularly in the vertical gating
designs and you know if I just look at how a vertical gating is again going to happen let us say
for example, this is the poring basin okay, and we are trying to pore the liquid metal through a
vertical pipe into the mold kept right about here which is also open to atmosphere.
And I think I had done this calculation earlier that how the time of filling etcetera could be
estimated, but there is a problem, there is a potential problem which happens because of the way
that these energy balance equation is applied at the various zones of the mold. So there were
three zones which were of importance to us two zones which are of importance to us, one was
the zone 1 which was at the top here and then we calculated that all the way to the gate region
that is zone 3 what is going to be the velocity based on this zone 1, okay.
6
But there is another important point here which is important from the point of this aspiration
effect as I have been mentioning which is the point 2 okay, so if I really apply now the energy
balance equation between 2 and 3 so let us say I apply the Bernoulli’s equation between 2 and 3
and if the pressure at 3 is again assumed to be the atmospheric pressure that is P 3=0 then P2
which is actually the pressure in this particular zone write about here becomes you know can be
obtained from the energy balance equation.
So I assume that because this is a cube of constant cross section or constant diameter the velocity
of 2 should be actually equal to the velocity of 3, so v2=v3 because there is no change in the cross
sectional area and so if constant discharge is assumed and there is a continuity which is assumed
of the material then there should not be any change in the velocity of v 2 vis-à-vis is the velocity
at v3, and by apply between 2 and 3 the energy balance equation becomes gh 2 which is actually
the height of the point 2 as can be seen here from here to here is height h 2 and from here all the
way to here is height ht, okay.
So gh2 plus the pressure at 2 divided by density of the liquid metal ρm+v2 2/2 becomes equal to
2
P 3 v3
the pressure at 3/ρm+v32/2 + and v2=v3 these guys go away and we are left with the
ρm 2
simple case that the pressure at 3 obviously is the atmospheric pressure P atmospheres so the
pressure at 2 or the gage pressure at 2 let us say P 2-P atmosphere the gage pressure at 2 becomes
equal to – g h2 so this is actually a negative pressure at 2 and it will actually pull on all the
gases from the atmosphere which is either solubilized in the system or also in this particular
permeable mold and through this permeable mold and so there is going to be gas accumulation in
this region because of a negative pressure which is lesser than the atmospheric pressure.
So how do you solve this problem is a very critical question, so hence now you design a sprue in
a manner and sprue typically is this particular part as I think I have recalled many times earlier so
sprue in a manner that this effect goes away and the pressure at 2 is either equal to more than the
atmospheric pressure. So the only way to do it is to taper the sprue let us assume the limiting
case where the P2=0 and not negative that means it is same as the gage pressure so the gage
pressure is 0 or P2-P atmosphere is basically equal to 0 so assuming that in this particular
equation again all the way here and I do not assume v2=v3.
7
So let us not take v2=v3 because of the tapered design of the sprue, so I would have
v 22
g h2+ P2 / ρm which is 0 in this particular case plus equals you know the atmospheric
2
v 23
pressure which is now base lined so we take this gage pressure at 0, at 3 at 0 is . So in
2
v 23 v 22
other words, we are having becomes equal to +gh2 okay, and from the principle of
2 2
continuity obviously if instead of this I design something like a tapered sprue like this which is
going into a mold then obviously if the area here is a2 and the area here right now is a3.
So a2v2 should be equal to a3v3 from continuity equation therefore v2 can be represented as
a3/a2xv3 which is actually equal to some aspect ratio here R okay, or you can say that this is the
aspirator ratio R a3/a2xv3, so if I substitute this back into the equation here we get v 32/2g becomes
equal to h2+R2 )x(v32/2g) or in other words the aspiration ratio that is needed R 2 is
2 2 g h2
R =1 − 2 okay, so that is how you basically design an aspirator which is represented
v3
more simplified manner in this particular figure here.
8
v 23=2 g ht
So you have designed at tapered sprue and you have applied the Bernoulli’s so that the R
becomes equal to √hc/ht, so from the earlier example problem I already have told you this R 2 to
be equal to 1-2gh2/v32 and you know that the gate velocity v3 is 2ght as that is how it has been
2 h2 hc
estimated, so can have the R2 to be equal to R =1 − = so which becomes equal to √ht-
ht h t
h2/ht okay, and h2-ht-h2 is really this particular height you know hc which we are talking about
this is h2 if you may remember so we have R as √hc/ht.
R= c
√ h
ht
So whatever be the, between the poring basin height and the you know the height of the
differential height of the basin over the sprue okay, so that root of that determines what is the
aspiration ratio R in this particular case. So it can easily be seen that the v 2 mostly occurs like a
shape of a free falling stream because obviously it is (2gh c)1/2 and hc is basically this height right
here in the same manner you know by applying Bernoulli’s between the point 1 and 2 you can
apply and calculate.
Similarly v3 again between v2 and v3 is actually becoming √2ght so again a freely falling stream
height so ideally the sprue should be shown by the sort of solid lines which you can see here
because then it will generally follow that under root equation and be like a freely falling stream.
But when the pressure throughout the stream then you know you can say that throughout the
stream the pressure is actually atmospheric pressure you go okay, but it is safer and easier to
9
construct a straight tapered sprue as has been by this dotted lines here because following this
curve and equation so that I can get a curved profile becomes a little comparison from
operational stand point.
So with this I think I will try to end this particular module, but the next module we will try to get
another you know factor into modeling of the casting which is the friction factor which you will
see changes the para time quite a big and then the time of filling etcetera gets altered heavily
because of that friction factor. So with this I would like to end my lecture today thank you for
patiently listening to it, thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia
10
©copyright reserved
11
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology –Part-1
Module 19
By
A brief recap of what we did in the last lecture or last module we were talking about the energy
balance equation on a simple casting problem with two different orientations one was the vertical
gating system another was the horizontal gating system we were also discussing about the
aspiration effect which was because of the formulation of a negative pressure at somewhere in
the center of the runner just because of uniform cross section of the of this proof.
So we actually discussed that in such a negative pressure is detrimental to the effect of castings
because to the quality of the castings because there is a chance of in gassing into the mold
because of the high porosity and you know various gases like hydrogen and said I have included
in the castings would actually result in a change in strength of the of the cast.
1
So today we are going to actually look into another interesting effect which is also known as
formation of this vena contracta so another situation where the aspiration effect comes into
picture is associated with a sudden change in the flow direction you can see here this is the
pouring basin this is the sort of a you know bit runner which is actually running just
perpendicular to this proved which is just below the pouring Basin and there is a sudden change
indirection of the liquid metal.
And because of that there is a contraction which happens and it contracts around a sharp corner
due to the momentum effect suddenly there is obviously change in the direction of the velocity
so there is going to be a change in momentum because of the change in direction of the velocity
and this change in momentum would take some time to get formulated so in fact the flow
develops here after some span of length is crossed over by the by the liquid metal.
So in verity gating this is not really a problem because basically having acceleration due to
gravity and the problem would be more prominent in the bottom gating or horizontal gating
systems the constricted region to as I earlier mentioned is known as the vena contracta you can
see here this really is the you know the radius which would come of the particular stream and are
in fact is the radius here right about here d is really the amount of contraction a depend by d
would be the ratio of the contraction which would happen diametrically.
2
So that is how there is always a tendency of a low pressure formation because of that to avoid
the creation of vacuum around the station to the mold is made to fit as the vena contracta I itself
so the mold is designed like a vena contracta you can look at the dotted line here which say show
the mole design should be so tentative mold design.
So that this rapid contraction does not take place if the runner diameter is capital d as small d as
you can see here and the diameter of the indents in d that normally d ’/d is maintained at a
value of approximately 1.3 so that is how this an r is really about fifteen percent of d so that is
what are the design guidelines for doing this kind of a vena contracta a shape and mold.
So the commonly used items which are there in the gating design which I probably have
mentioned earlier but not to the total details is the pouring basin which is obviously the you can
see here right about here the complete shape here so it actually contains the liquid metal and
reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal stream coming direct from the furnace a constant
pouring head can also be maintained by using a power in basin.
So whatever stresses the mold has to take are really along this region without letting the actual
mold shape being intact or not getting the started there is a strainer which is normally a ceramics
you know strainer than this proves which removes impurities or drawers so it is like a filtration
system made up of again a refractory material, splash core a ceramic splash core placed at the
end of this proved you can see right about here which also reduces the loading force of the liquid
metal stream.
So basically it is a sort of a reinforcement that you are making hair of high strength so that there
is no erosion in the sand around the mold, then there is a scheme Bob you can see right about
here it is a trap placed in the horizontal gate to prevent heavier and lighter impurities from
entering the mold obviously because of a sort of a you know outflow of this particular material
there is a tendency of the lighter material to rise on the surface and get collected all here and
slowly because we are talking about a heavy Reynolds number flow
So there would not be much diffusion migration between the mainstream and this dross collected
right about here okay so that is how the skim Bob so you have all these different pouring basin
strainer splash code and skim Bob being a part of the gating design to prevent the impurities
3
from going so now I would just look at a slightly different variant of the strategy that we did
earlier for energy balance and horizontal gating system.
So there we considered ideal situation where there was no frictional effect as such and you know
there was no effect because of the velocity distribution but in unfortunately in the real world you
do have this no slip zones and a parabolic flow profile which results in some loss by itself and
also you know there is a pipe friction which would be there because there is a some amount of
flow distance that the liquid metal has to undertake in order to reach the mold and this is through
the runner and also this prove and you know the pouring basin.
So therefore there is also a loss because of that and then there is a energy loss also because of the
sudden contraction which would happen in different places or even sudden expansion sometimes
depending on how the pouring beside a patient is designed with respect to the sprue okay so
because of all these different effects the actual energy balance equation may vary quite a bit and
that is what we are going to study now.
So in you know the velocity distribution within the conduit depends on its shape and nature of
flow the laminar or turbulent and will assume the frictional losses so the non uniform velocity
distributions can be accounted for by modifying of the kinetic energy term in the energy balance
equation by replacing with v dash square by β where v’ is the average velocity and is a constant
for circular conduits can be treated as for the laminar flow 0.5 okay.
4
So this is for circular conduits so this is for the laminar flow case further and can be treated as
1.0 for turbulent flow in circular card wings so basically that is how we will try to modify the
kinetic energy term okay in terms of its different properties of flow you know with within the
spruce and runner channels before the metal reaches the actual mold.
So the energy loss due to friction in a circular conduit and these are some of the assumptions
were borrowing from elementary fluid mechanics and basically the more important part that has
to be seen here is the application that how these energy loss is going to change the time of filling
etcetera related to the cast so I am not going to actually prove the how the loss balance equation
or how the energy loss balances happens for a circular conduit for a laminar or a turbulent flow
case.
5
But I am going to assume some of the things from elementary fluid mechanics to sort of estimate
the time of flow which is more important here for the liquid metal to go into the mold. so on the
basis of per unit mass it is given by energy loss is given by this term Ef1 which can be recorded
l v́ 2
as for e f 1=4 f again V basically the average velocity capital D, L all are the diameter
D 2
and length of the conduit which is in question so just write down as diameter and length of the
conduit and f of course is the friction factor.
And infact is variable based on if the flow is laminar or transitional or turbulent so the F depends
on the nature of the conduit particularly associated with the conduit roughness and also the flow
the type of low whether it is laminar or turbulent so while using the integrated energy balance
equation between one and two the Ef .one really should be added to the energy at the point too
okay.
So if I just were to recall the way that you know we had set up the what is the horizontal gating
problem I would just so this right here was the vertical gating system designed where we talked
about the point one which was somewhere on the top of the pouring basin endpoint to
somewhere at the beginning of the runner and obviously 0 point 3 which was somewhere just
before the entry to the mold.
So that is how we had figured out of this vertical gating similarly for the horizontal gating
system if you may recall we had a pouring basin opening up into a sprue again which was
slightly tapered to avoid the aspiration of X and there of course was a runner which was designed
to enter into the mold as if the mold gets filled up from bottom up you know so it is like that is
why I called bottom gating system so this was point 1 this was point2 and write about this entry
here was point 3.
So that is how we had actually studied both the system so if I were to in this particular case use
the energy balance equation between let us say 1 and 3 then obviously Ef1 one should be added to
energy at 3 okay because this is the energy loss that would happen from the overall energy which
is available at one for the material to be successfully able to withstand the frictional effects on
the wall side of the conduit so for a smooth conduit of the value of f.
6
Again borrowing from fluid mechanics is given by some empirical you know quantities of value
so f is recorded as f =16/ℜ for laminar flow probably corresponding to Re you know less
than 2000 so basically it considers you know the even the transitional as well as the laminar flow
both and the F can be related to again the Reynolds number in little different manner as
illustrated here for turbulent flow typically are greater than 2000.
So I can probably solve this and approximate the total friction factor here f as 0.071ℜ − 1/ 4 for
a Reynolds number mostly turbulent so varying between let us say 2100 and very high 10 to the
power of 5or so you know which is like quite high Reno same also we will assume this to be the
friction factor and I am not going to get into the details of how these arrived because we have
borrowed this from the fluid mechanics so f basically would be used in our case to calculate what
is the friction factor which will be added again to the three side.
So that this is the loss in energy to the energy head that is available at one because of the
potential head of the material so that you know the actual time can be estimated in this manner so
this kind of brings us to you know the two very important factors which would be responsible for
energy losses and the Bernoulli's equation so one of them is obviously the friction factor which is
a function of how smooth or rough the walls is and in a circular conduit.
We have seen how to estimate that using the factor f which f where f is a function really of the
Reynolds number so between the let us say for the laminar or the transitional region f is kind of
different and then for the turbulent region F would be again different sobering few cases where
the metal head that is available or the liquid metal head that is available is very small will mostly
use the transitional the turbulent regime for the Reynolds number estimation and some
simultaneously.
Again determination of friction factor but only in the case where the metal head available for you
know pouring head which is there in then the basin is almost towards the end where all the
pouring basin metal has-been consumed so in that case probably there may be an instance where
some time delay may happen because of a small amount of metal remaining within the pouring
basin which will probably flow with laminar in the laminar regime.
So there you may have to estimate f in a little different manner so having said that we wanting to
sort of make a final form of equation where the velocity this distribution you know losses
7
because of velocity distribution or effects because of velocity distribution to the kinetic energy
and the and the frictional factor which I have just calculated have to be incorporated in the total
energy balances the other remaining issue which I would like to cover in the next module is
basically that because of entrance effects because obviously the liquid metal here does not have a
constant cross section.
They can do it while running the conduit may bend for example from the sprue to the runner or
even from the runner to the gate region of the of the mold or sometimes there may also be effects
because of sudden contraction or expansion of the flow paths and so there has to be a energy loss
accounted for in the Bernoulli’s principle because of that variation as well so once we do that
probably in the next module will couple all these different losses that means the effect because of
velocity distribution effect.
Because of wall friction and effect because of these entrance effects entrance of the liquid metal
into different cross sections and then put a final formulation which would talk about the correct
energy balance you know and the in the real situation so far what we estimated in terms of time
of filling etcetera was really an ideal case so with this I would like to close this module and look
forward to do the entrance effects in the next module thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
8
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
9
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology – Part -1
Module – 20
by
Hell and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 module 20.
We covered wall friction as well as the velocity distribution the effect he kinetic energy effect
because of velocity distribution and the last module here we would like to cover the energy loss
because of you know certain change of direction or even you know entrance effects which would
happen typically when a cross sectional area of the conduit suddenly various it expands a
contract you know?
So that is also sort of directly related to the floorage and there may be different entrance effect
imposed because the flow obviously being laminar and turbulent , so we would like to now sort
of estimate this empirical area and will borrow some of the principles from fluid mechanics.
1
So friction losses is also occur due to a gradual change in the flow direction example in a 90 0
bend and similarly fittings. so fittings may be expansive or contracting a nature as we will
illustrate just little bit later. So the associated frictional loss is accounted for by using again the
energy balance equation Bernoulli’s equation with an equivalent factor L/D for the bend the
frictional loss per unit mass associated with a sudden enlargement or contraction of the flow
cross section or flow area is let us say ef2 just as we had ef1 for the wall friction effect earlier.
1
So this can be recorder as Ef 2= e f v́ 2 where again v’ is the average velocity average flow
2
velocity in the smaller cross sectional area supposing the flow is expanding let us say like this
you know where the area is changing from smaller area A2 to a bigger area A1. So the average
velocity would be the entrance velocity to this expanding flow and for the contracting case or the
flow is coming from a bigger area to a smaller area again if the root be the discharge flow that
we will be talking about.
So the value A2 always which is the smaller area is the value cross section where the average
velocity needs to be recorded and obviously ef is the friction factor is the loss factor I would say
because of this bending and you know the expansion contraction effects etc. and the way that you
look at ef is really plotted right here and this is again two very important trends which are
borrowed from elementary fluid mechanic where we talk about the energy loss because of
bending or contraction as a function of the area ratio.
2
So saw for the sudden expansion case as you can see there is a region corresponding to the
turbulent Reynolds number varying between 3000 above and the ef is plotted here as a function
of the area ratio it to by A1. So obviously for sudden expansion the A2 is going to be the
entrance area and a1 like you could see here and A1 is the discharge area and so therefore this
A2/ A1 can be maximum 1 and otherwise it is showing to be less than one.
So the same thing happens for Reynolds numbers which are in the laminar zone. So the l/d which
the term which is coming here particularly for the laminar flow case is you have to remember
this l and d are the length and diameter of this smaller cross section that is how the data has been
recorded and these are sort of empirical data’s which are recorded again through you know just
looking at the energy balance across such expanding contracting through it channels.
So for the sudden contraction case again the same is recorded as laminar and turbulence as you
can see and this ef is really is the loss factor that comes because of the bend or the change in the
cross section. So for laminar flow the length l and diameter d as you can see in most of the cases
whether it is an expansion of contraction you have a inclusion of this l/d factor here, are that of
the smaller cross sectional area the value of ef depends on whether the flow area is enlarging or
contracting in the flow direction and the value of ef for sharp change in the flow cross section
can be recorded as in these two graphs shown here.
So obviously it depending on the type of entrance there is also a entrance effect which is added
on to this friction factor where this ef term gets slightly modified because of such entrance
effects.
3
So let us look at this entrance effects so for a straight entry case ef obviously is the ef that you
are recording, so whatever ef data you are you know recording with respect to the area ratio is
for the straight entry case value of the actually loss factor and the value of projected pipe entry as
you can see here where this pipe comes out you know from this entrance in to the mold, so may
be the poring basin as write about here and the flow is happening in this direction. So in this kind
of a situation the ef that is recorded really is twice the value of the ef or that it absorb from the
change in the area ratio as in the last figure for the case where it is entry with rounded corners
and there is some kind of radius effect which is involved her and r/d is typically 0.1 so for that
the ef is recorded as the third 1/3 of the value which is red from the plot on the area ratio versus
ef.
And then for the tapered entry again the modification that you have is a sixth of the ef value that
is red from the graph sudden expansion and sudden contraction effects. So I am going to use
these more appropriately when we actually numerically design this problem and try to see what
is going to happen to the overall energy balance between the point one and three in both the
vertical and the horizontal gaining system, so as of now the values of ef for some other type of
changes in the fluid geometry where ef is refer to the value corresponding to the sharp change in
the geometry with the identical initial and final dimensions.
4
Now let us go back to the again the vertical simple vertical gating system and try to modify the
energy balance here, so let us modify the energy balance equation between points one and three
after accounting for all the losses, losses are principally three kind one is due to change in kinetic
energy, due to velocity distribution, change in kinetic energy due to friction of walls and that due
to bends or fittings, so these losses are because a sudden contraction of the flow path between
one and two as you can see here.
So the energy balance at one can be written down as p1 / ρm + velocity head is 0 as assumed
earlier the velocity v here at the top of the particular poring basin is assumed to be 0 and the
metal is too large a quantity for any substantial change in the height to happen at this particular
juncture plus the potential head which is ght in this particular case ht being the height of the top
of the poring basin from the mold okay.
So that become equal to p3/ ρm. P3 bring the pressure at the juncture three right here plus the
kinetic loss which happens because of velocity distribution effect, so write this as square of the
velocity by 2β where β again would have a different value when it is laminar and another
different value when it is you know turbulent in nature the flow is turbulent tin nature plus the
loss ef1 which happens because of the frictional loss of the wall plus the Ef2 which is the loss
because of the bends or the fitting.
P1 P v́ 2
+0+gh= 3 + 3 + E f 1 +E f 2
ρm ρm 2 g
5
So that is how the energy balance would finally happen as you can see here there is no potential
head really, so height of the mold as assumed here at point 3 is basically 0 it is top gating system
so that is how we have been doing this analysis earlier as well and the case where there was no
friction. So on the right side at the juncture three you are accommodating for the loss due to the
velocity distribution the loss because of wall friction and the loss because of the sudden
contraction and expansion in this particular case between one and two there has been contraction
and because of that there is a loss so this loss has to be taken in the overcall energy balance
equation for good analysis and v3 is really the average velocity in this prove and I also further
assume that the mold is open to the atmosphere so p1 and p3 are similar to each other.
1 l
(
2 g h t=v́ 32 +e f + 4 f
β d )
v́ 3=C D √2 g ht
So because of the pushes the pressure heads get cancelled out and I can further write down the ef
one as the total amount of friction loss which is actually given by 4f l / d v3 2 / 2, v3 is the
velocity equal to v2 of this particular section of the top gating system which is the sprue section
you know that this is a continues area constant area geometry where whatever be the inflow
would be the outflow for mass continuity to hold sprue and ef 2 is basically the frictional loss
associate with the sudden contraction in this particular case the contraction happens from the
section one to the section two and beyond two there is no other such contraction which takes
place.
−0.5
1 l
CD=
β (
+e f + 4 f
d)
So we are just considering the potential the energy just at the point of exit of the metal from the
sprue to the mold and so this ef 2 comes out of be ½ v’ 2 where ef again is has to be obtained from
the plots for the energy loss ef with respect to the area ratio for sudden expansion or sudden
contraction case and these all values for example ef or f depend again on the Reynolds number of
flow or whether the flow is laminar or turbulent in nature.
So the final expression which emergence in this particular case comes out to be ght on one side
and then we have v32 /2 β + 4f l/d times of v3’ 2/ 2 +ef times of again v3 2 /2 in other words if I
just simplify this how it becomes twice ght = v 32 times of 1 + β +4f l/ d+ ef and I think we have
earlier clearly illustrated that this length l is the length of the smaller diameter of the sprue and
similarly the d is the diameter of this sprue.
6
Ef 1=4 f v́ 32
l l
+
[ ()]
d d eqv
So in this particular case it is really a case of contraction where from one the flow is submerges
or converging in to the section 2 and as you can see that there is a contraction in the area and in
all such cases you always have to assume the length and diameters of the smaller area of cross
section. So in this case the smaller area of cross section is are two and so we assuming the length
and diameter of this sprue for calculating this loss contraction loss of the fluid.
So from this particular equation now then you have v3’ = some coefficient Cd times of 2 √ht and
this Cd is very popularly known as the discharge coefficient from elementary fluid mechanics
and this is represented as 1 / β the loss term because of the kinetic energy change due to velocity
distribution the loss term because of bending contraction expansion so on and so forth plus the
frictional loss and the pipe which is 4f l /d time of 3 -1/2 , so that is how you defined the discharge
coefficient and I will say I will kind of show you in the following iterations that the discharge
coefficient here can be generated in a iterative way because at the outset you probably just have a
first guest of the Reynolds number and that may not be the accurate velocity because the velocity
has to go through all these you know different terms.
−0.5
1
[ l l
C D = +e f + 4 f +
β d d{ ( ) }]
eqv
So the earliest assumption that you can make if there is no loss factor that is Cd = 1 is that v3 it
converges in to √2 ght which is in fact the same terms as you had seen in the analysis where we
neglected the frictional effects. And then starting from there and then trying to see what is the
flow region whether it is laminar or turbulent we can try to estimate iteratively what is the Cd
value so that the actual values of v3 could be slowly sort of converged at and so with two or
three iterations you are able to and come to a point where you can have a perfect convergent of
the v3 term here while doing calculations for such molds.
So if supposing in this analysis we would assume a bend or a fitting so if this sprue also had a
bend apart from the normal contraction losses that you can see here which is typically the case in
most of the applications where you want to avoid putting all the metal on the top of the mold,
mold is very, very fragile you know mold is a very, very fragile contusion and typically made up
of refractive material.
7
So it is sometimes are visible to not have the gating arrangement which is includes the poring
basin or the sprue just over to the mold rather it is preferable that you have a misaligned poring
basin and sprue somewhere here and you have bending providing in the pipe which connected
and still makes a top gating because the gating provides the material flow at the top of the mold
write about here and you know everything else can be starting you know half shifted manner
from the actual mold cavity.
So from a engineering perspective that becomes a pretty good exercise, so if the sprue also had a
bend or a fitting then this factor ef1 would change and the change is again represented in terms
of the equivalent loss that would be effected by the fitting itself. So this is the l/d of the wall
friction of the smaller cross sectional area as I had discussed before and this l/d equivalent which
is a new term which has been added here this is actually a fitting specific term and or a bend
specific term and there are many experimental analogy is which talks about what this l/d
equivalents is going to be.
So basically if supposing there is bending of a certain dimension there are may be data tables
which are available about it supposing there is a particular kind of bend or a kind of fitting what
would be the l/d equivalent in that particular case. So this would be definitely contribute when
increase in the total frictional loss and thus the whole equation now of the Cd would be written
down as Cd = 1/ β as I had illustrated earlier plus the small ef which is the loss because of the
bending or the fitting and then there is a frictional loss imparted by the bending or the fitting
which would be actually 4f times of the l/d wall friction effect plus the l/d equivalent loss due to
friction at the bend or friction at the fitting which would come up to the power of -1/2 and so that
is how you typically make the discharge coefficient and iteratively progress to find out the range
of the flow whether it is laminar or turbulent and then arrive at a certain value of Cd.
So I am going to now close this particular module in the interest of time but in the next module I
am going to definitely try and tell you some practical problem in which we can estimate what is
the Cd value and also what is the velocity of flow. So thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy
8
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
9
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology- Part- 1
Module-21
By
We were talking about frictional losses in realistic situations where wall friction would play
substantially a big role in determining the energy balance particularly in case of sprue and
runners and that with bends and fittings so we are going to look at a problem example today
where we would like to do this calculation.
1
So there is a gating design for a mold which is 50cm x 25 cm x 15 as shown in this figure right
here and the cross-sectional area of the gate is about 5 cm 2 which has been given here and you
have to determine what is the filling time for this design by including now the frictional effects
and the velocity distribution effects particularly so the liquid being poured is molten iron with the
properties of liquid density or liquid metal density about 7800 kg/m3 kinematic viscosity η about
0.00496 kg / m sec.
And for a 90 degree bend as you can see right about here in this particular bounce proved the L x
D equivalent which has been obtained from standard data is 25 you know so that is the
contribution to the wall friction effect because of the bend obviously there will be a bending
effect because of which there would be an energy loss so these all terms have to be taken
together to compute the Cd.
So it should be noted that to obtain the β value which is actually the distribution function the
kinetic and the velocity distribution the energy loss because of the velocity distribution function
and also the friction coefficient F and the ef which three of them are very important for
determination of the Cd so we should determine the flow as either laminar or turbulent so this
calls for an iterative process.
So iterative because at the outside you have to decide sort of find out that without including all
these frictional effects what is going to be the range of the velocity and then from there you look
at whether the velocity range corresponds to a laminar range or a turbulent range and then try to
2
estimate the different factors β f and ef using that strategy and so as a first approximation the
average velocity is computed with an assumption of the Cd value being equal to 1.
So obviously the v3 average velocity would be √2ght and in this case as we had calculated
before the H being equal to this 12 centimeters we have a v3 value which is approximately 1.716
m/s and this I think we had calculated in one of the earlier modules where we talked about no
wall friction and only an idealized condition so now the gate region has a total area of 5 cm 2 and
if we assume the gate diameter to be D we can say π/ 4d 2 is actually equal to 5 cm2 or in other
words in the gate region the diameter would be 0.0252 m.
So let us now calculate what is going to be the Reynolds number as you know Reynolds number
is ρ vd by µ where ρ is the density of the metal in this case fluid metal ρmv is the velocity of the
metal d is the diameter of the cross section which is actually the gate dia in this particular case
and mu is the kinematic viscosity of the material. Let me just write it a little more properly ρm x
µ okay.
So Re becomes equal to in this case 7800 kg /m 3 which is actually given to be the density of the
liquid metal times of the velocity which is 1.716 m/sec times of 0.0525m diameter divided by the
viscosity which is 0.00496 kg /m sec and so that becomes equal to a Reynolds number of about
68,000 which is actually determining the flow as turbulent even though there is no wall friction
flow as turbulent so this is very interesting that the flow is seen to be turbulent by the first
estimation without the use of any friction now let us start the analysis.
ρm v́ 3 d 7800 ∗1.716 ∗ 0.0252

ℜ= = =68000
η 0.00496
3
So the flow is turbulent as the at the first iteration and thus obviously the first value of β that you
would take is one because as I told you β = 0.5 if the velocity is in the laminar range and when it
becomes turbulent the β becomes equal to 1 that is how the velocity losses or the kinetic energy
losses because of the velocity distribution effect is understood from fluid mechanics theory also
we need to find out what is going to be the ef value in this particular case with an area ratio
A2/A1 almost tending to 0 as you can see here.
The area of the upper sprue right here is much bigger in comparison to the area 5cm 3 of the gate
or the sprue which is being talked about so the A2 /A1 where A 2 is the 0.2 and A1 is the point
you know area at the point 1, 1 and 2 have different consequences you may have just illustrated
about this earlier as one here and two here right about this.
4
So the two is always the lower cross sectional diameter so therefore the A2/ A1 corresponding to
0 and the flow to be in the turbulent region we have to read out read out the ef value from the
graph describing contraction conditions okay so A2 is a cross-sectional area of the gate to be of
gate and A1 is the cross sectional area of the pouring basin. so let us look at that graph which we
had borrowed from earlier.
5
So let us go back to the particular two cases where for certain expansion and sudden contraction
you have a listing of the values of the ef the friction loss and bending or fitting with respect to
the Re 1 and also with respect to the area ratio A2 /A1. so the A2 /A1 in our case is 0. So it is
tending to 0 so we will have to read out really on this particular axis and we are also suggesting
that the flow in our case is actually a turbulent flow and in the turbulent flow as we have shown
here or illustrated here.
The Reynolds number that we have is close to about 68,000 which is actually somewhere in
between these two values right so one value corresponding to the ef at A2 /A1=0 happens to be
close to about 0.5 and the other one is 0.4. So somewhere in between here by extrapolation of the
ef values you can have a ef =0.45 approximately so having said that now if I have this ef = 0.45
let us go back put this back into the Cd equation and try to solve so f is taken as 0.45from the
graph okay.
0.0791
f= 0.25
=0.0049
68000
And we also know that for a rep turbulent regime the friction factor of the wall friction basically
is determined by the term 0.0791/ Re 1/4 as I had illustrated earlier and this is actually plain and
simple borrowed from fluid mechanics we are not going to the details of how you obtain these
but we are wanting to see the application side of how you can design the casting once this is
known.
6
So this happens to be equal to about 0.0049 so that is how the wall friction effect would come
length obviously is the length of the sprue side because that is the lower a diameter side and in
this case the total height that is there is about 0.12m about 12cm as has been illustrated here this
total height from the pouring base into the end of the gate region is about12 cm. So you are left
with a value of Cd.
So we have a Cd value which is equal to 1 that is 1 / β + ef = 0.45 plus now you have four times
of f which is in this case 0.0049 times of L x D which is the wall friction part of the problem. So
I can write this down as the total length of the smaller side that is the sprue divided by length of
the diameter of the smaller side that is diameter of the sprue which is 0.0252m as obtained earlier
and there is a friction loss because of bending which has been given by this L/ D equivalent of 25
as earlier illustrated in the question.
−0.5
1
[
C D = +e f + 4 f +
β { ( ) }]
l l
d d eqv
− 0.5
[
1
C D = +0.45+ 4 ∗ 0.0049
1 {0.12
0.0252
+25 }] =0.7
So you can see the cell by equivalent to be equal to 25 so that we add to this and compute what is
going to be the value of Cd and this value comes out to be 0.7 so therefore the v3’ or the velocity
is going to be the Cd times of √2ght as I had earlier illustrated formula with friction of the energy
balance so this is 0.7 so it is a 70% of the ideal case which was 1.716 m /sec this comes out to be
about 1.20 m/ sec .this is not the end of the story because we will have to illustrate to recalculate.
v́ 3=C D √ 2 g ht =0.7 ∗1.716=1.2 m/sec
So actually the velocity is not 1.7 16 but 1.2 m/ sec let us now recalculate with this velocity to
just iteratively see what is going to be the change because of this change in the velocity because
of frictional effects so recalculate the V3 again V3’ again assuming the modified velocity 1.20
m/sec okay so let us for second approximation calculate the modified Reynolds number.
So this becomes equal to obviously we can say it is just a velocity ratio 1.2 x 1.716 times of the
earlier obtained Re 6800 and which is about 47500. so obviously you know that re equals ρ mvd
by µ so this V is changing from 11.7 16 to1.2 so this is the new Reynolds number value and for
this new Reynolds number value if we look at again the regime is turbulent so the β happens to
be 1 the ef value happens to be about in this particular case slight improvements of slight change.
1.2
ℜ= ∗68000=47,500
1.716
7
So we let us go back to that graph again and try to understand what is the year value so you have
you had a value corresponding to 68,000 now you have a value corresponding to about47,500 so
you can iteratively manage this by calculating it and you know it will be slightly the higher side
this is this was the Reynolds number that one which I am omitting is the Reynolds number 68000
case so this will be slightly closer to the 10,000 Reynolds number.
So let us say it is on a little higher side and you can extrapolate the value as that if in 68000 the
value was 0.45 and in about10,000 the value is about you know close to about 0.5 then around
47,500 the value should be about close 2.46 something to that light so just extrapolate between
10,000 and 68,000and estimate what is the value of the Reynolds number at 40 a 47,500 so this
comes out to be about point four six so0.46 is the ef the new ef value we also have the wall
friction f coming out at0.07 91 / the new Reynolds number 47,5001/4 from fluid mechanics theory
so this is coming out to be 0.054 and if I compute what is the Cd coefficient here.
0.0791
f= 0.25
=0.00 54
47500
The Cd comes out to be 1 + ef = 0.46 + 4 times of the total friction factor wall friction factor
0.0054 times of the L by equivalent on the smaller diameter side which is 0.12 is the length and
the diameter of the gate is 0.252 you know the bigger diameter is the pouring base inside as I had
earlier illustrated plus the length equivalent which causes wall friction so that to the power of
-1/2 and this comes out to be 0.69 so it is not really much different from 0.70 and you can say
that the values have kind of converged.
−0.5
1
[
C D = +e f + 4 f +
β { ( ) }]
l l
d d eqv
−0.5
[
C D = 1+0.4 6+ 4 ∗ 0.0054 {
0.12
0.0252
+ 25 }] =0. 69
So you can say that the velocity V3 in this particular case is very close to as obtained earlier it is
0.69 times of the 1.716 m/sec so this is about 1.19 m/ sec which is quite close to 1.20 m/sec
which was obtained earlier so this is the converging step of the iteration step of the iteration and I
can say that iteratively I have arrived at a CD value close to about 0.69 which actually seems to
be a reasonable estimation of the frictional factor in this particular case.
8
Now let us estimate because of all these changes what is going to be the time of filling of the
mold so let us say the time taken in this particular case to fill up the mold t f comes to be equal to
the volume of the mold / the gate area times of the velocity this is how the volume flow rate
would be you know that there is a area of cross section a g and through that there is a velocity
emerging of the flow which is V 3 so Ag into v3 is basically going to be the volume rate of flow.
v́ 3=C D √2 g ht =0. 69∗ 1.716=1. 18 m/sec
And so you having the overall volume of the mole divided by the volume rate of flow is basically
the time of filling so this comes out to be equal to 50 cm times of 25 times of 15 cm 3/ 5 x 1.19 or
x 100 because we have to convert this into centimeters 119 cm and this is actually recorded as
about 31.6 seconds so that is how the new filling time is and you can see that you know in the
ideal case the filling time was about 43% more than the case here.
V 50 ∗ 25∗ 15
tf= = =31.7 sec
A g v́ 3 5∗ 118
So the filling time definitely has increased and that is because of the energy loss which happens
because of the bending and the different fittings and the wall friction and other issues so
definitely in this particular illustration it is shown that the filling time goes down okay so I can
conclude here that the filling time of the mold goes down sorry goes down as you neglect the
wall friction effect okay.
The filling time of the mold goes down as you neglect the wall friction effect which is actually a
very important supposition here so in all future modules what we will do is will estimate the field
9
in time with reference to in iterative manner just as I have been done in this particular case with
reference to wall friction and also friction because of bending losses or losses and fittings so with
this I would like to end this module and in the next module will do another very complex
problem where again all these effects are clubbed together to see what is the effect of the total
time of discharge of a big pouring piece thank you so much you
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
10
Course Title
Module 22
By
We were talking about how to estimate the time of filling in case of a complex problem as shown
particularly here where talk about.
1
A ladle which is typically used to pour metal into the mold so the figure on the right shows this
ladle and it has an internal capacity height of 1.2meters has 45 degrees tapered nozzle so that is
like a fitting and the exit diameter of this nozzle is about 75 mm as illustrated here we will have
to calculate the time required to empty the ladle if It is filled with an aluminum silicon alloy at
704 degree Celsius.
Which is right about the melting point of the alloy and we will also have to estimate the
discharge rate in kg per second initially when the ladle is full and then case when the ladle is
about 75% empty .so we will have different parameters to estimate the density rho m of the
aluminum silicon Alloy a law in the liquid phase has been given to be 2700 kg per meter cube
the kinematic viscosity 0.00273 kg per meter second so on so forth. so let us solve this problem
so let at any instant the level of the liquid metal be h when the average velocity of the liquid
metal through the nozzle is V and equals CD root of 2gh. The mass flow discharge rate is m dot
= rhom times of Am times of Vm dash. which is rhom times of Am CD root of 2gh . so An is the
nozzle area and m dot here equals the total density of the metal times of let us say the area of the
ladle times of the rate at which the nozzle is emptying.
v́ n =C D √2 gh
ḿ=ρm An v́ n =ρm A n C D √ 2 gh
So if this height be considered to be h and the rate at which emptying is considered to be dh by d

t, then Al times of dh by dt would really be the amount of flow out of the liquid metal which
would happen as a function of time at the instants T and minus rho m times of Al times of dh by
2
dt is the mass flow out of the nozzle here as shown so this really is equivalent to the area of the
nozzle times of the discharge velocity which is CD root of 2gh okay.
So that is how you balance obviously you need to assume continuity here as whatever changes
have taken place within the ladle as whatever flow out is happening of the nozzle also there is
nothing no mass that is being created or destroyed you know within the system so that is how
we formulate the characteristic equation to solve this problem.
And we say that minus dh by dt = An by Al* CD times of root of 2gh . so here we assume that C D
is remaining constant with time which is really not the case because as the you know as the
height of the liquid in the nozzle reaches to almost this bottom portion where there is going to be
very less flow coming out the flow actually changes regimes and goes into laminar from the
turbulent regime.
− dh A n
= C D √ 2 gh
dt Al
I will just show you this in by virtue of calculation that corresponding to a very small height of
the liquid within the ladle the flow would change from turbulent to laminar okay and there the CD
definitely would be changing with respect to time appreciably so we are not assuming any such
changes at this time and we are assuming that the ladle is still almost completely filled and we
are only concerned with the time of estimating at when it is completely filled and time of filling
time of out flowing when it incompletely filled versus when it is 75% empty okay.
3
So but we will do investigate the case where the C D becomes very different by virtue of the flow
regime changing between the turbulent to the laminar flows so now the time taken t f for the level
to come down from hi to hf can be obtained by interpreting t from this equation here equation one
from one so let us look at it we have integral integrating on both sides integral and dh as the
height varies or divided by root of h as borrowed from equation 1.
With the height varies from an initial height to a final height hi is the initial height and hf is the
final height becomes equal to An by Al time of CD times of root 2g time of 0 to filling tf dt . so this
becomes equal to twice root of hi minus root of hf becomes equal to An by Al times of CD times
of root 2g * tf and thus tf becomes equal to twice by g whole under the root Al by An times of 1 by
CD times of root of hi minus root of hf .
h t
dh A n
f f
−∫ = C D √ 2 g ∫ dt
h √h
i
Al 0
tf=
√ A
2 l 1
g An CD
( √ hi − √ hf )
So let us take h equals hi equals 1.2 meters so C D equals 1 when we are considering no friction. I
think I had Illustrated it sufficiently earlier and Vn for the first iteration so this is the first
iteration can be estimated as root of 2gh as 4.85 meters per second just as in the previous
example let us calculate the Reynolds number here its 2700 times of 4.85 velocity times of 0.075
divided by 0.00273 which becomes 3.6* 105.
v́ n =C D √2 gh=4.85 m/sec
2700∗ 4.85 ∗ 0.075 5
ℜ= =3.6 ∗10
0.00273
4
So very large and the flow is in the turbulent range again. so by virtue of the flow being in the
turbulent range again the Reynolds number is amazingly large actually in this case so the flow is
turbulent and consequently the β obviously would be taken as one. ef in case of this nozzle
which we are talking about with the 45 degree bend is actually 1by 6 th of the ef value at that area
ratio A2 by A1 more or less tending to 0.
1
e f = e f s=0.075
6
I think I had Illustrated this earlier and for this kind of large value of Reynolds number I am not
going back into the figure to look into the e f value is estimated again as almost 0.45 minutes is
more or less close because you know as you see in that particular graph the value recorded as
0.5 is corresponding to 10,000 and the value recorded as 0.4 is corresponding to infinite.
So you can say that it is more or less near to this in between so 0.45 was so that we are
estimating . if you may remember the ef versus A2 by A1 trend that we had discussed in the last
example problem so here nozzle is sixth of that 0.45 value and that becomes equal to 0.075 these
are very easily available.
5
Let me just go back and recall the geometrical considerations that we had made just a few slides
back in this particular case where I had Illustrated that for a 45 degree angle nozzle something
like this which is actually the case in this case of the nozzle bottom ladle the actual e f which
would be the loss because of the particular fitting would come out to be a sixth of the loss that is
read from the normal case okay.
efs is the loss from the normal case normal case meaning thereby just a contractor expansion so
you see that for the straight entry case the value is e fs and so it is a sixth of this loss that would be
there if there is a nozzle so these are all empirically calculated and I do not want to delve into the
details of the fluid mechanics where the empirical calculations are sort of Illustrated.
But they will be available as data tables or you know information given to you in the problem
statement for making it easier for you to solve it .so here I would just go back to the slide that I
was continuing we want to calculate corresponding to this 3.6* 10 to the power of 5 the actual e fs
value sixth that is one-sixth of ef being 0.45 so this becomes equal to 0.075.
And so the frictional losses within the ladle the frictional losses within the ladle are very
miniscule particularly because of the large diameter of the large diameter of the ladle so
physically what happens is that as you know that this frictional factor would be given as 4*f* v 3
square times of L by D plus L by D equivalent right so in this particular case I guess the length
of the smaller area which is the nozzle is too short you know.
6
So L is much smaller in comparison to the D and so all even if it is l by equivalent or L by D, I
think the values are insignificant so the contribution off wall friction is really negligible so
having said that here the CD value can be just calculated as 1 plus e f to the power of minus half
so it becomes equal to 0.96 you know ef being 0.075.
C D =( 1+ 0.075 )−1 /2=0.96
So CD is near unity so CD values near unity and there is no need to iterate any further so
approximately you can say that from the frictionless case there is almost a four percent change in
the CD value in that frictionless case it was considered to be one. so the essence here is that you
have been able to estimate what is the v3 here which is C D times of root 2 g h and that way the
CD is 0.96 as can be seen or obtained in this particular case so having said that the other issue that
we need to consider is what happen when the total height within the ladle approaches to almost
zero meaning there by now let us look at the geometry the liquid is very close to the surface here
there is hardly any liquid in the ladle and you can estimate this h to be equal to 0 . so in that case
still there is some height which is leftover in the in the in the nozzle and because of this the flow
would be very slow and this is also known as a dripping flow.
So let us estimate what happens to the CD value in that particular case so what happens to the ok.
so there is dripping flow and the regime would change here because obviously now the h is
approximately 0 meaning there by the velocity of the nozzle which is root 2gh on the first
iteration basis is also 0 and thus the Reynolds number Re is also 0.
So therefore the flow now is laminar so the β becomes equal to half because of the laminar of the
flow and the ef in this particular case would be taken as 0.82 which is a very high value of e f ok
so thus the CD value completely gets changed as 2 plus 0.2 to the power of minus half which is
actually equal to 0.6 so you can see that the CD has reduced by almost 40% from the ideal case in
that particular case.
C D =( 2+ 0. 82 )−1/ 2=0.6
But it is of not much consequence because obviously when the dripping flow of the ladle is there
unless you are specifically asked to examine that condition in the practical case we consider that
flow to be almost stopped for doing so what we would like to now do is to sort of estimate what
is going to be the value of the filling time in this particular case. so let us say the height be equal
to 5 centimeters.
7
Which is still some height within the within the mold and 0.05 meters we assume the C D to be
equal to 1. and we estimate that corresponding to this value and the case that we showed earlier
that is h is almost 0 is there going to be any change or is the flow still going to be turbulent or
laminar so that now you have a scenario where the ladle has completely emptied in one case
where the flow becomes laminar and there is some small height 5 centimeters which is kept there
in the ladle and in that scenario.
What is going to be an you will see that for even a small height case the Reynolds number is
going to be still in the turbulent range. so let us say V n in this particular case is root 2 g h
assuming no friction as 1 meter per second and with one meter per second if I estimate what is
the Reynolds number value with such a high density of metal okay it comes out to be equal to
74175 so the flow is still turbulent.
v́ n =C D √ 2 ∗ 9.81∗ 0.5=1 m/sec
2700∗ 1∗ 0.075
ℜ= =74175
0.00273
So therefore in the example problem that we have where we are considering this ladle with a
nozzle at the end the scenario tells us that corresponding to absolutely zero height equals zero the
flow is laminar but even if you consider a very small height of metal inside which is height equal
to 5 centimeters the flow is still turbulent . so the transition between turbulent to laminar is quite
abrupt in this particular case.
8
So obviously in that case we would now assume you know with this kind of a flow condition
what is going to be the CD so the CD here with β equal to 1 because it is turbulent and ef equal to
0.075 still comes to be equal to 0.075 . so the C D does not really change across the whole ladle
till the value comes to very small and then we will neglect this in this particular question for
further analysis.
1 1
e f = e f s= ∗ 0.45=0.075
6 6
So if the CD remains 0.96 for almost the entire period except the case that the height h tends to 0
and tf had been earlier obtained as twice by g whole under the root A l by An times of 1 by CD root
of hi minus hf and Al being equal to pi by 4 times of the diameter square , diameter being so this
is the area of the ladle so diameter here being one meter so one meter square this becomes equal
0.785 meter square that of the nozzle is pi by 4 times of this75 millimeters.
3.14
A l= ∗1 m2=0.785 m2
4
3.14
A n= ∗0.075 ∗ 0.075 m2=4.4 ∗10 −3 m2
4
So this becomes equal to almost 0.075 square that is 4.4* 10 to the power of minus 3 meter
square and so the tf value comes equal to twice by 9.81 whole under the root times of of 0.785
divided by 4.4* 10 to the power of minus 3 times of 1 by 0.96 root of 1.2 and this typically is
equal to 91.9 seconds. so that is how the initial discharge would be when the height is completely
at the top-level here and then let us say the initial discharge rate from earlier with h equal to 1.2
meters is given as m dot equals the density times of the area of the nozzle.
√ 2
9.81
∗ 0.785
4.4 ∗ 10
−3
∗1
tf= √ 1.2=91.9 sec
0.96
Which has just been calculated times of the velocity which is CD times of twice 9.81 times the
1.2 kg per second so this becomes55.34 kg per second so the discharge rate when the ladle is
75% empty as has been asked that is the height within the nozzle is about 25% of 1.2 millimeter
meters is about 0.3 meters.
9
So in that event the m dot would again be 2700 times of the area of the nozzle times of the C D
value root 2g, g in this case is 9.81 meters per second square. so two times of 9.81 meter per
second square times of 0.3 meters . so that becomes 27.67 kg per second so that is how the mass
discharge rate would vary so earlier at the beginning of the flow and the ladle is completely full
charge rate is 55.3 kg per second and it actually comes out to 27 kg per second.
ḿ=2700 ∗ 4.4 ∗10 −3 ∗ 0.96 ∗ √2 ∗9.81 ∗1.2=55.34 kg /sec
So it is about a half almost a half or fifty percent of the flow as the height varies between full
height and I mean twenty-five percent of the height. so obviously the flow rate is going to be
different instances and that is why h is a function of time that has been assumed at the beginning
of this problem. so I think I have more or less completed how you calculate iteratively such
examples of flow discharge and is very important to estimate the flow of time because you know
the total flow the time of flow.
And time of filling because the casting problem is really about a timely solidification so that a
desired grain structure can be obtained so this time of flow has to be balanced with the transfer
and the grain growth time which am going to now from next module onwards to a lot of
calculations and illustrations.
So the solidification time should be such that all the flow timing should be typically lesser by
orders of magnitude than the solidification time our number one number two is that you should
ensure that there is to be a flow delivery before the metal gets solidified into the mold . so with
this I would like to end this module and in the next module we are going to learn some things
10
about what would be the heat transfer at the mold metal interface and how that varies as a
function of different boundary conditions of the of the mold so thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
11
Course Title
Module- 23
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part –I module 23.
We will discuss today about the various solidification processes and what are the kind of times
scales which are involved and such solidification in the moulds and may be in green sand mould
and then a moulds used made of metals and metals with cooling you know so these cases will try
to identify to sort of cover a length of breadth of what are the different kind of processes which
take place in the casting industry. So let us talk about cooling and solidification.

So obviously I think gates needless to illustrate that a clear understanding of the mechanism of
solidification and cooling of metals and alloys very important for production of successful cast
because solidification really determines the grain structure so a such the crystal structure and
alloy composition are sort of decided through how it solidify and typically the mechanism of
solidification in pure metals are typically when the liquid metals are cooled below their freezing
points.
Before the solidification starts to take place and why they are cooled is that energy is needed to
create surfaces for new crystals. So therefore you have to have a less of kinetic energy so that the
such surfaces can start to get created the degree of super cooling necessary is reduced by the
presence of other surfaces or particles which would surf you know as sort of nucleating sites.
So wherever there is a solidification happening you already have a seen earlier how in the
polycrystalline you know material because of solidification there are different grains which have
grain boundaries you know which are separated by grain boundaries which make the whole
polycrystalline materials structure, so if there are certain particles which have higher thermal
conductivity they may be essentially acting as the nucleation sites for development of such
degree of super cooling that is necessary for crystal growth processes and let us say if there is a
metal which is at a temperature θ 0 at times T0 the temperature everywhere is θ0 within the metal
and the mould face would act as the nucleus for crystal growth.
Because that is the coolest face so let us say we are talking about the mould face along this
particular line, so this is the mould face and this is corresponding to certain distance from the
mould face so at different time distances as you can see the there are different temperature
gradients which would result and particularly the mould face being the one where most growth
would start to take place.
Because it is the cooler point in the whole casting the fall in temperature would be most at the
face and then slowly if we look at how the temperature falls down you know within the mould
away from the mould face the temperature differences lower if you go away from the mould
face, similarly so obviously the temperature differences more as you know with time so at a
certain distance of time T2> T1 from T0.
The total amount of temperature differences on the mould face is more and this gap grows wider
and wider in comparison to if you go more towards the center of the mould away from the mould
face, so mould face is really the one where makes some heat transfer takes place, so as the
solidification progresses gradually inverts long columnar crystals like what has been shown here
with their axis perpendicular to the mould face grow.

And supposing if the situation was little different that we had an alloys instead of a pure phase
and we can see how there would be a slight variation because of the alloying effect and let us
look at this particular case where there is an alloy of temperature or between two phases A and B
which is 100% A along this particular line and then 100% B along this other end and there is a
liquidus and solidus temperature where the you know.
Beyond which the alloy would be completely liquid and below which there would be a solid +
liquid phase which is present also in this particular zone and below the solidus line there would
be solid face present, so that is how you have arrived this I think I have illustrated this how this
solidus and liquidus needs to be plotted in a lot of cases before in the portion on engineering
materials so during this process the solids separating out a different temperatures possess varying
compositions.
Because obviously there is also a concept of or there is also an additional constraint of a

solubility of the solid in the liquid phase as a function of temperature, so the solid phase may not
be always 100|% soluble and there may be certain critical solubility beyond which you know the
one of the phases may not go into the solid phase okay one of the phases may not go into the
solid crystal,.
And in the liquid form their solubility may be different so in that kind of a situation obviously
the point where the solidification is taking place which is also known as the liquid solid front it
the composition would be a function of time because obviously if supposing the solid phase is
rejecting a part of the or the solid state is rejecting a part of the phase B for example okay
because it cannot contain B beyond a certain percentage.
So immediately in the near vicinity of that solid liquid interface the composition of B or the
percentage of B would get higher because of this throughout of the solid crystal into the liquid,.
So therefore there are several such compositional changes which are at that solid liquid interface
which may result in a lot of problems in this particular case for example the let us let the liquid
alloy have compositions C0 Of B in A. so you can see here that at this particular point for
example composition of B is C0 and that of A is 100 minus C0 so also let θF be the freezing point
of the pure metal at A so this is θ F right here and θ0 and θ0’ are the respectively the liquidus and
the solidus temperatures so you can think of at C 0 composition θ0 is the liquid does temperature
and θ’0 is the solid does temperature corresponding to this composition C0.
So as the liquid alloy is cooled down to the temperature θ 0 so from here you are basically trying
to cool it down to a temperature θ 0 and the solid starts to separate out and the concentration of B
in this solid is now only reduced to C 1 . so if you want to really make a situation where the
further cooling of the liquid alloy is done and it is cooled down to the temperature θ 0 as you can
see here the solid would start to separate out and because now it cannot hold beyond C 1%
composition in the solid phase, okay.
So as a result the concentration of B in the liquid near the solid liquid interface as I had just
mentioned increases to the value more than C 0 because obviously whatever part has been thrown
out of this solid liquid interface because it cannot get accommodated within the solid just goes in
the near zone you know I mean this is the solid formation and this is may be the liquid and so if
the solid cannot hold anymore the composition of B. That B is precipitated into very near to the
solid liquid interface . so the percentage here would definitely go above C 0 so it will be
somewhat greater than C0 whatever be the % composition near in this particular zone.

And because of that the if you look at how the % of B is varying as a function of distance from
the mould the figure on this left shows the situation where the solidification front has progressed
upto some distance d for example from the mould face, so now let us consider two points P and
Q within the alloy within the liquid alloy and P being just beyond the solid liquid interface.
So it is just the state where solidification has happened as indicated in the figure and the solid
does temperature corresponding to the composition at P and Q are respectively θ’ P and θ’Q. So Q
is somewhere in the near vicinity so it is actually in the liquid phase so you have P as a point and
again Q as another point very close to each other, so you can see that the composition of Q the
composition of you know this zone P which is near to the solid liquid point is % of B is slightly
higher in comparison to that of Q,. So obviously they will have different solidus temperatures.
Let us just go back to see what so you know the solidus temperature for example at a lower
concentration is higher in comparison to a higher concentration the solidus temperature is lower
okay.

So therefore the θ’ P and θ’ Q which are the solidus temperatures at P and Q are quiet variant
because of the change in the % composition so there may be case where actually the θ P and θQ
are the sort of the you know actual temperatures as P and Q respectively and θ Q is obviously
more than θP because the θ that point Q is far away into the mould then P is more closer to the
phase okay.

So if both the θQ – θP this temperature range, it basically lies within the range of the θQ’ – θP’ so
there is a case where lets say because of the varied solid does temperatures now there is a wide
range which has been introduced here because obviously the θ P did not you know because it is
into the solid it has a lower concentration and θ Q’ is a higher concentration because of which the
solidus temperature has come down.
So still there is a case where this θ p- θQ actual temperature difference between the point Q and P
are lesser in compression to θQ’- θP ‘ so this can only be sort of working out if θ Q is lower you
know and then θQ’ or θQ’ is higher than θQ. So very importantly if such a situation happens when
θQ’ is higher than θQ than we can say that the liquid at has started to solidify because it is being
super cooled, okay.
So Q is super cooled whereas P is not because probably the range of P or the θ P is probably
higher than θP’ that is the only way that this you know this condition of the range θ Q’ – θP‘ > θQ –
θP, so whereas the Q is super cooled the P is not because P the actual temperature is higher than
the solidus points so still it is in the liquid phase whereas the still you know it is in the sort of it
is not yet solidify completely.
So it is in-between and this θQ’ because the actual temperature is lower than that there is a sort of
a degree of super cooling which is there in the phase Q, so what is happening now because of
this that the columnar orientation of the crystal is hampered because of this and there is a side
growth of the crystal at the point P.
So it in effectively turns out that the although the preferred growth directions is from the mould
phase onwards but in because of the effects of concentration changes near this area where it is
solidifying let us say this is the solidification front there is going to be a side wise growth okay
and this is also known as the dendrite growth of the crystal structure, so the crystal growth in
such a situation may appear as on the figure dendrite structure is produced if the crystallization
at Q gets completed before it starts at P.
Due to very small thermal gradient within a high concentration difference and very sloppy
solidus line, then randomly oriented crystals would appearance side the casting okay and because
of this randomly appearance oriented crystals you may not have a single direction long direction
growth anymore and the presence of these solid crystals ahead of the solid liquid interface
makes life more difficult.
Because now you know beyond the point where you are estimating the solid to happen actually
the solidus getting formulated, okay. So therefore feeding the liquid metal becomes more
difficult because of such solid liquid interface and it also implies a greater risk of having voids
within the casting normally referred to as central line shrinkage, so one remedy to avoid the
aforesaid problem is to produce a larger thermal gradient within the mould by providing a chill at
the moulds end.
So that the gradient is increased so much that this value θ Q - θP produced by the chill becomes
automatically elevated from θQ’ – θP’ so that once again the normal C returns and there is a uni
directional growth prominently happening, so that can already happen when you chill the mould
and by putting some kind of a metal insert which would be formulating the rapid heat transfer
from that particular point.
So you can create various temperature gradients which are large in nature so that the Q does not
get solidify before P because of the concentration variation problem. so if θ P is considerably
below Q then the degree of super cooling is not significant whereas the significantly different at
P and Q gradual progress of solid liquid interface can be ensured in that case. So the problem is
obviously let critical for alloys having a smaller temperature difference between liquidus and a
solidus.
So having said that you have some idea now about how the grain growth would start to happen
or how the crystallization will take place, I would like to sort of end this session here but in the
next section I am going to give you a more fundamental introduction into how to find out or
estimate the temperature within the casting given a certain boundary condition based on simple
heat transfer criteria, thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
Course Title
Module-24
By
Just a quick recall of what we did in the last lecture we were talking about the various issues
related to solidification of molds particularly the fact that what difference will it make by the
presence or absence of a chill and we also found out that there is a dendrite growth which
happens because of a change in concentration across the solid-liquid boundary as in the solid
phase the amount of liquid amount of solid that is really allowed may be lower than the liquid
phase solubility of the solid phase therefore may be different in the solid as well as the liquid
phase so having said that now we would like to just understand the consequences.
1
So the freezing pattern of a chilled an ordinary mold are shown right about here this is the freeze
diagram as you can see here this is the distance from the mold phase therefore this line here right
here really is the phase of the mold okay and you can very well see that the phase you know of
the mold is completely frozen at the point B so there is a liquid line which is somewhere here
this is the liquid part this part here is the liquid plus solid part.
So therefore there is a partial solidification partial liquefaction and then finally the whole mixture
freezes here to the complete solid state as you can see here at the point B so between this O and
B the available phase is a mixture of the liquid and the solid and beyond B there is a complete
freezing so therefore this all portion right here are the solid portions of the more so in this figure
the solidification starts at the center line of the mold before the solidification is complete.
Even at the mold phase obviously because I think we are illustrated earlier that the dendrite
growth structure you know would take place from the mold face onwards and therefore you can
say that the center line of the mold may start the solidification. so somewhere let us say you
know if this is the mold centerline and you can see the star of the solidification point here where
there is a solid plus liquid formed here.
It is much before the point B where complete freezing has happened actually so in the chilled
mold on the other hand the due to rapid heat extraction this line this region of the solid plus
liquid gets narrowed down because of which obviously the center line or the mold phase would
2
have completely solidified before the center line would start the solidification look at the point
for example O and B are more or less similar.
So it is an immediate sort of freezing of the mold phase and then the point where the
solidification would start to happen on the center line is at a so a is far beyond in terms of time so
it is at a much later point of time in comparison to O and B so a narrow liquid solid zone quickly
sweeps across the molten metal and the difficulty of feeding a given alloy in a mold is expressed
by the quantity or centerline feeding resistance.
I think this we had done in the last lecture as well so obviously if there are solidification fronts
which are formulated till and until the mold faces not even solidified it is very difficult for the
liquid metal to kind of feed in because it has to pass through all these different solid boundaries
okay so think of it as the liquid is coming through the gate region into a mold and it is facing so
much of solidification solidified front as it moves from the mold face onto the inner centerline of
the mold.
So there is something called center line feeding resistance which would develop and typically
this is the time interval between the start and end of freezing at the center line as a positive of the
total solidification time of the casting so if supposing there is a start and end of freezing here at
Point A the centerline starts partially freezing and there is a solid plus liquid mixture developed
here until it ends at the Point C.
So this particular interval of time whatever it takes as a function of the total solidification time as
a percentage of the total solidification time which really is you know the point where the
solidification has happened starting O all the way to the point see where the end of freezing cycle
has happened so AC / OC, AC is this much time okay and OC is the total time of freezing so that
the whole casting can be completely frozen.
So this expressed as a percentage is CFR so obviously if this time interval were narrow for
example in a case of this chill time interval becomes lesser so the total CFR which would be
typically obtained would be lesser because obviously this time interval AC is much lower in
comparison to this where the chill was not used so this is a case where there is a chilled mold
which is they are so chill has definitely lot of advantages because it prevents the dendrite growth
as well as reduces the center line you know feeding resistance.
3
So having said that now if we look at what really is happening for you know in an event wise
basis the rate of solidification can be really calculated as a function of what is the heat transfer
across the mold phase and obviously in the design itself of the casting we had discussed that
there is a reservoir of liquid metal called riser which is actually used to compensate for the
shrinkage that takes place from pouring temperature up to the solidification temperature.
I think we had illustrate it very clearly that as the liquid metal is poured inside the mold there is
going to be a change in the volume of the liquid metal per se here is going to be a change
because the liquid metal solidifies so there is some change of state from liquid to solid and then
obviously the solid contracts because the temperature comes from the freezing temperature all
the way to the room temperature.
So in order to do this compensation for this shrinkage there is always a reverse flow which is
generated because riser on one hand is an indicator whether the mold has been filled and on
another hand is basically a reverse flow generator which would create more shrinkages or which
would reduce the shrinkages by a backflow of the material from the riser into the mold so in this
respect gray cast iron is an interesting exception where solidification occurs in two stages the
shrinkage associated with the first stage may well be compensated by expansion that takes place
during the second stage.
4
As such a riser may not be necessary and to ensure that the riser does not solidify before the
casting we should have an idea of the time taken by the casting to solidify and therefore the time
of solidification and how you estimate it is also an integral part of the designing of the casting as
to where the riser exactly would be placed based on the time of solidification so you can place
the riser in a judicious manner and if you are correct time estimate can be obtained of
solidification up to a certain distance from the mold face the heat released as a result of cooling
and solidification of the liquid metal passes through different layers.
Let us look at what happens here so you have one side the distribution of temperature across the
mold phase so this right here is the mold so this right here is the mold and you can see that there
is a temperature drop in the region one in the you know between let us say in the air there is one
temperature drop region two in the mold itself so this is actually the outer surface temperature of
the mold and this is the θ ambient which is actually the temperature of the environment in which
this mold is present.
You have one temperature across the mold face so you have a higher temperature at the mold
phase here there is obviously a solidified metal region so there is going to be a change of state
over this region right here and there is going to be from the solid region almost a difference in
temperature from the mold wall all the way to the freezing point of the liquid θF where the state
conversion would happen between liquid and solid and beyond this it will be liquid metal
obviously liquid metal also.
As it is more and more away from the mold would have different temperature so the temperature
distribution here is really the resistance that the air the ambient environment in which the mold is
present offers to take the temperature down you know there is a resistance offered by the mold
itself so there is obviously from the face to the wall I mean from the from the mold wall all the
way to the in the outside phase of the mold there is some kind of drop in the temperature because
of the resistance offered there is of course the resistance offered by the solidified metal which is
at the mold phase.
So there is going to be some change in the temperature some small minuscule change in the
temperature from the at the mold phase itself there is also going to be a change in temperature
beyond the solidified metal all the way to the liquid metal liquid solid interface and we assume
5
that the liquid solid interface is at the θ freezing temperature beyond which again there would be
a change in the temperature in the liquid metal itself.
So the resistance of the to the temperature here is offered by the metal here it is offered by the
solid metal here again it is basically a function of the way that the solid is coupling with respect
to the mold wall there may be a small film for example formulated and we will do all these cases
independently when we do problem examples there may be another case here where the mold
itself is sort of thermal inertia I provides thermal inertia thermal resistance I am sorry and then it
basically again takes down the temperature.
And then obviously the air around the ambience around the mold wall which is also responsible
for the same so the thermal resistances which governed the entire solidification process can be
summarized to be those of the liquid the solidified metal the mild the metal mold interface the
way that the solid film is coupled with respect to the mold wall in case the mold wall is rough
there may be a near film in between in case supposing there is some kind of a you know proper
like in case of in you know aluminum mold and pressure die casting there is a proper boundary
between the metal to metal which is formulated.
They are also the estimate would be completely different then the mold itself that provides the
resistance and the ambient here okay. so the five different regions are indicated by 1 to 5 in this
curve here and obviously the solidification process is quite complex especially when complex
geometry freezing of alloys or temperature dependence of thermal properties is considered so
having said that let us now look at a simple example of how to calculate the temperature loss.
6
Let us say during solidification of a large casting in insulating more like the one in sand mold for
example this is a sand mode or maybe in even investment casting almost the entire thermal
resistance in this particular case is offered by the mold itself because the sand itself is a great
heat sink okay and so therefore whatever resistance is maximum offered is offered by the mold
so the analysis we give computes the freezing time by consider only in considering only the
thermal resistance of the region two of the graph shown earlier.
So this particular region where it talks on one side the ambient air on another side the liquid
metal and there is a mold resistance which is the principle thermal resistance being considered .
so let us assume some boundaries here we consider that the mold face of AB is as shown here is
held at a temperature θ freezing where the liquid is getting converted into solid so that is called
the freezing temperature the large mold initially at a temperature θ 0 is assumed to be extended all
the way up to ∞ in the X direction.
So you can assume this mold to be very large in comparison to dimensionally in comparison to
the casting the casting may only be a very small slab in comparison to the width of this sand
mold so X ∞ and at time T =0 we assume the liquid metal to be a temperature θ P and it has
been poured into the mold the moment it meets the face it comes to the temperature θ F which
ensures that it starts to freeze and then solidification front moves ahead you know with as a
function of time as a function of distance from the mold as well.
7
So we assume that the metal just in contact with the mold phase solidifies instantaneously in
other words the temperature of the mold phase is raised to a freezing temperature of the solid
liquid boundary time T=0 and is maintained at that value till the completion of the solidification
process so let us look at what is the temperature distribution in such a case which would happen
okay.
∂2 θ 1 ∂ θ
=
∂ x 2 α ∂t
∂2 θ ∂ ∂ θ ∂ η ∂θ η ∂2 θ
= ( ) = [ ]=
∂ x 2 ∂ x ∂ x ∂ x x ∂ η x ∂ η2
So the way that we do it is to try to solve you know the heat transfer one dimensional heat
∂2 θ 1 ∂ θ
transfer equation = where α seems to be the thermal diffusivity so θ is basically a
∂ x 2 α ∂t
function of X and time T and this is temperature and we want to first try to solve what is the
variation of what is the function or variation of θ with respect to X and with respect to t by
solution to this equation we already know that the boundary conditions allow this heat transfer at
X=0 the θ becomes θ freezing.
And you can say that at x =∞ that means the mold is infinitely large the θ may become equal to
the θ ambient or θ at ∞ you can say okay so that is how you do this calculation so that is how you
represent this and then we assume that θ0 is the ambient temperature in which this whole heat
8
transfer is taking place so having said that now let us actually use a similarity variable method
for solving this equation.
So we will create a variable here called η where η is basically X /2 √α T and η is a dimensionless

variable this is a dimension less variable we can compare the distance units with respect to the α
and time T so we first try to find out the ∂θ /∂T in terms of ∂θ/∂ η times of ∂ η /∂T okay and then
on the other side we derive ∂θ / ∂x with respect to ∂θ / ∂η times of ∂η by ∂X so from this
equation right here equation-1 ∂ η / ∂t = X /2√α-1/2*T-3/2 and which again means this is equal to
X /2αT hold on to the √x -1/2-1/2T.
So I can say that ∂/∂ t is nothing but – η/ 2t so in other words this expression right here changes
to ∂θ /∂ η x – η/2T similarly we would like to find out the expression for θ or ∂η by ∂X so the ∂ η
by ∂ X is 1 by 2 √ α T and this can be again represented as η/X and so I can say that similarly in
this case ∂θ /∂X becomes equal to η/x * ∂θ / ∂η okay so this can be equation-2 this can be
equation-3 and we need to now find out the second derivative of this so we just do ∂ / ∂ X of
∂θ /∂X which make sure we have ∂ / ∂X of η / x times of ∂θ / ∂η.
So again we apply the chain rule here so we have ∂(η / x)/ ∂x* ∂θ / ∂η + η / x * ∂/ ∂x of ∂θ / ∂η
and we can now change and differentiate this guy right here because obviously this η / x is only a
function of time as you could see here and so this would go to 0 and we are only left with η /x
times of ∂ / ∂ x times of ∂ θ / ∂ η so let us just again apply the chain rule here we have ∂ / ∂η
(∂θ / ∂ η)* η / ∂ X and ∂ η / ∂ X again comes out to be equal to n / x so we are left with the term
n / x 2 ∂2 θ / ∂x2
So having said that now let this be regarded as equation-4 so from Equation-2 3 and and 4 we
can actually put the value of ∂2θ / ∂ x2 into the heat transfer equation right here and same you can
put the value of ∂ θ / ∂ η from to back into the heat transfer equation here.
9
2 2
η ∂ θ 1 − η ∂θ
() =( )
x ∂ η2 α 2 t ∂ η
x2
η2 =
4 αt
2
∂θ ∂θ
2
=− 2 η =−2 ηy
∂η ∂η
2
−2 η
ln ( y )= +C
2
ln ( y )=− η2 +C
2
y=C 2 e− η
So we are left with η / X2 x ∂ 2 θ / ∂ η 2 equals1 / α * ∂ θ / ∂T which is actually equal to ∂ θ / ∂ η
times of - η / 2t so we have putting this value here 1 / α x of - η / 2 θ x ∂ θ / ∂ η. So having said
that it is you know little simpler to solve this equation and what we can do then is then we can
actually try to see what it have also η was estimated from the term X / 2 √ of α T and if I just
wanted to solve this equation that I formulated.
Let us call it equation 5 here which is square of η X2 (X∂2θ/∂η2 becomes equal to -η /2 αT x

∂θ/∂η okay further this η goes away okay. And we are left with η / X on one side either / X
square once I times of ∂2θ /∂η2 and this becomes equal to - 1/2αT ∂θ / ∂η so obviously square of
η can be represented as X2/4 * αT so if I were to just substitute here or convert this equation here
we get ∂ θ / ∂ η2 times of η equals - of X 2 .
Let us put it 2X2/4αT and this term right here is η2so it is - 2η2 okay and this can be estimated as
∂θ /∂ η on the side so we are now finally left with a term or an equation of the form completely
converted into the similarity variable η here okay so everything in terms of η and I call it
10
∂2θ/∂η2 equals - of 2η ∂θ/∂η so with this is the ordinary differential equation with one variable
and we would like to just solve it by integrating again.
So let us say if we assume ∂θ/∂η to be variable or value equals to let us say why here so we have
∂y/∂η equals -2η * y okay so we can easily solve this by taking why on the other side and
making it equal to2 η ∂ Nita we integrate on both sides so after integrating this becomes in y
when this becomes - 2η2/2 plus the constant of integration C. so in other words this can be
written down as in y equals square of η - plus C or Y becomes equal to some constant c2 times of
e to the power of - η2.
So let this be equation 6 so as our Y is actually equal to ∂ θ / ∂ η which can be written down as
C2 e to the power of - η2 so we can find out a solution for now θ as a function of η and η basically
involves the variables x and t and I am going to do that probably going to close this module now
in the interest of time but in the next class I am going to actually try to find out what is this θ you
know considering all the temperature boundary conditions etcetera so with this I would like to
end this session thank you so much you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
11
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
12
Course Title
Module- 25
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part1 module 25
We were talking about the temperature distribution of a sand molding and one side of the
molding on the temperature boundary condition was that equal to the freezing temperature of the
material the other side it was open to the atmosphere and we were trying to decide for what
would be the distribution of θ per sale with respect to time and temperature. So for that we
actually done this similarity variable analyses yesterday.
(Refer Slide Time: 00: 41)
1
Through which we got a variable η and then try to convert the transfer problem in time and
space to the variable η okay and so what we found out was his expression dθ/dη=y=c2η 2 or just
writing that back here dθ/dη=C2e-η2 meaning there by that θ can be represented as if you just
integrate θ you know dθ it can be represented as integral 0 to η, e -z2 dz+c1 and let’s now decide
for what are C2 and C1 through the normal boundary conditions so if supposing η which is
actually x/2√αt for x tending to 0 also becomes 0.
So the η tends to 0 here and that there would be actually equal to C1 and at the boundary of the
mold where x is 0 you already know that the θ has been defined as freezing temperature θf. It
may just recall this mold was the something like sand mold okay on one side of it the boundary
was corresponding to the start of x=0 as x would proceed all the way to ∞ add x to ∞ and there is
ambient air which should be all round this particular mold okay.
So θ=θf here and the other thing would correspond to eventually when for the large amount of
time the θ would tend to be equal to θ 0 at x=∞ meaning there by that you know it is always sort
of it is actually equal to room temperature obviously it’s very, very large distance away so it
should be equal to ambient temperature so this is θ0 okay.
So having said that now let us now try to evaluate θf becomes equal C1 corresponding to η=0 at
this particular phase you know θ= θf here and therefore θ can be represented as C2 integral 0 to
η, e-e2dz+ θf
2
And let’s look at the case when η is ∞ that means corresponding to x trending to infinity when θ
becomes equal θ0 so you have θ0 here this is C2 integral 0 to ∞ e-e2dz+ θf and this is actually
integral whose value is estimated as √pi/2.
So that is how you know you can estimate what is going to be the C2 value for in this particular
case the C2 times of √Π/2 happens to be equal θ 0-θf and so the C2 would come out to be equal
twice by √Π ( θ0-θf ). so having found out what is C2 and what is c1 through these two equations
I substitute this back into the final form of the equation here which we call 7 and try to find out
what is the distribution of θ.
So the θ then becomes equal C2. let’s write the equation once more C2 integral 0 to η e- e2dz+ θf
which is actually the temperature boundary condition along the phase of the mold on c2 here
becomes equal to again if you just look back C2becomes twice by √Π ( θ 0-θf ). so twice by √Π
( θ0-θf ) times of integral 0 to η e-e2dz+ θf so that is how θ is represented on another words if I
just wanted to add and delete θ0 so basically let’s say we had and believe θ0 here.
So I would have much simpler form of the expression as θ 0+ θf - θ0 times of (1-2√ η) 0 to η e-

e2
dz and this is nothing but the error function of the term η okay and η basically is nothing but
numerical integral so η basically nothing but x/2√αt and so therefore the value of θ comes out be
equal to θ0+ θf - θ0 times of 1-error function of x/2√αt so that is how I would I to finally express
the θ calling it equation 8 and then you know this is the only case where I have in the interest of
just
3
Detail knowledge I try to prove what is the value of θ you have to understand the all other
condition that are trying to happen including the condition where there is resistance at the you
know the mold wall because of the thin air fill developing between the liquid metal and the mold
or in the case when there is a liquid to liquid or a solid to solid complete welding you know
because of a solid mold the only things which vary there are the boundary conditions.
So we will try to sort of evaluate and various boundary condition and decide what is going to be
the transfer equation in those cases analyse there is curvature etc these are the normal modality
which are followed, so that is how you basically represents the temperature distribution function
of the mold as the function of distance and here it is probably for me to define the error function
so the error function of the function z can be written down series as twice by √Π times of z-z
cube /3! so this is from common knowledge of mathematics I’m not going to go into the details
of all this but just to the present because we need these illustration of these sort of you know
proof the various boundary condition etc.
And then also there are function of z as you know can be written down as the 2 by root pi times
of integral of 0 to z e-x2 dx and obviously the value of this integral of this numerical integral is
commonly available in tables through which you would like to sort of illustrate or actually try to
find out what are the real times of solidification etc based on distribution of etc. so also that d/dz
of this error function should be able to get represented as 2√Πe -z2 so these are some things we
call it equation 9,10 and 11 it’s the some of the basic mathematical forms of the error function
4
that we would like to investigate or like to use basically later on from our analyse point of view
and we already know how this error function is related with respect to θ with the function of x.
[
θ x ( t )=θ0 + ( θ f −θ 0 ) 1− erf
x
2 √ αt ]
Q́=− kA ( ddxθ )
x
x=0
So this is an actual summary of whole form of representation of θ so θx is now the temperature at
a distance x from the mold phase at the distance t and α is the thermal diffusivity which is
normally given my thermal conductivity k/row c that is how it was defined in the heat transfer
equation the thermal conductivity, rho is the density of the liquid metal.
And C is specific heat capacity density of the mold I’m sorry and heat is the specific heat
capacity of the mold as well this temperature distribution mind you in mold so it’s actually the
sand properties that we are evaluating here while doing the θ distribution within the sand mold
and therefore now you already know that the rate of heat flow which would happen from the
metal to the mold would really depend on –k , the thermal conductivity times the area of the
mold interface with respect to the liquid metal times of difference ingredient with respect to x so
this dθ/dx is something that we have to look at boundary x=0 so you already know that the sand
mold as I illustrated earlier had a boundary where the θ value that was there was corresponding
to the freezing temperature.
5
And the heat transfer that was happening was typically in this direction across the area of the
mold metal interface so the amount of heat quantity now heat rate Q dot that is minted from the
obviously the metal which is at the higher temperature to the mold is actually is depend on –ka
dθx/dx at x=0. so that is how you basically try to decide for the Q dot or the rate of heat transfer
so having said that now the obvious idea that would come into picture is how to sort of calculate
what is this Q dot okay.
And try to then illustrate everything in terms of temperatures θ f, θ0 so on so forth so we have to

somehow now be able to find out mathematically what is this dθx/dx from this expression θx so
that it should be able to calculate what is the rate of heat flow, so let’s do that. so here you have
side dq/dt which is actually equal to –kAdθx/dx from this simple four year law add x=0 and the
θx as a function of x has been given out as θ 0 times of θf-θ0 times of 1-the error function of
x/2√αt and therefore the δθx/δx here comes out equal to θ f-θ0 with the minus sign of course times
of 2√Π times of you know 1/√πt e-x2/αt2.
So that is how you calculate the error function because already I have defined d/dz of the error
e-z2
function of z as equal to 2/√Π okay. So in this case z off course is x/2√αt and so the d/dz of
e-x/2√αt2 so
the error function of x/2√αt would actually become 2/√Π it is basically 1/2√αt so having
said having said that.
z3 z5 z7
erf ( z )= (
2
√π
z
z− + −
3.1! 5.2! 7.3 !
+… )
2 2
−x
erf ( z )=
√π 0
∫ e dx
d 2 −z 2
erf ( z )= e
dz √π
So that is how we substituted this value right about here so let’s now look at what really that
would be so this is actually the two goes on√ here and we are left with at x=0 if you want to
calculate the δθ x/δx x=0 that becomes equal to θ 0-θf so the minus is taken inside times of 1/√
ΠαtE0 which is actually can be again further written as θ 0-θf/√Παt1/2 so that is how dθx/d and
therefore the dq/dt that I was talking about –k times of a times of θ0-θf divided by again the in
another words it can be written down as k θf-θ0/Παt 1/2 so that is how the dq/dtx=0 is going to be
defined.
6
So having said that now the total quantity of heat flow across the mold phase up to a certain time
t0
t0 is qt0 the total amount of heat is Qt =∫ Q́dt

0
okay so if I really want to put this integral here
0
kA ( θf −θ 0 )
to solve the Q0 had earlier the Q dot and come out to be Q́= , so this value would
√ παt
t0
2 kA ( θ f −θ 0 )
then actually be equal to Qt =∫ Q́dt= √t0 .
0
0 √ πα
So again so t-1/2∫-1/t1 that is how you calculate this integral okay so that is how your total heat
from time 0 to t0 across the mold phase would actually flow okay. next calculate the heat that the
liquid metal would reject in order to solidify so if the liquid metal as latent heat l , a specific heat
capacity to be Cm and density ϼm then the heat rejected by the liquid metal converting to solid
can be written down as ϼm times of v obviously the mass times of the mass that has been
converted into solid times of the latent heat l which goes on detected because there is a phase
change times of Cm the specific heat capacity of the metal from the poring temperature to the
freezing temperature. So you assume that the solid that has been formulated is at the θ freezing
point or θ freezing temperature.
7
And the poring temperature is different than the freezing temperature meaning there by you are
super heating the material in order to induce into the mold just that the time of solidification can
be delayed a little bit and you don’t have any problems in filling the mold with the reverse flow
of the riser side, so that in that situation you having the total amount of heat reject Qr=ϼmv[L+
Cm (θP-θf)].
QR =ρm V [ L+ Cm ( θ p −θ f ) ]
So have said that now if I incorporate this into our expression earlier so the total amount of heat
rejected should be the total heat that flows out so we have an equation KA/θf-θ0 times of √Πα
times of √t0 that is the amount of time this heat would take for translating okay so this I actually
call t0 at this point and I will let u know what exactly this value means should be equal to
ϼmv[L+ Cm (θP-θf)].
2 kA ( θf − θ0 )
√t s= ρm V [ L+C m ( θ p − θ f ) ]
√ πα
So this time t0 is nothing but the total amount of time that the liquid metal would need to solidify
and so therefore we can record this as the solidification time okay so this is how you principally
in principal calculate this solidification time of a certain mass of a liquid getting converted into
solid because of the heat transfer across the mold wall assuming that there is a temperature
distribution with the function of x starting at the mold wall onwards into the particular sand
mold.
So having said that I think I have sufficient justification for you to be able to estimate now we
took at practical problem so for that we need to probably break here and then go back into the
next module later on thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
8
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
9
Course Title
Module- 26
by
We will talking about then solidification time of a casting particularly a sand casting with the
certain temperature boundary condition observed rated and then we found out that the total
amount of time.
1
Q́=− kA ( ddxθ )
x
x=0
kA ( θf −θ 0 )
Q́=
√ παt
t0
2 kA ( θ f −θ 0 )
Qt =∫ Q́dt= √t0
0
0 √ πα
That is really needed is defined by this particular equation here given as equation 1 probably
okay which talks about how the heat rejected is going to be transport across a mold phase into
the mold.
2
So in other words we solidification time ts and by equation the heat rejected QR to the heat
2 kA ( θf − θ0 )
flowing across the mold phase is 0 at √t s and that equal to
√ πα
Q R =ρ m V [ L+ Cm ( θ p −θ f ) ] okay or the total time of solidification Ts can be proportional to the
volume per unit area square or the square of the you know length dimension, okay and this γ here
write here is a constant which is generated from this particular equation okay. So in any even less
just do how we arrived that it so obviously the Ts in this particular case?
2 kA ( θf − θ0 )
√t s= ρm V [ L+C m ( θ p − θ f ) ]
√ πα
ρm V [ L+C m ( θ p − θf ) ] √ πα
Could be √ ts in this particular case could be recorded as √ t s= so on
2 kA ( θ f −θ0 )
2
{ ρ [ L+C ( θ p −θ f ) ] } πα V 2
V
2
so forth. Or I can say t=
s
m m
{ 2k ( θ f −θ 0 ) }
2 ( )A
i.e. t s=γ ( )
A
where,
γ=
[ ρm √ πα { L+Cm ( θ p −θ f ) }
2 k ( θ f −θ 0) ] so this exactly as what I mean by γ .it is material property which
depends on the thermal conductivity of the mold to the density of the liquid metal the specific
heat capacity of the liquid metal and the latent heat of fusion, or solidification of the liquid metal
so therefore this it is responds and then.
3
The solidification time here can be assume to be proportional to the square of the length
parameter V / A volume by area that is a length okay, so having we said that it should be noted
that the forming analysis.
Assumes the plane metal mold interface AB okay is we will not encountered in engineering
practice because obviously there are seldom situations where there is actually a straight metal
phase, rather the metal that is being caste or of difference sizes and shapes that it can be it is
spherical ball that you are producing or may be it can be a concavity or convexity on the surface
that it could be so often we are required to find out the freezing time of complex contours in case
of actual metal solidification process.
And for such contours we all need to do is observe without any precise calculations the following
basic features to know whether the analyses is given in underestimate or an overestimate of the
actual freezing time so observe this features we considered three different types of mold metal
interfaces, mainly the convex which can be recorded here , a plane interface which we have
already done as used in our analyses, and a concavity which is here so in this particular case as
you can see.
That the heat flow is more divergent in nature okay in the convex right because this is how the
hot metal is placed and basically trying to conduct the heat outside in the mold in a divergent
4
direction okay, similarly in a concavity you have other way round that is all the heat is being
focused into a different into a one particular region so therefore it is convergent okay, so thus the
freezing time in such cases particularly if it is more divergent the rate obviously would be
somewhat more than hydrate be in a straight case.
Right because obviously you are not letting it out the heat flow on to a larger volume okay so
therefore you can say that with the time of analyses that we had in our planner case this would be
a little over estimated the freezing time in such a case would be kind of over estimated okay
because freezing would happen earlier in case the heat flow is divergent, but if the heat flow is
more convergent as in the concavity case so obviously we are underestimating so it is
consequently somewhat less than that in figure P.
So therefore the freezing time has to be different at least intuitively that is what we can look at
and see from these different shapes here and how the convexity or concavity may be able to
underestimate or overestimate the freezing time okay, so the quantitative for results.
5
Which are of the effect of the mold casting interface on the freezing time as they can be obtained
or some basic shapes and I am not going to go into the thermal engineering theory behind it and I
am going to just mention it has hand and thumb rules which we could actually follow to do the
designing which is a more important part here, write about here so before we gave these results
we define to non dimensional parameters namely one parameter we define is β which is actually
V /A
equal to β= where V is the volume is area α is again the thermal diffusivity K/ρC
√α ts
of the mold.
And Ts is the time of solidification and the other parameter that I would like to define is λ which
( θ f −θ 0 )
is actually given by λ= ρC where ρ and C are the density and the specific heat
ρ m L'
capacity of the mold whereas ρm is density , the is L dash is the latent heat of solidification of
the liquid metal, and this L dash is something which can be related to the difference between the
difference between the pouring and freezing temperature, this is basically the term
L' =L+Cm ( θ p −θ f ) that had been earlier illustrated in last analyses okay.
So this is the modified latent heat because of some you know issue of a higher pouring
temperature than the freezing temperature and just so hest losses by virtue of that for the pouring
temperature changing into the freezing temperature and the other part is go because of the
solidification which is completely done by latent heat, so obviously if this θP and θ for to be
6
equal to then L = L dash so that is how would estimated so in terms of these parameters, now let
us write the equation that we had seen earlier.
2 Ak ( θ f −θ 0 )
So V on one hand and √ t that is a heat total rejected across the mold phase, and
√ πα
the other one was related the solidification process, so density of liquid metal times of volume of
the metal plus the modified L' =L+Cm ( θ p −θ f ) which was actually g modified L dash okay, so
V 2 k ( θf − θ0 )
in other words I can arrange these terms together as = , so we know that
A √α t s √ πα ρm L'
for the mold the α thermal diffusivity is actually K / ρC where k is the thermal conductivity.
Of the mold and ρ and C is or the density of the mold and the specific heat capacity of the mold
V /A
so therefore the β value here, can be recorded as the β= which is actually the parameter
√α ts
β is at has been illustrated here, and the V / A value again you know actually is nothing but this
2 k ( θ f −θ 0)
right so this can be written down as okay so that is how β can be defined and the
√ πα ρm L'
θf – θ0 / ρm L dash this whole value times of ρC okay so if I were to multiply this with let say
you know juts by mentioning one by this expanding this term α is K/ρC.
2 ( θ f −θ0 ) ρC
I would actually be able to write this down as the K cancels out we have dash
√ π ρ m L'
okay so this guy is nothing but λ as you can see from this equation write here, so we have the
2
case where β can be defined in case of plain geometry, as β=λ so this is in case of
√π
planner geometry and the only difference that the concavity and the convexity would be made
will be actually in terms of this relationships and I am going to empirically now just the state all
this relationships so though getting into the integrity of proving details in fact if you need any
details about these expressions you can actually ask a separate question.
7
Question and maybe we will send you the interest of time the complete details but for infinitely
long cylinder, the relationship that would be given as β=λ

( √2π + 41β ) and for a sphere which
are generally the shapes you know more or less this expression would be β=λ
( √2π + 31β )
okay, so that is how we are going to record for cylinder case and sphere case and overall for a
planner geometry this is what it is so this is a planner geometry, so these are the three
assumptions 1 2 and 3.
That we would have for us be enabled to do problems solving as I will illustrate in the next
question.
So here for example there is a large plate of cross sectional area A which is being cast and I
would like to numerically now start estimating the time of solidifications, so you have
established or the relationship between the time after a pouring and the distance of solidification
front from the mold phase, assuming no super heat so we assume the pouring temperature is the
same as the freezing temperature so during the solidification of this plate shape it casting most of
the heat is rejected through the other four faces.
8
Okay and we can see that this kind of negligible okay, so you can see that most of the heat is
rejected and cross the face A and the other phases here or here are very, very small so their
rejection rate is probably not considerable here, so the solidification fronts starts moving mostly
in both the directions either in this direction or in this direction it is obviously the most of the
majority of the heat flow is in this direction, and in the solidification front moves through a
distance let say �T.
At some point of time t or it some instant of time T from the respective mold metal interface and
the heated rejected by each solidified a ½ will be now estimated as QR =ρm AδL obviously the
L dash is L here because θP and θf or same we are assuming that the and picture has been the
pouring temperature is nothing but the freezing temperature, so the L dash terms which was
'
either L =L+Cm ( θ p −θ f ) .
This would actually be the 0 component l and L dash will be similar so therefore it is only the
heat of heat of solidification, which is actually to come out and it has to be rejected so the L is
the latent heat of solidification okay.
Now the time taken to reject this much of heat through the mold face of the area A let say this is t
2 Ak ( θ f −θ 0 )
okay, then the Qr that is the heat rejected should be equal to QR = √ t where t is
√ πα
the total time that is needed okay, so therefore we can always say that the total amount of heat
9
rejected which I has earlier calculated here that is QR =ρm AδL is equated to this particular
amount of heat that is you know actually rejected.
So this is the heat translated for solidification to happen this is the heat which is rejected to equal
to each other, and so therefore we can say that

2
{ ρm AδL } = {
2 Ak ( θ f −θ 0 )
√ πα
√t } , α = K / ρC and
it would therefore me in that for the total times that is needed, for the whole process here to
happen is actually equal to ρm2 times of πα times of L2/ 2Ak let say we just take out the square of
A so we have A2 times of 2K [θf – θ0]2 okay so in this being the as calculation here for the
suppress of T.
2
{ ρm AδL } πα
And these guys go off and we are left with actually for term or t= 2 and
{2 Ak ( θf − θ0 ) }
supposing then the θp or not equal to θf on the pouring temperature was a different and there was
some degree of super heat and I would say that T then in that we were would be written down as
Pm or ρm times of 8πα times of L+Cm ( θ p −θ f ) . that is L dash value okay, and divided by
2
{2 k ( θ f −θ0 ) } okay L2 of � and another words that is what the γ is going to be and t is actually
2
t=γ δ or �t is a function of the time of solidification.
1
Becomes δ ( t )= √t okay so that is how the functional relationship would be obtained
√γ
between the time of pouring the distance of solidification front of the mold phase so the � is a
1
function of time is δ ( t )= √ t okay so that is how we do these questions so I will actually
√γ
close on here the and the interest of times so we just would like to end this particular module and
the next module we will do few numerical problems regarding this estimation of the time
solidification thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

10
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
11
Course Title
Module 27
By
Brief recap we were actually trying to look into the heat transfer across a mold phase given the
temperature boundary condition of the mold phase they would be equal to the freezing
temperature of the material and then we would also assume that at X equal to infinity all the way
from the mold phase the room temperature conditions exist that is theta equal to θ0 which exists
actually.
So here we would like to discuss another numerical problem where we want to determine the
solidification time of the following two cast iron pieces or iron castings.
1
V =lbh
A=2 ( lb+bh+lh ) ≈ 2 lb
V h
≈ =5∗ 10− 2 m
A 2
( 1540 −28 ) ∗ 1600∗ 1.17 ∗103
λ= =1.3256
7850 ∗272 ∗103
2
β= ∗ 1.3256=1.4957
√π
k 0.8655 −6
α= = =0.46 ∗ 10
ρc 1600∗ 1.17 ∗10 3
V 2
( )
α t s= 2
A
β
−4
25 ∗10
t s= −6
=2430 sec 0.675hr
2.24 ∗0.46 ∗ 10
(ii)
0.4419
β=1.4957+
β
2
β −1.4957 β −0.4419=0
4
π R3
V 3 5
= = ∗10− 2 m
A 4πR 3 2
2
V
( )
α t s= 2
A
β
25 ∗10− 4
t s= =198 sec 0.55hr
9 ∗3.05 ∗ 0.46∗ 10−6
2
When both are poured with no superheats that means in this particular case the theta pouring and
theta freezing are equal there is no super heating as such of the material so they are poured into
sand molds and the initial temperature of the sand mold or the room temperature could be about
28 degree Celsius. so in two cases one of the shapes that is being produced as lab shape at
casting tensile fatigue the other was about 10 centimeter diameter sphere.
So in both the cases there would be definitely different amount of heat transfer because of the
geometry and I think I had earlier mentioned about the geometry very clearly so the data of the
iron is given that the freezing is that means freezing temperature of solidification temperature is
1540 degrees Celsius this can be also the mold wall temperature and then you have the latent
heat of solidification is 272 kilo Joule per kg.
The density of the liquid metals about 7850 kg per meter cube and you know the density for the
specific heat capacity for the sand, C 1.17 kilo Joule per kg Kelvin the k the thermal conductivity
of the sand and the density of the sand has been given out to 0.8655 watt per meter Kelvin
and1600 kg per meter cube so having said that let us actually try to see how will solve a problem
so let us do part one first.
So let us assume l, b and h be the length breadth and thickness of this labs in the slab casting case
that is how we have assumed this okay so the volume of the castes V equal to V =lbh and the
3
surface area of the casting is a equals A=2 ( lb +bh+lh ) so we can assume that both the length
and breadth of the casting are very high in comparison to the thickness which is the case of a thin
slab okay.
And that is what we had illustrated earlier also so this can actually be written down as twice
because wherever there are the h components they can be safely neglected. so hence the V/A in
this particular case would be L be h by twice lb that is h by 2 and in this particular case the
height h thickness h of the casting has been provided earlier to be 10 centimeters so h by 2
becomes equal to 5 *10 to the power of -2 meters okay 5 centimeters.
V =lbh
A=2 ( lb+bh+lh ) ≈ 2 lb
V h
≈ =5∗ 10− 2 m
A 2
So as the superheat level is 0 we have condition the θ pouring equals θ freezing therefore which
is equal to L+Cm ( θ p −θ f ) . it becomes equal to L as these two guys are same to each other so
you have the value of L as 272 kilo joule per kg. Further you have theta zero equal to 28 degrees
Celsius.
( 1540 −28 ) ∗ 1600∗ 1.17 ∗103
λ= =1.3256
7850 ∗272 ∗103
So therefore we can write down both the coefficients λ and β. λ as per the earlier the deviation
or proof is theta f- theta zero / by Rho ml - times of C if you may remember we had brought out
4
two quantities β and λ and had correlated them with respect to each other as a function of the
geometry for the spherical case it would have some relation for the cylindrical thin cylinder case
it would have some other relation so on so.
For the so here we can write this down as 1540 -28 degrees Celsius times of density of the sand
mold times of specific heat capacity of the sine mode which is 1600kg per meter cube times 1.17
to the power of three 3 J/kg-K. so that is how you find out rho and C and this you have to divide
by the density that is density of the liquid metal so 7850 times of the L dash which is actually in
this case equal to L, 272 times often to the power of 3 Joule per kg-K okay.
So that is how you arrived at the λ value. λ is coming out to be 1.3252 in this particular case and
we also know further that the β is estimated as twice λ by root of particularly in case of thin
slabs. I think I had done this derivation or proof earlier how this relationship works out and so
this can be written down as twice by root of 3.14 times of 1.325 and that becomes 1.4947.
2
β= ∗ 1.3256=1.4957
√π
So that is how β coefficient can be calculated or correlated. now for the thin slab case let us
calculate what is the thermal diffusivity k/rho C where k is the conductivity across the mold and
C are the density of the mold and the specific heat capacity of the mold k has been already given
as 0.8655 watt per meterK divided by the density with the 1600 kg per meter cube times of the
specific heat capacity of the sand mold which is 1.17*103 Joules per kg Kelvin.
k 0.8655 −6
α= = =0.46 ∗ 10
ρc 1600∗ 1.17 ∗103
So this comes out to be equal to 0.46 into 10 to the power of minus 6 meter square per second.
Alpha ts becomes equal to V /A square by square of β as per the earlier expressions and this V /A
square is 25*10-4 meter square divided by the square of β which is 1.4947 square. so therefore
the value of ts comes out to be 25*10-4 / 1.4967 times of the value of the alpha will just come out
to be 0.46*10 to the power of minus 6 meter square per second.
V 2
( )
α t s= 2
A
β
−4
25 ∗10
t s= −6
=2430 sec 0.675hr
2.24 ∗0.46 ∗ 10
And this comes out to be equal to about 2430 seconds approximately 0.67 hours so that's how
much it would take about close to 40 odd minutes for the casting to solidify as far as the thin
castings case goes in this particular case. We just do the same for the sphere .so for sphere we
5
already know the λ value to be equal 1.3256 and the relationship between β and λ is governed
by the expression we try go to β=λ

( √2π + 31β ) .
So we can actually substitute the values of λ and π and find out expression for β equals 1.4957 +
0.4419/ β. so this brings us to a quadratic equation β square -1.4957 β- 0.4419 equals to zero. if
we take only the positive real root of this equation to find β then β can be written down as β = -b
± root over b Square- 4 ac by 2a okay.
0.4419
β=1.4957+
β
2
β −1.4957 β −0.4419=0
So calculating this β comes out to be equal to 1.75. now for a sphere of radius R equals 5
4
π R3
centimeters the V/A are really equals V 3 okay. so R by 3 and this can be written
=
A 4 π R2
5
down as ∗10− 2 m because the radius is 5 centimeters so α t s in this particular case would be
3
V/A square by square of β and this becomes to 25 by 9 times of 10 to the power of minus 4
divided by square of β s 3.05 is borrowed from the solution of here.
6
4
π R3
V 3 5 −2
= = ∗10 m
A 4πR 3 2
V 2
( )
α t s= 2
A
β
−4
25 ∗10
t s= −6
=198 sec 0.55hr
9 ∗3.05 ∗ 0.46∗ 10
or the ts value comes out to be equal to 198 seconds or 0.055 hours. So you can think about the
reduction in thecae from thin slab to sphere in the t s values time of solidification values so that is
how we basically try to arrive at solutions regarding t s or solidification time of the casting based
on geometry.
We still need to develop two more cases where we would like to illustrate particularly the you
know concept of thermal resistance and thermal capacitance so for that I would just urge you to
look into this electrical analogy of all you know thermal problems where there is a mass M of
specific heat capacity C.
Q=mC Δ T
And there is a heat input from one side output from the other and there's temperature gradient
which exists Delta T across this mass so we all know that the total amount of heat transferred
would be equal to Q=mC Δ T and mC is basically called the heat capacitance because this
7
can be an analogy between capacitor so in a capacitor if you have a charge Q flowing and
capacitance is C people have Q equal to C V relationship between the charge of the voltage here
the heat is the charge flow it is the analogy for charge flow and the voltage here.
The capacitance is having an analogy delta T which is the driving factor of the potential for the
heat to flow so obviously there has to be a temperature gradient this side has to have a higher
temperature and this to a lower temperature for the heat to move from the high temperature to the
low temperature so this is the gradient just like voltage gradient which carries forward charges in
electrical circuit shaving said that mC therefore is basically the capacitor equivalent C equivalent
in the thermal circuit.
So in our future analogies we may be needing to use this electrical analogy for understanding
what is the thermal capacitance or heat capacitance similarly we have the thermal resistance and
analogy where if we use throne-dimensional 4-years law the Q dot or the del Q by Del T the rate
of heat flow across this mass would be related to the temperature gradient delta T by X where X
is the length across which this delta temperature gradient exists and it will be proportional to this
temperature gradient and the proportionality constant here is the thermal conductivity times area.
So there is A very famous for Fourier’s law of heat conduction one dimension deep connections
I would like to just draw an analogy here between a resistor which is having current I across the
resistor is potential V because of which the currents formulated. so I which is actually rate of
charge flow same to rate of heat flow here becomes V by R that means whatever is a potential
divided by the R. so in this particular case the heat resistance comes out to be equal to R equals
X by K A.
So this is V this is the analogy and this X by K A becomes the resistance R okay so that's how we
get the thermal resistance so therefore just as the electrical circuit there is a you know there is a
potential drop that is also going to be a temperature drop as the heat front meets new material or
additional material.
So just for the sake of analogy please keep this in mind we will close this module here but in the
next module we will like to do again you know a different variation of the problem by seeing
what is going to be the boundary change if supposing there is an issue of the liquid not spreading
8
across the whole surface okay and so that is the air film which is formulated between the solid
boundary of the metal and the sand boundary okay so with this we like to end thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
9
Course Title
Module-28
By
We were talking about thermal resistance.
1
In case the metal boundary with the mold is a non-contact boundary or it has some kind of a semi
form boundary so in some common casting processes the heat flow is controlled significantly by
the thermal resistance of the mold metal interface so as I told you that temperature is basically
the voltage equivalent and the thermal resistance would be the reason because of which the heat
flow would actually happen.
So in this particular case as indicated in region 3 this is the mold metal interface okay and in
normally permanent mold casting and die casting you know there is a control so there is there
seldom that there is a condition of no contact resistance which would exist okay the reason being
that the metal is you know it really depends on how the metal is blending itself on the boundary
to the mold wall if.
The perfect wedding conditions are there and the metal is supposed to perfectly wet the mold
wall then there is no formulation of any contact resistance between the heat transfer process that
happens between the solidified front of the metal and the mold wall but if supposing the perfect
wedding conditions are not there which is normally the case in you know in real situations that
the metal may not be perfectly wetting the surface whether it is a die cast with whether it is like
an aluminum mold you know metal mold or it is a sand mold there is always going to be a wet
ability issues of that particular surface.
It is really a function of the surface energy of the liquid metal which comes across the surface as
well as the surface itself and so the there may be a film which is formulated and you know that's
2
why there is a change in the temperature you can see from θS to θS1 because of the formulation of
this field okay so this temperature change is purely because of a very thin film which is
formulated between let us say the solid here okay and the you know sand here so there is some
kind of a thin film here because of wettability okay or improper wet ability of the metal and this
is mostly an air film okay.
So in this study we will consider the solidification process assuming the thermal resistance of the
interface and will give some overriding importance to this resistance in comparison to the earlier
assumption that the point 2 is same as point 4 okay. so there is always this particular resistance
because of which there is temperature drop so in such a case the temperature distribution
assuming no superheat is kind of shown here okay we again consider one-dimensional heat flow
problem and try to solve this.
Q́=h f ( θ f − θ0 ) A
dδ
Rate of heat released=ρ m AL
dt
dδ hf ( θ f −θ 0 )
=
dt ρm L
h f ( θf −θ 0 )
δ ( t )= t
ρm L
ρm L V
t s=
hf ( θ f −θ 0 ) A
3
So our case here is that here the rate of heat flow through the interface is given as Q dot equals h f
.now this is the heat transfer coefficient for the thin film which is formulated here times of θf -θ 0
times A i.e. Q́=h f ( θ f − θ0 ) . let us just write this down. hf is the film heat transfer coefficient
of the interface and A is the surface area of the interface okay so if the solidification front at this
instant is delta distance from the mold phase then on solidification the rate of heat release can
be assumed to be ρm AL dδ / dt.
Q́=h f ( θ f − θ0 ) A
dδ
Rate of heat released=ρ m AL
dt
So we can think of it that there is no difference between the pouring and the freezing temperature
and that the latent heat normally is that because of the only the conversion the state conversion
so obviously the rate at which the solidification front is proceeding at time instants T is this dδ
by dt. so the total amount of volume which solve if I is a as function of time is a dδ / dt and this
volume multiplied by the density is basically giving the rate of mass solid mass formation.
dδ
So ρm AL is basically the rate of mass formation and per unit mass there is L kilo Joules or
dt
joules of heat energy which is generated as a heat of solidification okay. so therefore if I just
equate the total amount of energy that is released from the solidifying mass and the energy that is
absorbed or conducted through the heat the thin film which is formulated between the solidified
mass in the mould.
dδ hf ( θ f −θ 0 )
Then we have the equation dδ / dt equals the film heat transfer coefficient =
dt ρm L
okay. So this is how you will define the rate of movement of the solidification front so I can
actually try to find out the δ as a function of time.
4
So integrating this equation with let us say δ=0 at time t=0 there was no solidification front
produced at the initial time incidence of time when the pouring was happening so we get
h f ( θf −θ 0 )
δ ( t )= t . so if I compare this equation with the earlier example we see that the depth
ρm L
of solidification increases linearly here with respect to the time earlier it was proportional to
square root of the time.
ρm L V
t s=
hf ( θ f −θ 0 ) A
So the difference here is that the δ(t) is proportional to t vis-à-vis the case done earlier where δ
was proportional to √t okay so this was the case when we assumed just complete heat transfer
across the mold without any predominant interfacial resistance but here at the moment we have
introduced the concept of a thin film because of wet ability issues between the metal and the
mold you see that the time behavior at which this δ front is moving also changes.
So comparing this let us just write this down comparing this with earlier equation the δ (t )
here is proportional to T okay. the total heat rejected by the casting is given by L dash equals L
with the pouring temperature and freezing temperature identical that is θP = θF.
5
the heat flow through the interface during the period of solidification t s is hf * (θF-θ0 ) * ts .just
replacing the value to the solidification time so ts is obtained by equating the expression earlier.
So this expression with the with the equation ρm LV which is the total amount of heat rejected
for the whole casting of volume V to be solidified okay so therefore we just equate this ρm LV
with respect to hf * (θF-θ0 ) * Ats and so the ts here comes out to be equal to ρm L. Also we just
assumed the pouring and freezing temperatures to be same here please understand otherwise this
would be L’. I said as well as had been illustrated earlier in our earlier lectures.
So this becomes equal to ρm times of L divided by h f * (θF-θ0 ) times of volume by area okay so
in this case the volume by area is really proportional to the time t s so this is a completely
different case all together because in the earlier case it was (V/A) 2 that was getting proportional
to the ts so we will have to really consider the various aspects and you will see that the heat
transfer or that solidification time depends quite a bit on this different aspects related to whether
the film can be formulated at the surface wetting the whole surface so on so forth.
6
So the earlier equation is helpful in estimating the solidification time of small thin section
podcasts in heavy metal mold as is used in die or permanent mold casting cases. there is
obviously a contact angle difference between the way that wetting would happen at the surface of
these heavy metal molds with respect to the liquid metal so it may be noted at this stage that over
and above the interfacial resistance we have discussed.
There are significant differences between solidification process in a sand mold and that in a chill
or a metal mold and there are two different ways in which the later differs from the former the
thermal conductivity of the solid defied metal may provide considerable thermal resistance let us
refer to this region of the curve that we had earlier done here region 4 okay. so this is
corresponding to the thermal conductivity based you know of the solidified metal itself.
This is the solidified metal part so there would be a obviously a drop in temperature from the
inner boundary to the outer boundary okay because of the resistance of the solidified part of the
metal. so because of this the surface temperature of the casting θ S which is somewhere here okay
which is facing the mold becomes much lower in comparison to the freezing temperature. so
therefore there is a solid boundary which has been formulated and a film.
So the temperature here may be θ freezing okay because there is a solid liquid interface but here
it may be something like θS which means that this is after the thermal resistance of the solid
metal as well as the air film okay so the temperature is lower in comparison to the θ F so because
of the sub-cooled solidified metal more heat than that considered in earlier section has to be
7
removed as the heat capacity of the solid fired metal also plays an important role in the rate of
the solidification process okay.
So that is how the thermal properties of the solicitation metal is important sometimes an
estimation of the mold okay so in the interest of time we will now close this module but then in
the next model you will be able to formulate you know solidification with constant casting
surface temperature there is something that we would like to see including all these different
resistances that we have just talked about so that can be it can be more towards the realistic
estimation of the solidification time so with this I would like to close this particular module
thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia
8
@copyright reserved
9
Course Title
Module- 29
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 module 29, we will be now
discussing a case of you know a thin section mold with the mold is metallic and primarily the
thermal conductivity of the mold is much, much larger in comparison to the metal which is been
solidify and we would also try to estimate in this condition what is going to be the solidification
time, okay.
So we have so far covered two different cases just to recall one was a plane sand casting where
we assume prefect welding condition and then we introduced a non-wetting condition and then
try to estimate the heat transfer assuming interfacial resistance because of a thin air film
formulated between the casting and the surface., so in this particular case we are having a small
thin section mold with a large casting which is you know predominantly the region 4 on the
curve that we shoed earlier would be the cause of all the temperature difference, okay. So the
thermal resistance of more important consequence would be actually.
1
In this particular case only the region 4, as can be illustrated in this particular figure here so
having said that let us look at what is going to be the surface temperatures also what is going to
be the solidification time that such a process would actually need.
2
So if a large slab shaped casting is produced in thin water cooled mold made up of metal say
copper having much larger conductivity then the solidified casting then the thermal resistance
provided by the interfacial region between the solid and the mold would kind of be eliminated,
okay, it is insignificant almost. So in such a case the predominant thermal resistance would be
offered by the region 4 is I just shown, so neglecting the thermal resistances of all the other
regions the temperature distribution at any instance takes the shape shown in the figure below
right here, okay.
So here the mold metal interface or the casting surface temperature θz or θs can be assumed to
remain constant in time particularly because the mold is also water cooled okay, so you have a
completely water cooled thin mold so obviously there is going to be a you know constancy of the
surface temperature of this particular metal, so let us assume that thermal temperature to be θ s=θ0
okay, and let us also assume the freezing temperature to be θf which is not different in the poring,
so poring and freezing are same.
So it indicates the freezing temperature of the metal and at any incidents t, δt indicates the depth
of solidification as you can see particularly here this is the solid liquid front and it is moving
ahead at dδ(t)/dt and δt is the instantaneous thickness of the shell which is being developed here
solid shell and the process can be idealized without much error as a one dimensional heat transfer
problem particular because we are having almost a heat sink you know as a mold because some
water cooled mold and so therefore the heat and transfer would be typically one dimensional.
3
The maximum resistance thermal resistance which is offered to this liquid temperature of the
freezing temperature is really the solid, solidified portion of the mold and the other end of this is
really a constant temperature surface or constant casting surface temperature θs. So let us see this
kind of a problem what really happens or how, what would be the estimation of the solidification
time.
θ −θ s x
θ∞− θs
=erf
(
2 √ αs t )
δ (t ) θ −θ s
erf
( )
= f
2 √ α s t θ ∞ − θs
=λ
δ ( t )=2 ζ √ α s t
∂θ dδ
ks =ρm L
∂ x x=δ dt
∂θ
∂x
= ( θ ∞ − θs )
d
dx
erf
[ ( )]
x
2√ α s t
[ ( √ )]
2
1 2 x
( θ∞ −θ s ) ∗exp −
2 √αs t √π 2 α st
ks
[ ( √ )]
2
1 x dδ
( θ− θs ) exp − =ρ m L
dt
√α s √ πt 2 αs t
θ −θ 1 −ζ 2
1
√ k s ρm C s erff ( ζ s) e =ρm L √α s
√ πt √t
2 θ f −θ s C s
ζ e −ζ erf ( ζ )=
√π L
4
2 √ α s t S=h/2
h2
t S=
16 α s ζ 2
So let us estimates the solidification time ts, so we get dδ(ts) should be really equal to half the
thickness of the mold. we assume mold thickness here or casting thickness here to be equal to h,
so therefore there is heat transfer from both sides of the casting so therefore h/2 is really the
plane along which the solidification trans from both sides with propagate and stop, okay. So the
temperature profile within the range x varying between 0 and δt is given by
θ −θ s x
θ∞− θs
=erf
(
2 √ αs t ) . I think you had earlier talked about this details when we did the
thermal conductivity and temperature distribution across the sand mold.

So I am not going to illustrate how this equation came or you do already know that it was from a
similarity variable analysis and one dimensional heat transfer problem which we actually solved
to obtain in the case of sand mold okay, so in this case I will just mention that θ∞ is a integration
constant and we will not bother about it because ultimately we need not use this value for our
calculations okay, so this is the constant of integration if you remember the whole process of the
solution there were many integrals which were formulated in order to estimate the real value of
θ.
An αs basically is the thermal diffusivity of the mold which was actually also recorded as the
thermal conductivity of the mold per unit density transfer of heat capacity of the mold. So at x=
let us say δ(t), θ the temperature is actually the freezing temperature right, θ f so I would put this
value of x and θ in this particular equation we have the error function of δ(t)/2√α st is estimated as
θf-θs/θ∞-θs is remind you this is the casting surface temperature, okay you are assuming that the
mold is water cooled and acts as a sink so this actually cannot change because the freezing point
and the casting surface temperature are similar so are the constant of integration θ ∞ and θs .so
therefore this is really a constant, λ okay. Let us call this constant λ, so we now have then.
δ (t ) θ −θ s
erf
( )
= f
2 √ α s t θ ∞ − θs
=λ
5
The error function of (x/2√αst)=λ further let us x=δ(t). so further let us assume that there is
another ratio defined as ζ which is actually equal to this δ(t)/2√α st or in other words δ(t) is
basically ζ.2√αst and we have the term written as error function of ζ=λ. Once again, we find that
the depth of solidification varies as the square root of time as you can get an illustration here.
Now the constant ζ has to be determined in order to find out the time of solidification okay, along
these two relationships which are here.
δ ( t )=2 ζ √ α s t
So let us consider the rate of energy flow or the energy balance at the solid, liquid interface we
have ks ∂θ/∂x at x=δ, equals to ρmLdλ/dt so obviously at this front δ which is the you know this is
the mold, this is the solid part and this is basically the liquid part so we are talking about this x=δ
as function of times so if there is a depth the gradient dθ/dx which exists at x=δ that times of the
thermal conductivity of the solid ks should be equal to the total amount of heat rate that is
liberated because of the moving front we assume that at incidence t this front is moving at a rate
dδ/dt.
∂θ dδ
ks =ρm L
∂ x x=δ dt
So the area terms get cancelled here, areas are on both sides actually so you have the rate of
change of volume times of the specific latent heat okay, so that is times of densities basically the
total amount of heat rejected out of the solidifying metal and ksa ∂θ/∂x at x=δ the total amount of
heat which comes out of the liquefied metal into the solid liquid boundaries, so they should be
heat balanced so ks here in this particular case is the conductivity of the solidified metal and this
6
can be written down as αs ρm(cs), cs is the specific heat capacity of the solidified material and ρm
is the density of metal which is same in solid and liquid state okay, so this is the unified density
does not change much with respect to solidification at the freezing temperature.
So therefore the ∂θ/∂x should be defined as from there should be defined from the equation that
we have considered earlier for the θ right about here okay, so here we had the θ to be equal to
θs+θ∞-θs times of the error function of x/2√αst okay, so from here we can calculate ∂θ/∂x as θ∞-
θs(d/dx) of the error function of x/2√αst okay, so let me just write this down that here again.
∂θ
∂x
= ( θ ∞ − θs )
d
[ ( )]
dx
erf
x
2√ α s t
[ ( √ )]
2
1 2 x
( θ∞ −θ s ) ∗exp −
2 √αs t √π 2 α st
7
I am just borrowing it from earlier equation so (θ ∞-θs)d/dx times of the error function x/2√αst
and .therefore this can be you know defined as (θ ∞-θs)1/2√αst. I am going to just differentiate this
error function times of again 2/√π exp[-(x/2√αst)2 okay, so that is how the error function is
differentiated I think I have mentioned it in the last lecture and so this really can be put back into
the equation that we were doing earlier as ks∂θ/∂x at k=∂ we can actually put this as ks/√α s (θ∞-
θs)1/√πt okay, exponential and this becomes -∂/2√αst2 and that can be equated to ρmLdδ/dt okay,
in order to find out what is going to be the dδ/dt in this particular case.
So we can substitute the value of α as here as √ks/ρ mcs okay, where again it is a thermal
diffusivity of the solid phase so it is can be defined as the thermal conductivity of the solid phase
per unit the density of the solid or liquid metal similar to each other times of the specific heat
capacity of the solid phase, okay. So this we substitute for θ ∞-θs so that is what we substitute the
equation and δ which earlier was 2ζ√αst from what we have concluded here earlier okay, so we
had assumed this ζ to be δt/√2αst.
So when we substitute this back let us see what is going to be the final form so the first thing that
I would like to get is expression for dδ/dt from this term so dδ/dt becomes equal to 2ζ being
constant √αs/√t this goes away so we are left with ζ√α s/√t and on the other hand we have the from
equations done earlier here.
8
We have that the θ-θs really is a function of θ ∞-θs error function of the term ζ okay, this was ζ
corresponding to x tending to δ if you may just remember okay. So if I just substitute this value
here on the expression which I formulated in the last step this expression right here let us call it
equation 1, then we have.
9
√ksρmcs θf-θs/errf(ζ)1/√πt e-ζ2*ρmLζ√αs/√t, so basically on one hand we are substituting the value
of δ okay, dδ/dt from this expression here another hand this term θ ∞-θs is replaced by θ-θs so
therefore this is how the expression gets formulated after the substitutions of these two values
respectively that the δ/dt and the θ∞-θs, so I will just now condense this expression.
ks
[ ( )]
2
1 x dδ
( θ− θs ) exp − =ρ m L
dt
√α s √ πt 2 √ αs t
θ −θ 1 −ζ 2
1
√ k s ρm C s erff ( ζ s) e =ρm L √α s
√ πt √t
10
And write this as ζeζ2 error function of ζ on one side okay, is equal to θ f-θs/√π cs/L, so typically if
you wanted to find out what is going to be the value of ζ, so ζ as you already are aware is
basically δt/2√αst and this δ tends to h/2 if the casting is completely solidified so the ζ here would
typically b=h/4√αst or if I am able to find out the value of ζ all I need to do is to do ζ 2=h2/16αsts
and obviously when δ is h/2 t becomes t s that means it solidifying the whole casting at that one if
point of time.
And the ts becomes equal to h2/16αsζ2 so the trick here really is to find out what is this ζ from this
equation right now here and this would need estimation for numerical integration method and
there are standard tables which have to be obtained for the error function corresponding to the
different values of ζ so that the left hand side and right hand side of this equation 1 can be away
and from that you can have the time of solidification as the h 2/16αs mind you this is the thermal
diffusivity of the solid part which is ks/ρmcs you had earlier seen.
θ −θ 1 2
1
√ k s ρm C s erff ( ζ s) πt e− ζ =ρm L √α s t
√ √
2 θ −θ s C s
ζ e −ζ erf ( ζ )= f
√π L
2 √ α s t S=h/2
2
h
t S=
16 α s ζ 2
How we have substituted into the expression times of the ζ 2okay, let me just write this there little
proper manner here okay, so this is times of ζ2. So I think we now can iteratively sort of estimate
what is going to be the solidification time and we will see in this particular case also numerically
11
how the time is going to get varied because of this constant casting surface temperature. So in the
interest of time we will close on this module and probably explore a little more of this processes
in the next module, thank you so much. Bye.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

12
Course Title
Module- 30
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part I module 30.
We were talking about two different cases where in one case we had a predominant thermal
resistance given by the solidified metal and in case previous to that there was a problem related
to the wetting of the surface because of which there was the thin film which was the interfacial
thermal resistance which is of predominant nature. So in the case there was.
1
Predominance of the solidified metal or this portion was predominated, with a constant casting
surface temperature meaning there by that this mould was a thin mould and we would like to
water cool or something, so that it is like gate heat sink and so this surface temperature would
become more or less constant because of that process. So in this particular case.
2
We already calculate that the terms ζ is the error function of ζ was made = θf – θs/ √π Cs/L from
ζ2
the previous derivation that we have made and this value ζe had to be calculated from you
know various values of ζ where the right and left equal to each other. So basically corresponding
to different ζ there would be standards tables called error function tables something like what
you can see here.
3
So you have the x value here and you have the error function of x here, so corresponding to
certain x value the error function is defined in this particular entry here on the column
ζ2
corresponding error function of x. so the idea is that you know this ζ e whatever be that we
have to plot with the respect to ζ value okay in a graph, various values could be obtained of the ζ
corresponding to which the error functions are defined here and from this graph we would like to
see where along this graph exactly.
The right hand side of this particular equation θf – θs/ √π Cs/L would be matching and that
would be corresponding ζ value and from that you can easily find out what is the time of
solidification by the formulation f2/16 ζ2αs and this was in the case the predominately solidifying
material or metal to be the most important component defining the thermal resistances.
4
The other case we would like to illustrate here with predominant resistance in mould and
solidified metal, would be the case where obviously we assume the copper mould which is a
highly conducting mould with respect to the metal where that it is basically solidifying, it is quiet
thick. It is the thin mould that we had illustrated earlier and this is not water cool. So therefore
there is going to be a gradient of temperature from the mould surface, all the way to outer surface
of the mould and let us consider this temperature to be θs and θ0.
So this is the only difference in this particular case where there constant casting surface
temperature was established because of that, so in the mould- metal interface the temperature θ s
can no longer be assumed to remain at its initial value θ 0. So obviously θs will change and θs still
assume to be constant is the thermal properties of the mould and the solidified metal. And
moreover after the initial stage of the solidification interface resistance also becomes very very
negligible.
So we do not consider because it is metal to metal weld the hardly any interface that would
happen. So in this particular case only significant thermal resistance is offered by region 2 and
the region 4 okay, so the 2 is this region and 4 is particularly this region and the resulting
distribution temperature any instances shown in the figure. So assuming the mould to be semi
infinite medium in the negative x direction. So this mould starts from x = 0 at the interface of the
phase of the mould and all the way to the other end of the atmosphere end, so it is the negative x
direction.
5
The temperature distribution can be again written down as θ – θs/ θ0 – θs = the error function of (–
x/2√at). So this is completely on the basis of distribution, you know the solution of the one
dimensional equation, that we did at first instance when we consider the temperature distribution
of the sand moulding only thing here changing is the boundary condition and nothing else. So
this is for all the x < 0 because obviously corresponding to x more than 0 the temperature would
be higher because the solidified metal at least freezing point is higher.
So for x< 0 this would be the relationship that holds and in the solidified metal that means the
corresponding x > 0 the equation would change θ –θ s / θ∞ - θs again this is the integration
constant just as what talked out in the earlier cases and this actually is due to the error function of
x/2√αst where the αs is the thermal diffusivity of solidified metal. This α corresponding to the αp
mould okay, so please be very careful about what this metals.
θ −θ s x
θ 0 − θs
=erf (
2 √αt )
for x< 0
θ −θ s x
θ∞− θs
=erf
(
2 √ αs t )
for x >0
So I am not going to prove the distribution function as such because I think I have already
illustrated corresponding to the sand boundaries how these functions behaves. So θ 0 obviously is
the initial temperature of the mould and it has mould metal interface temperature, θ ∞ integration
constant as been defined here earlier.
6
The other conditions need to be satisfied one of them is the balance of heat flux at the mould
metal interface that is Ks ∂θ/∂x at x = either 0+, K s basically is that the thermal conductivity of
the solidified metal sight okay and that of the mould sights, so that we called as K ∂θ/∂x at x = 0-
oaky. So the amount of heat of the solidified metal side and that of the mould side there should
be equal to each other in this particular illustration.
x =0 −
∂θ
x=0+¿ k
∂ x❑
∂θ
ks
∂ x❑
Number 2 is that the rate of energy flow balance at the solid, liquid interface that is K s ∂θ/∂x at x
=∆, which is basically at instant t okay. If I just look back in this figure the metal as probably
gone all the way upto ∆ at the certain time is t at it is still expanding at the rate ∂θ/∂ ∂/ dt. So thi
should be = to the amount of heat that is liberated by virtue of the solidification process and I do
not need to illustrate how we obtain in the earlier. So it is ρ m times of L ∂θ/dt assuming again the
poring and freezing temperatures to be same to each other.
∂θ dδ
ks =ρm L
∂ x x=δ dt
θ ( δ , t )=θ f
So having said that now this is the 2nd condition that has to be satisfied that the amount of heat
that is liberated from the solid okay, it will ∂ is the amount of the heat that flows out into
interface okay solid metal liquid interface and then obviously the 3 rd condition that needs to be
obeyed is this ∂, t at which this temperature should be = to the freezing point of the material
7
otherwise there is no point having the interface between the solid and liquid. So this is actually
necessarily = θf, so all the above equations.
ζ2
Can be combined to give θf – θs times of Cs/ L √π = ζ e in a similar manner as I have solved
ζ2
earlier and also the θ∞ – θs times of Cs divided by L √π = ζ e and θs –θ0/ θ∞ – θs = (Ks ρmcs/
kρc)1/2 which is actually = Ф constant in this particular case okay. So these are the result of all,
you know manipulation of ∂θ/∂x at x + 0 or at x-0 so on so forth. So that all the 3 conditions are
earlier can be satisfied okay and so the 3 unknowns namely θs, θ∞ and ζ can be solved from these
3 equations θs – θ0 times of Cs / L √π = ζ e ζ2 Ф and θf – θ 0 times of Cs / L √π = ζ e ζ2
err function
ζ + Ф oaky.
θ f −θ s 2
=ζ e ζ erf ( ζ )
L √π
( θ∞ −θ s ) 2
ζ
=ζ e
L √π
0.5
θ s −θ0 k s ρm C s
θ∞− θs
= ( kρC ) =∅ ( const )
So you can just compare all this by looking at this side here so obviously we have θ∞ - θs being
recorded here from equation 3 as θs – θ 0/ ∅ that is exactly what we are substituting here in
this particular equation θ∞- θs and so you are getting this 1st equation from the solution of this, by
submission of θs - θ∞ the value obtained here. And the other equation here is obtained by simply
8
adding the π value from this particular equation right about here to obtain you knows. So here for
example you are trying to solve (θf – θs ) Cs / L √π = ζ e ζ2. So already we know that this θs – θ0
times Cs/ L √π is this ζ e ζ2 + Ф.
Cs 2
( θ s −θ 0 ) =ζ eζ ∅
L √π
Cs 2
( θ f − θ0 ) =ζ e ζ [ erf ( ζ ) +∅ ]
L√ π
So let us call this equation 1 and 2 if we add 1 to 2, so adding 1 and 2, we get θf – θ0 times Cs/ L
ζ2
√π is this ζ e err function ζ + Ф, which is actually this particular equation obtained here okay,
just adding 1 to 2 okay. so you find out now that in the case where the resistance comes from
predominately from the solidified as well as the the mould solid boundary there is a slight
modification to the equation that was earlier there only for the predominately mould boundary
case.
Solidified metal case, in this case the only addition that has been happened actually is to the right
hand side and this new constant Ф the ratio between the Ks ρm, Cs and K ρc, those associated
with the properties of the mould that is in question. So this new Ф gets added up in this
expression which would give predominately resistance in mould as well as solidified metals.
So let us do some problem example now, so one of the numerical problems for example here we
determined the solidification time of the slab shaped casting considered in the earlier example.
9
Casting is done in water cool copper mould, so basically this is the case corresponding to the
constant casting surface temperature meaning there by that this is the case of water cool thin
copper mould and the other one is the thick copper mould, where the predominant resistance
would come from the solidified metal portion as well as the mould metal interface okay.
In both the cases assume more resistance at the mould metal interface by the thin film of air or
something, the mould itself you know having itself a good joint with the metal there is hardly
any contact angel issue at the interface. So the following data is given for the iron the solid metal
the specific capacity is 0.67 kJ/kg-K. The thermal conductivity of the solid iron metal is about 83
W/m-K, θs is the freezing temperature 400 c all these basically the 272kJ/kg and the density of
the liquid metal or the solid metal both are about 7850kg for the iron metal.
The solidified metal and for the mould side the copper similar observation as been made for the
thermal specific heat capacity, the density of the material and the thermal conductivity of the
material. So having said that let us now try to sort of go ahead and solve this problem.
So in the 1st case we know that the we consider the case of thin copper mould with water cooling,
obviously the casting surface temperature will be constant, I can say θ 0 and θs are similar to each
other. So in that instance if we apply in the corresponding equation, just as illustrated here, where
this ζ e ζ2 * error function of ζ = θ s/√π. So we have θs as room temperature here we assume that to
10
be 280c. The height of the casting is 0.1m about 10cm that is the thickness so the ζ e ζ2
* error
function of ζ = θs/√π Cs/ L.
Where this is the specific heat capacity of the solid metal, this is the heat of solidification of iron,
so we just put the values here the freezing temperature 1540 degrees – 28 times of 0.67 which is
the specific heat capacity of the solid metal divided by 272 these are Kj we do not need to
illustrate converting these into joules anymore oaky. So there is the kilo joule in the numerator
and denominator oaky. So this becomes the = 2.1, so if we really want to see by plotting a graph
of ζ with this term ζ e ζ2, where these two would correspond to you know the whole expression
here being corresponded to = 2.1.
2 ( 1540 −28 ) ∗ 0.67
ζ e ζ erf ( ζ )= =2.1
272 √ 3.14
So corresponding to ζ value 0.98 which we can read from these tables as been illustrated earlier,
so 0.98 is somewhere close to 1, so the error function ζ is 0.8427. so infact you know what I am
trying to say here is that 0.8427 which is the value of the error function, this error function of ζ
times of e ζ2 so 0.98 times of 0.98, so this calculation should be = 2.1 or nearby. So this is equated
process for estimating the ζ value by again checking the different values of ζ corresponding to
which the LHS right hand side of this particular what you balance to each other.
So therefore the ζ value corresponding to 0.98 would definitely call for the solidification time t s
now, for that we need to calculate what is αs so αs here in this case is heat conductivity or thermal
conductivity of the solid metal/ density of the solid and liquid metal capacities of Cs of the solid
metal. So this becomes = 83/7850 the density times of 0.67 into 10 3m2. Please be very careful of
6
the units. So this comes out to be = 15.8 x 10 m2/sec and the solidification time therefore Ks
would happen to be h2/16 times of 15.8 10 -6 and this comes out to be 0.0115 hour okay.
ks 83 −6 2
α s= = =15.8 ∗10 m / sec
ρm C s 7850 ∗.67 ∗ 1000
0.1∗ 0.1
t s= −6
=0.0115 hr
16 ∗0.98 ∗ 0.98∗ 15.8 ∗10
So that is how the value of ts can be calculated in this particular case. So as regards the
estimation of the time of solidification for the 2 nd case we will see that there is slight variation in
the time of solidification, it is going to be a liitle more than this case because of this we are
11
adding more resistances to the heat flow path by taking also the mould as a sink in the in the
thick cooper mould case.
So let us do the problem now, so for the thick copper mould without water cooling, I would like
to find out first what is going to be the Ф value here. Ф is obviously ratio (K sρmCs/ kρc)1/2. So this
comes out to be 83 times of 7850 the density of the liquid metals times of the specific heat
capacity of the solid metals divided by 398 the thermal conductivity of the mould, times the
density of the mould material times the specific heat capacity, so this becomes = 0.57 and
corresponding to θ0 of 280C, ζ e ζ2
+ 0.57 which is the Ф value here, should be equal to the
freezing minus room temperature θ0 divided by this specific latent heat of solidification times of
√π times of the c.
0.5
83 ∗7850 ∗0.67
∅= (398∗ 8960 ∗0.376 ) =0.57
2 ( 1540 −28 ) ∗ 0.67
ζ e ζ [ erf ( ζ ) +∅ ] = =2.1
272 √ 3.14
ζ =0.70
The specific heats capacity of the metal, solidified metals 0.67 values. So this becomes again 2.1
okay and this particular case as if we calculate the based on you know the equations that we have
done earlier, the equation gets balanced, the left and right side corresponding to ζ value of 0.815.
ζ2
So again a graph of ζ versus ζ e needs to be plotted in order to a certain corresponding ζ would
12
actually give you the LHS and RHS as equality. So having said that now therefore times of the
thermal diffusivity 15.8 *10-6 as calculated before.
This comes out be 0.0165 hours, so obviously it is little more because now you are seeing that
the applying resistance in comparison to you knows over all process. So therefore the resistance
of the heat flowing increase here and it needs more time for the temperature to come to the
freezing point and therefore the time of solidification in this case is more in comparison to the
other case where the mould acts like as a heat sink and there is constant casting surface
temperature because of that.
0.1 ∗ 0.1
t s= −6
=0.0226 hr
16 ∗0.1 ∗0.1 ∗15.8 ∗ 10
θ f −θ s 2
=ζ e ζ erf ( ζ )
L √π
( 1540− θs ) 0.67 0.49
=0.7 e erf ( 0.7 )
272 √ π
θs =982 degree C
So the surface temperature of the metal θc or θs, this can be estimated as 1540 minus 854 that is
685.40 C, so that is what the value will before the surface temperature of the metal in this
particular case. So obviously how we have estimated gate is from the again the error function of
by just calculating the θs value. Which can be done by any of these equation, θs in this particular
case would be θs – θ0 times = ζ e ζ2πL√π Cs and θs = θ0 + ζ e ζ2πL√π Cs okay.
So that is how the 685.4 can be calculated, so having said that I am kind of done with heat
transfer theory so in summary we have seen what happens when there is the case where the sand
mould is completely is the only resistive part of the heat transfer or the heat flow. In case 2 where
the thin film formulated because of differences in contact angels and incomplete with respect to
the solid surface and case 3 again where we have considered a thin mould with water cooling, so
that you know you have this predominate interfacial.
So the only resistance left in the whole picture is basically the resistance of the solid metal part
and then in the finally case 4 where without water cooling, so that the two components that is the
mould resistance as well as the solid metal both of them are predominate nature. So in this case
you have also seen that the time of solidification also based on more and more resistance added
to the heat flow goes higher because now more time is needed for the freezing point.
13
So having said that I think I am done with all the heat transfer issues and castling how to design
the casting for the solidification, so think of it now as to be with the times scales on the riser on
the idea is the back flow to sustain within this time so that the metal get solidified fully and then
there is always possibility of refer, so you have to design from an overall sense all these
problems together considering all these cases together for a realistic casting design. That we are
going to do in probably in the next module up till then good bye thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
14
15
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology – Part – 1
Module – 31
by
Hello and welcome to manufacturing process technology part 1, module 31. In the last
module we had obtained some numerical forms for two different cases of casting one with the
thick mould another with the thin mould with cooling and we had found out what are the
various times of solidification which would result from such an architect on of the mould.
Today we are just going to talk about a little different, slightly different aspect of casting
which is also the riser placement and design. So riser as you know is a, it is on the basically
one end of the casting connecting the casting which is supposed to fill with liquid metal
during the process of pouring. And the idea is that in case the metal shrinks or there is some
kind of the ovens becomes of that obviously the pattern also takes care of that.
But still in the process dynamically if you have to do a reverse feed the riser should be able to
do that flow in of the material, so that it can fill the mould cavity. So the important question
here is that the mould should be able to have a time of solidification which is actually lower
1
than the time of solidification of the lower than the, I am sorry lower than the time of
solidification of the riser.
So the riser should be able to be in liquid form to feed to the mould and it is own time of
solidification through geometry can be designed in a manner, so that it has a slow cooling or
it has a higher time of solidification then the basic mould.
t sriser ≫t scasting
2
V
ts∝ ( )
A
So having this premise into picture let us actually see how we do the designs from the heat
transfer analysis present earlier, we have found without that the solidification time really
2
V
depends on the ratio V/A. In fact in some cases what we saw is the ts proportional to ( )
A
where V is the volume of the costing and A is the surface area of the heat dissipation. So this
also expected intuitively since the amount of heat content is proportional to the volume and
the rate of heat dissipation typically would depend on the surface area of the particular cast.
So this information is utilized to design riser that should ensure a higher solidification time.
So the basic thumb rule here is that the tS riser should be higher in comparison to the tS of the
casting. So this would have a higher solidification time meaning thereby that the volume by
area raise of the riser should be defined in a manner. So there automatically this becomes
higher than that of the casting.
2
So however the information on the amount of liquid metal needed from the riser is used to
compensate for the shrinkage that takes place from the pouring temperature till solidification
temperature depending on the metal, the percentage of this shrinkage vary between typically
2.5 to 7.5 %. I think this we had discussed towards the beginning of the casting that from
various metals what would be the kind of shrinkage allowance that would be needed for
doing the mould designing, etc.
So the use of larger riser volume is uneconomical, because riser is really a part that you need
shed off from the basic casting. It is not contributing, it is not adding any value except the
fact that it just as reverse flow, so that you can do the filling of the particular cavity. In case
there are shrinkage of the metal which takes place in the mould. So riser should be designed
in a manner. So that it is most economical meaning there by least volume.
And the volume by area issue of the riser which can easily be manage by changing the
geometry should be such that the solidification time of the riser is higher in comparison to
that of the casting, so that is the basic premise. So it should be designed with minimum
possible volume while maintaining a cooling rates slower than that of the casting through
geometry.
So it may be noted that a casting with a high surface area to volume ratio requires a riser
larger than that determined by considering only the cooling rate. For example, let us look at
this following case here.
3
We consider a steel plate of dimension 25 x 25 x0.25 cm. So it is a really 10 steels plate. A
steel plate square steel plate the thickness about 0.25 cm and for calculate what is area by
velocity of area by volume ratio for the casting can be obtained as. There are two surfaces
that this 10 plate would have. So this is the casting that we are looking at and this right here
is 0.25 cm this as well as this are 25 cm each.
So we should have a area of the face here and then other area downwards, so the total are that
is again 2 x 25 x 25 that is 1250 + these 4 smaller area that the sides let me just for this little
more appropriately. So this smaller area as would typically include this four faces on the side
and similarly one face here and one face here, so that can be estimated as four times of 25 x
0.25 where are the volume of the whole metal plate should be hold 25 x 25 x 0.25.
A 2∗ 625+ 4 ( 25 ∗0.25 )
( )
V c
=
25 ∗25 ∗0.25
=8.16 cm− 1
So that becomes equal to 8.16 cm inverse. So that is the area by volume ratio of the casting
and let us say if we talk about designing riser for this system. Let us say for the first
elementary shape that we consider as cubical riser and we have a size of 1.25 cm per side of
this cubical riser. So let us calculate what is the area by volume ratio in case of the cubical
riser that we are in the questions to you have 6 A2 as the face area so 6 x 1.25 x 1.25.
A 6 ∗ 1.25∗ 1.25
( ) =
V r 1.25 ∗1.25 ∗ 1.25
=4.8 cm−1
And then the total amount of volume that the riser would have is 1.25 3, so that become equal
to 4.8 cm inverse. So therefore, as you know that the time of solidification is proportional to
V /A2in this particular case we talk about A/V, so it is essentially, if the t S where to be higher,
so the A/V should be lower, and this case as you can see that the solidification time of the
riser is more, because A/V here is much, much smaller in comparison to 8.16 cm inverse.
4
So this is just the inverse of V/A, so please be very careful while doing the design questions
that may come in the liquid, etc., where you have to understand that A/V is inverse of the
solidification time. So therefore, if the riser is slow cooling that typically A/V should be
lower of the riser in comparison to that of the cast. Thus the riser is assumed to have a much
slower cooling rate and more solidification time than that of the cast. Now let us took at the
volume shrinkage that this metal steel would have during solidification typically the
experimental observation show about 3% volume shrinkage.
So the total volume that this steel plate would have is close to about may be 155.1 something,
so 625 /4 this whole volume. And this much centimetre cube volume when it actually is put
in cast 3% of this volume should be the amount of reverse flow needed to by the riser. So
0.03 x 625 x 0.25 is really what we want to find out here as the total requirement. And that
requirement is about 4.69 cm3.
But you see if we talk about the riser volume here the question is within the all this metal can
be supplied by the riser. So only 1.95 that is 1.25 3 or this is 1.95 cm 3 only this much volume
is supplied and the remaining volume is empty. So the 3% figure is a very, very large number
for the cast. So you have to consider a riser which is of a higher volume.
So it is not necessary always that you’re A/V ratio is the determinant factor, you also have to
consider whether the amount of volume that the riser has of liquid metal would be able to fill
up the shrinkage volume of which is formulated because of the heat transfer than the
moulding valves. So having said that is how you basically do integrative designing process
and then you place the riser in accordance with this process.
5
So for a given shape the riser the dimension of the riser should however, be chosen so as to
give a minimum A/V ratio and a minimum volume should be ensured from the shrinkage
considerations. So this should be the cut off threshold at least this much volume is needed
and then you can go on the A/V and try to see what geometry would suffice for the riser to be
able to cool the slowest.
So it must also be remembered that a liquid metal flows from the riser into the mould only
during the early part of this solidification process. So you should be having the riser placed
as near as possible to the mould, so that there is no time delay in the metal running through
the channel from the riser back into the casting because of friction and other effects.
I think we have done of lot modelling towards the beginning of the casting lecture where we
are talked about how the time of filling is very important for determination whether the metal
is able to flow in liquid form that means a time of solidification there is much, much higher
in compression to the time of filling.
So the same model needs to be done here on the riser side. So this is necessary is the
minimum volume of the riser to be approximately three times dictated by the shrinkage
consideration. So if it for a 3% of the volume 625 /4 as you saw earlier which was actually
4.69 cm3, we should be enabled or the riser should be enabled by designed to have atleast
effect A to 3.
0.025∗ 625 3
=4.69 cm
4
So it should be about may be 15 cm3 of volume, so that the idea that at least part of that
would be able to fill the mould and take care of the shrinkage cavity. So let us say do a
6
numerical problem for considering all these designs consideration are do accounts. So that
we can finally emerge with a particular riser shape and size.
So we have to determine the dimensions of the cylindrical riser to be used for casting an
aluminum cube and the side of the aluminum cube is about 15 cm, the volume shrinkage of
aluminum during solidification has been given to very high 6.5%.
So having said that let us now step by step try to design this particular riser, so first of all let
us determine the diameter to height ratio of the most compact cylinder. So that for a given
volume, the surface area is minimum with the diameter and height of the cylinder as d and h
respectively. the surface area of the cylinder can be approximately obtained as by π dh +2 π
by 4d2 volume of the cylinder is typically π/4d2 h or h = 4V / πd2.
π 2
A=πdh+2 d
4
π 2
V= d h
4
4V
h= 2
πd
So we less put the value of h back into this equation to make everything look in terms of D.
So that we should be able to now predict A as πd times of 4V / πV 2 + 2 π/4 D2 of 4V/D +
π/2d2. So that is how you can represent the area and we want to go for minimum area, so that
the slow cooling happens intuitively also if the area is less the t S the solidification time
increases, because that is very less it transfer possibility just depended on the area directly.
4V π 2 4V π 2
A=πd +2 d = + d
πd 2
4 d 2
7
So we have in this particular case dA /dt is zero or 4V/D 2 + πD = 0. In other words you have
D3 is basically 4V/π and also as you know that 4V x π earlier.
∂A −4V
=0 ;∨ 2 + πd=0
∂d d
As you have already seen here is equal to D2 H.
8
For A to be minimum,
∂A −4V
=0 ;∨ 2 + πd=0
∂d d
3 4V
d=
π
4V
=d 2 h=d 3
π
So from earlier presumptions 4V/ π becomes D 2H. therefore D2H is actually go to D3 or H
=D. So this is the condition corresponding to designing of cylindrical riser where it ensure the
total solidification time in this particular case of the cylinder.
9
Corresponding to this particular condition is equal to h. So the minimum condition for the ts
to be the highest of the sort time of solidification to be highest is equal to h = D.
10
As you can see here, so h = d condition enables the TS to be the maximum. Now let us look
at the other aspect that is the minimum volume requirement of the casting, because obviously
there is a shrinkage ratio which has been given shrinkage percentage which has been given.
So now minimum volume necessary for the riser in this particular cases at least 3 times the
shrinkage percentage which is 6.5 %.
And let Vc the volume of the cast that we are considering here which is actually aluminum
cube of side 15 cm, so the volume of the cast is basically 15 x 15 x 15 which is around
3375cm3. So therefore, the minimum volume necessary for the riser comes out to be equal to
3 times of 0.065 times of 3375cm3 or that is the V riser and so this for the comes out to be the
riser volume V are comes out to be 658.2 cm3.
So from the earlier condition derive for the minimum area d was equal to h for a particular
cylindrical riser systems, so this could also represented as 4Vr /V, obviously that is going to
be in the minimum riser volume that is needed to feed this particular casting 3 times the total
shrinkage volume and that comes out to be now equal to 9.43 cm.
1 /3
4V r
h= ( )
π
=9.43 cm
11
Now let us actually looking to whether really the A/V riser and A/V casting are going to be
basically in order, so that the riser solidifies later. So let us now calculate the A/V of the riser
which in this particular case A/V of the riser should become equal to 6/d or 6/h both ways and
which is 6/9.43 cm inverse 0.363 cm inverse and for the cast A/V for the cast in this
particular case would again be 6 times of 15 times of 15 by the volume of the cast 15x 15 x
15 which is actually equal to 0.4 cm inverse.
−1
A 6 6 6
( ) = = =
V r d h 9.43
=0.636 cm
A 6 ∗15 ∗15
( )
V c
=
15 3
=0.4 cm −1
So obviously if the A/V of the riser is more in this case and V/A is lesser, so riser should
solidify faster. So the riser will not have in longer solidification time which is a problem,
because obviously the whole promise for the design was that the A/V of the riser should be
lower and comparison to A/V of the casting, so that riser freezes later. So the dimensions of
the riser can be recalculated now.
( VA ) ≪( VA )
r c
12
So let us say we just talk about the dimensions of the riser to be recalculated with the forced
condition that the A/V for the riser should be lower are equal to A/V of the casting. So let us
talk about what would be the minimum and maximum. So you already know that the A/V of
the riser is 6/d or 6/h whatever and that should be less than or equal to 0.4 cm inverse i.e.
6 −1
≪0.4 cm which are obtained from that of the cast and automatically enables the
d
diameter d in this particular case to be greater than or equal to 15cm and d ≫15 cm so is
also the height.
So even if it is greater than 15 cm obviously the volume would be much more in the riser,
then the 3 times the shrinkage volume limit, but you cannot help about it, you cannot do
anything about it, because you have to have the riser time, solidification time to be higher. So
in order to enable that to happen you have to go for a higher volume riser than the 3 times
requirement and you have wasting metal this way.
But then that is how you do these designs problems about how the riser can be placed had
different positions with respect to the casting, so I am going to now take off that problem
about what would be the balance metal which has to be enabled in the riser, etc., but in the
interest of time I will close this particular module as proportion of it we will carry forward in
the next module, thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

13
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
14
Course Title
Module -32
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1, module 32.
In this last module we were talking about how to design and place a riser, and in context of that
we had started doing a numerical problem.
1
Where we wanted to do the determine the dimensions of the cylindrical riser to be used for
casting, as aluminum cube of sides 15cm. The volume shrinkage of aluminum during
solidification was assume to be 6.5 %. And then we step by step we tried to figure out how to get
the optimum V/A condition, corresponding to the solidification of the riser, time of solidification
of the riser beam greater than the time of solidification of the actual melt, which is in the cast
itself or the molding cavity itself.
So in that context we did a few things which I would like to just repeat for the sake of recall,
before we go ahead into the finalization of the design.
2
So first of all let us determine the diameter to height ratio, and this is what we did last module as
well, of the most compact cylinder. So that for a given volume, the surface area is minimum, so
if you assume let us say d and h to be the diameter and height of the cylinder respectively. Then
2
we found out that the total area of surface of the cylinder would be equal to π dh+2 π / 4 d
obviously a cylinder has a curved surface as well as two flat surfaces on the top and bottom okay.
π
So this is the curved surface area; this is top surface area and two surfaces together thus
4 d2
the area. Similarly the volume of the cylinder was obtained as π/4 d 2h and we made a
4V
formulation from which we found out what is h, in terms of volume so it was and we
π d2
substitute it that back in to the area equation here, so that we were left with π d times of the value
4V 2π
of h which is 2
+ 2 .
πd 4d
4V π
So that is how we obtain the final area, this was + 2 , if you further recall we tried to
d 2d
minimize the area with respect to the varying diameter meaning thereby that the whole goal here
is that the volume, the A/V ratio for the cast, vis a vis is the A/V ratio for the riser needs to be
calculated. So here for the example in this particular case, because of the cylinder riser we are
3
just trying to calibrate what is the A/V ratio for corresponding to the optimum heat transfer
condition.
So finally, the time of solidification of the riser should be greater in value than the time of
solidification of the cast that was the final condition, that we wanted to sort of you know apply in
this particular case. So you minimize the area here and from that we use the derivative of the A
4V
with the respect to d and equal to zero, and we obtain a condition, which was +π d =0 or
d2
4V
d 3= , so that was what the condition was in this particular case.
π
4V
We already know was actually equal to hd2, so therefore d=h was considered to be the
π
optimum condition for minimization of A with respect to the B.
So with that we calculated the minimum volume, necessary for the riser, which was actually 6.5
times the volume of the cast, but 3 times of that because the 3 is the factor of safety as I
discussed it earlier. So Vc is the cast volume, in this particular case Vc is nothing but 15 3cm3 that
is 3375 cm3, the premise is that you want to cast the aluminum cube of the side 15cm. So with
this kind of Vc we could obtain the volume of the riser here, to be equal to 658.2 cm3.
4
1 /3
4 Vr
Further we obtain the d=h as ( )π
and that was corresponding to 9.43 cm, which is equal
to diameter of the height of the particular cylinder, riser cylindrical riser and then we calculated,
A/V for the riser which is 6/d or 6/h whatever you may call, in this particular cases 6/9.43 cm -1
which is 0.633 cm-1. Similarly we calculated that of the cast is A/V cast equal to the 6 S 2 surface
area divided by the volume of the particular cube cm-1 this came out to be 0.4 cm-1.
So the riser was found to have smaller solidification time, and it would not simply meet the
condition that area by volume for the riser, less than or equal to area by the volume for the
solidification time okay of the cast. So we have to do a force fit and we tried to that by forcing
the volume by area ratio behaved in this relationship, so that the time of solidification of the riser
which is actually proportional to the volume by area of the riser.
So in that case the time of solidification should be, the riser should be more than the time of
solidification of the casting.
So when we force fit this condition we already have formulated, the area by volume for the riser,
as 6/d or 6/h which was actually calculated earlier, but now we are to consider the new
dimensions, d and h which would satisfy the condition A/V of the riser, less than or equal to A/V
of the casting. So the A/V of the casting as earlier been calculated to 0.4, and so we simply have
the force fitted condition as 6/d is greater or less than equal to 0.4 cm-1.
5
And otherwise d is greater than or equal to 15cm. So this would be value for the d for which
corresponding to which the area by volume of the cast would at least be equal to that of the area
by volume of the riser. So condition would be obeyed in one sense, currently both of them equal
solidification times. And now let us actually see that which this kind of diameter what is going to
be the kind of volume that we need or is it going to be again facing to be 6.5% requirement that
we have.
So with minimum value of d the volume of the riser simply now become π /4d 2h or in this
particular case π /4d3 which is 2650 cm3. Now this volume, is much more than the minimum
volume of the riser that is necessary. And in that case we already seen that volume is actually
equal to 6.5% and 3 times of that is amounting to about 658.2 cm 3. So obviously this value of
2650 cm3 is much higher, in comparison to the volume that is necessary.
So on one hand with the diameter equivalent to height optimum condition we are getting a riser
volume which above the requirement, so which we are wasting metal this way, and that we
should not be allowed to do. So we consider to the top riser, and see what happens in that
particular case okay.
6
So let us now consider the top riser that means you have the cube right about here and on the top
of it you have the cylindrical riser sitting of the top of this particular cube, this is the riser, this is
the cavity. So now what effectively would happen is that the area of this cylinder or area of the
π
riser become little different, the area now becomes equal to only π dh+ okay, that is the
4 d2
curved surface area as well as one of this area and other area being same as the area of the top of
the cast.
So it is a common face you can say, so we do not consider that as the area anymore through
which heat transfer would take place okay. So in that even now if I do the dA/dd, so we get twice
π d plus now we have to substitute for h here, and h was substituted earlier as 4V/ π d 2 and
effectively this was turned out 4v/d. So in this particular case this comes out to be
2π d+
( −d4 V )
2 okay.
And that is equaled to zero for the optimum condition, so in this particular case the optimum
4V
condition becomes equal to twice 2 π d=
( ) . And the way that we can think of this is that
d2
the d3 becomes equal to 4V/2 π, and 4V/ π is already known to be d 2h, so it is d2/2. And therefore,
the optimum condition here becomes equal to d=h/2 okay. So just because of this area being
7
removed, because it is no longer a heat transfer phase, the optimum condition changes d=h
earlier d=h/2 as in this present case.
So in this particular context if we wanted to sort of calculate again the area/volume of the riser,
so the area/volume of the riser still remains same 6/d okay. And the volume, the relationship that
we have for the optimum area is d=h/2, so with the large top riser V 3 loses it top surface for
purpose of heat dissipation and hence if I now calculate what is the area by the volume of the
cast this becomes equal to again instead of the 6 faces that we had earlier.
This phase now no longer is a heat transfer face okay, because there is liquid metal, on the top of
it, and so the other phases or all responsible for the all the heat transfer although there is going to
be some heat transfer depending on if the temperature of the metal is little different here, but we
consider that very negligible, because again the temperature of the metal in the riser as well in
the cast before the solidification is happened more or less in the same temperature zone unless
heat transfer takes place from the other phases etc, okay.
So her for example, then the area by the volume of the casting would become 1/3 cm -1 and we
therefore now have the 6/d area by the volume of the riser to be less than or equal to this 1/3 cm -1
so diameter greater than or equal to 18 cm. So the riser volume with minimum diameter now is
given as π /4d2h in this particular case it would π /4 times of square of 18, times of h which is
18/2 because of the optimum condition which has been heat upon here.
So that becomes equal to 2289 cm3 which is very close and reasonable to the value that have
been earlier obtained as 2650 cm3, the minimum riser volume that is necessary. So we have
saving lot of metal here, if we do this secondary transient where we assume this top riser with the
common phase. And if you slightly change the design of the riser now you can see that just by
eliminating one interfacial area from the cast as well as the riser you are left with the situation
where with minimum amount of the volume you can just make it to be sufficient to
accommodate for the shrinkage volume of the casting and you can also do the risering.
So that is how you have to design the riser geometry as well as the placement of the riser with
the respected to the cast surface.
8
So to check the adequacy of the riser for a steal casting normally people use this Caine’s
relationship. So we have found out earlier that the solidification time is propositional do the
square of the ratio of volume to surface area. So the Caine’s relationship is based on the
assumption that the cooling rate is linearly propositionally to the ratio of the surface area to
volume.
And based on this they draw this typical risering curve which is depicted here, so this is the
volume ratio of the riser to the cast, and this is the freezing ratio of the area by volume of the cast
with respect by area of the riser and what you can see here is that anything of the right of this
particular line drawn you known separating the sound from the defective casting are all sound
cast, and to the left whenever the freezing ratio falls down beyond this particular line okay, for a
certain volume ratio it becomes a defective casting.
So the ordinate of the point of the curve shows the volume ratio and the abscissa the freezing
ratio, also the subscript c and r are referring to casting and riser. So I think you have mostly
understood, from all my notation which I done earlier. And for a given casting riser combination
if the point on the figure falls to the right of the curve the adequacy of the riser is ensured. So we
want to design for all those freezing ratios which are towards the higher side here right about in
this particular region okay.
And avoid all the freezing ratios where the casting may be render defective, and equation of the
risering curve is of the form x=a/(y-b)+c where A is the freezing constant for the metal, B is
9
equal to the contraction ratio from liquid to solid, and C is the constant depending on the
different media around the riser and the casting. So with this I like to end the module and design
of the riser and placement.
And this also complete incidentally this section in castings. Next section in the next module that
we will take up is the metal to metal conventional machining processes, for now I like to good
bye thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
10
11
Course Title
Module-33
by
Hello, and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1, module 33.
Today we will be talking about the conventional or metal to metal machining process as which
are the major component of the industry, and the different generations of machining evolved,
way back from the 17th century in fact were power was increasingly the used as the steam power
or later on electrical power for developing of the machines. And machining in all different forms
lathe, milling, shaping, planning, grinding or drilling is the other way of manifesting the force or
the energy through a metal to metal contact.
And for doing that you have normally the capability of producing shapes which are regular, but
then later on when CNC technology took up and it could really be from a CAD to the machining
directly from a CAD to a machining interface directly there was an additional increase in the
1
complexity of shapes which machining could actually do. But before that we would like to first
investigate the machining which is more like related to conventional systems.
And were mostly the outcome of the machining would be symmetrical components. So having
said that the most important part in machining in such kind of machining processes are how the
tool moves with respect to the work piece.
And this slide right here shows the concept of two important motions associated with the motion
of the tool with respect to work piece, one is the feed motion which is actually also known by the
term directrix and the cutting motion which is basically the generatrix. So as the name indicates
the different geometries that are expected out of machining processes are formulated by a
manipulation of generatrix and the directrix.
For example, let us say in case of a shaper machine or a plane machine there is a movement of
the tool with respect to the work piece which is mostly on an XY plane. So this right here shows
the rectilinear motion of the feed direction, and the cutting motion and they are perpendicular to
each other making 90° angle, and therefore you can have a XY plane generated because of such
directrix and generatrix, both straight lines perpendicular to each other okay.
So we can obtain a plane surface out of a straight line generatrix and a straight line directrix and
the process can also be known as tracing. Similarly, in the case of a turning center you have
2
normally the motion of work piece in a circular manner and we can say that the generatrix
direction of the cutting motion that happens in a circular manner and the relative feed direction
of the tool with respect to the work piece is against straight line.
So a straight line in a circle in generally will yield or which make an array which is like
cylindrical in shape. So of course, the straight line in a direction is perpendicular to the direction
of the cutting velocity. So that is very important particularly here, or in case there is a motion
which is related to circular motion of the tool and the motion feed motion of the tool in the
direction almost in the same plane as the cutting velocity or towards the direction of the cutting
velocity.
In that case also you can generate a plane surface example of that is milling. So in a milling
system we have the circular motion and the cutting motion is really along the circular the cutting
velocity and that the way the chips get formulated is particularly in a face milling operation is
how the tool engages in a circular manner at different points it is a multiple cutting tool, so that
you can have the chip formations along that circle.
And then you basically moving it in a direction either perpendicular to the direction of the
cutting velocity, and so you get a plane surface based on this two motions, so various complex
geometries with different symmetries can be obtained with different cutting motions directions
and feed directions and that is how you understand the basic engagement of the tool processes
with respect to the work piece. So let us talk about now some of the processes.
3
So we have the example of turning where the work piece rotates and the tool moves to the left
directions you can see here that the tool is moving perpendicular to the direction of the cutting
velocity which is actually tendency to the circular motion here, and this generates the cylindrical
surface as we have earlier illustrated. So this is a case of straight turning there is a cutting off so
basically this portion is now being saved off using a parting tool.
So this surface is completely eliminated from the cylindrical surface, so cutting tool moves
radially inwards. you have again milling which is the other form of cutting and slab milling
operations you have a rotating cutting tool and it removes the material from the work piece as
shown here the milling tool is typically mounted to arbor which is an axis which provides
rotation to the cutter.
And the work piece is moved actually perpendicular to the work piece is moved in both X and Y
direction with respect to this particular cutting motion and such examples as known as slab
milling. You can also have different other forms of milling like face milling example that I was
providing were the cutting motion is also along the circular plane which is probably in the
similar direction.
So the cutting velocity for example in this particular direction is similar to that of the feed
motion or similar again to the direction of the feed motion of the tool in the Y direction. So in
this particular examples you can have a plane or surface okay, then you have end milling
4
operations where you can actually have a rotating cutter and it produces a cavity as you can see
here at about here so these are different variants of milling process.
Some other common machining processes particularly for turning you can have a lot of different
operations straight turning shown here, there is a tapper turning where the tool goes from in a
tapered manner with respect to the rotating axis of the work piece, and it generates a profile
identical to its motion, profiling where you have a certain shape XY shape which is typically the
curve or the path that the tool follows with respect to the turning work piece.
So that you have a complex shape profiled on to the work piece, you have turning an external
growing as can be indicated here, facing operations where one portions of the circular work piece
is completely removed or shaped off, you have a face grooving operations were by a different
orientation of the tool, the tool moving in a direction perpendicular to the circle of motion you
can actually have a small groove as you can see in this particular example.
This shows that of a cutting with the form tool so you have exactly something in printed the
negative of something in printed of which the tool is shaped up to, and so you can actually have
a shape in printed directly by cutting it with a form tool you have boring and internal grooving as
listed here which is typically done by a boring tool mounted one of this spindle axis of the,
which is sort of co-axial to the work piece direction.
5
You can do in a similar manner by using a drilling tool to drill on side of the cylindrical work
piece. you can do cutting off by having a tool which would be enabled to go in a direction
perpendicular to the radial direction with respect to the work piece and produce a deep cut. You
have threading tool were the thread moves the threading tools moves that a certain feed and it
generates thread of defined pitch because of the motion of the tool direction parallel to the axis
over which the work piece is rotating.
You have a knurling tool were you have a pattern impregnated on to the surface which is exactly
negative of the pattern that the tool contains. So these are the different operations that you can
actually use the turning system or lathe to obtain.
So if we talk about the basic processes of machining it is really about peeling off the material. So
as I told you earlier that there is a metal tape which would be engaged with another metal which
6
is the work piece in other case the metal tape is harder in comparison to the work piece, and it
actually glows into the metal and starts to peel off the metal, that is how you do conventional
machining, and that is how the chip formation takes place within the system.
So if I look at this figure right here it talks about a basic shaping or a planning process where the
surface obtaining both these processes or planar nature this is the cut surface, the surface
generated you can see in this portion of the figure and you can see how the peeling of the action
is happening at the point of engagement of the cutting age of the tool which is actually this edge
right here with respect to the work piece.
So you are having the portion of the work piece which was otherwise making this particular
substrate or surface constituting this particular surface cut off, so you have the similar surface
produced at the bottom here and there is a certain feed at which you can move the tool inside
whereas moving it at a certain speed velocity perpendicular, and that is how you generate XY
surface of the work corresponding to the different feed and stroke.
So you have a tool and a surface which is produce in shaping process the cutting tool is provided
with reciprocating motion and every cutting stroke the work is fed perpendicular into the cutting
direction. Since, the cutting is not continuous it is known as intermittent cutting process it is not
similar to lathe machine where you have a continuous flow of chips coming out, when the job is
long and it is very difficult to provide a long cutting stroke in mechanism used in a shaping
machine.
Generally, in that kind of a case instead of moving the tool all over to the whole span of the job
you basically move the work piece. So the work piece provides the cutting motion and the tool
merely gives the feed and that operation then would be known as planning operations. So only
difference is the terms of work piece size and what moves. So the primary cutting motion would
be generated by the cutting stroke of the tool if it is smaller component and operation then there
would be known as shaping.
And vice versa the work piece is the one which generating the cutting motion where the tool is
only giving the feed and is a longer or a larger component, then that kind of motion is now
known as the planning motion.
7
So effectively what you can see is peeling process which is going on here you have similar
examples where the same shaping and planning happen in both the cases you have peeling off
the work pieces which is happening you can actually do a mechanistic diagram here which I am
going to illustrate later were how the chip etc., is generated, function of the angle different other
forces like the cutting forces like the cutting force or the friction force which comes in there
okay.
8
So similar kind of a processes of peeling can be illustrated even for the turning operations. So
here also you can see a tool and you can see the level of engagement of the tool with respect to
this tool surface or tool edge which then peels off the material, the surface material and basically
tries to again remove the material by peeling action. It is a continuous process again because
when the surface is rotating with respect to the edge there is a continuous removal of the chip
material from the work piece surface.
So the surface obtain in turning process which is cylindrical in face turning a flat surface can be
obtained the machine tool for the operations are lathe. And the tool is provided with the feed
motion as the work piece is rotated, and the tool path is a helical path that it follows the
removing of this material here you can see this is the surface which is generated, because of the
cutting motion and this was the surface which was before which is being cut to generate the
surface this new surface. So here the machining operations is a continuous machining operations.
9
You can see how again the chipping actions happens here as the function of the different forces
and the angle, and we are going to do all the analysis of how this chipping actions happens in a
later on stage. But that is how the basic of turning process happens.
10
You have a similar kind of a strategy for a milling processes here for examples, you are seeing
three different kinds of milling one is a slot milling, other is a face milling, and other is a T slot
milling and I can see here that there are different other kind of millings for example, in slab
milling case you can see that a milling tool is mounted on a arbor and there is a feed motion of a
work piece similarly there is again another kind of a slot milling case here with the similar kind
of a vertical mounting of the milling cutter.
Or a form milling that a certain form of a shape is impregnated on to a surface because of the
form of the tool which is there. So the same operation of a rotating tool of a multipoint cutter
which is utilized in various forms to obtain different kind of peeling operations as the milling
systems. So in the milling the tool process the number of cutting edges that is provided with the
rotary motions the work is gradually fed due to which small chips are removed by each cutting
edge. And finally it produces the flat surface.
11
But then again if I look at the way this milling operations is performed.
12
It is really about the way of the peeling process again which is happening somewhere again here.
So if the engagement of the cutter happens at a portion somewhere here, there is a original
surface which was actually this surface which is been cut off. Now into this new secondary
surface and there is a milling cut the chip which is coming out because of the engagement of the
cutter.
So effectively again it is the same it is the same peeling process. So all these figures and
strategies it is kind of clear that irrespective of whatever be the name or the shape that is obtained
in the machining process it is about relative motion of the tool with respect to the work piece in
one way or the other end it is about also the engagement of a cutting edge which thereby peels of
the materials so that you can have cut metal.
So having said that the basic premise is clear now we can do some mechanistic calculations in a
manner so that we can understand this process of peeling or material. With this I would like to
close this particular lecture, but in the next module we are going to start off from here do the
various kinds of milling which are possible and then we slowly get into how the peeling process
can be obtained magnetically and what are the different issues associated with the different force
balances which would happen there, so with that I would like end this module, thank you.
Acknowledgement
13
Prof. Satyaki Roy
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
14
National Programme on Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)
Course Title
Module-34
by
Hello and welcome to manufacturing processes technology part-1 module -34. We were talking
about different peeling processes associated with the processes turning, shaping, cleaning and
milling.
1
We also wanted to see about the different of kind of milling operations which are there in that
context we are done earlier and we had seen a various orientation of the tool with respect to the
work piece in case of slab milling, slot milling, form milling, face milling and milling so and so
forth. So typically you can classify also the milling processes into up milling and down milling
these are different illustration of happens.
So when the cutting and the feed motion are in the same direction the is known as down milling
you can see the down milling happening here that the work pieces been fed in the certain same
direction of the cutting motion or cutting action the peeling process starts with the engagement of
the cutter which is rotating in the clockwise direction from the top surface to the bottom surface
but pilling process in the same direction and motion of the work piece.
And simultaneously when the cutting and feed direction are in opposite direction to each other in
this particular case for example the cutter is coming down in this manner and it is engaging you
have to peel off and the feed of the work piece is happening exactly in other direction of the
direction of cut this is called the up milling operation.
So there are various issues associated with up and down milling and you can defined them as in
conventional milling which is typically an up milling process the feed movement which is
opposite to tool rotation that the different orient or different main highlights here where the width
of chip of the starts from 0 and increases you can see here in the up milling process that the
width when you start with the first engagement is the smaller and the width keeps on increasing
2
with the chipping action happening the tooth meets the work piece of the bottom of the cut
upward force tends to left the work piece.
So there is a tendency of the work piece to go up because of the engagement. And therefore,
more power is required and rubbing is provoked by the chip beginning at minimum width and
the surface finish is marred or spoiled due to the chips being upward by the tooth. And chips fall
in the tools of the cutter that is an another problem in this particular case which makes the chip
disposal become little difficult.
Because the chip which is generate here would try to buy gravity actually come done on the
finished area of the work piece. And so, therefore there is a general faster wear in the tool then
the other case which is the climb milling or down milling, so this is known as the climb milling
or down milling where the feed movement and the tool rotation are in the same directions where
the obviously the width starts at the maximum amount increases the maximum engagement is at
towards the beginning.
And then as is goes off the chip peels that is going to become the thin section of the pinning
happens and the section is finally going to be as them as possible at the point of tool of the chip
from the surface. So the tooth meets the work piece at the top of the cut easier to disposal, chips
are removed behind of the cutter so basically you can say that atleast the finish part of the
finished surface is not affected by the chip, where the chip whatever is go down in the area which
is again to be cut.
So you have less wear and increases to life upto 50% that results in improved surface finish of
course the chips less likely to be carried by the put into the finished zone. And so less power is
required cutter the higher racked angles can be used and climb milling exerts the downward
force on the work piece which is again easy for a machining situation involving lot of fixture
design etc.
So in this case the fixture design cost is not by significant because already there is a down
downdraft on the downward pressure on the work piece because of the relative orientation of the
tools with to the work piece.
3
Having said that, let us now actually start looking into the mechanist aspects of drilling. In this
particular case as well you can see that there is a peeling motion which is happening here by the
two edges at the end of the drilling cutter and there a peeling action happening as you can see
which is similar to that is happening to all the other different processes like milling or lathe or
shaping, planning etc. in the same peeling action.
4
So let us now finally get into studying of this peeling action which is going on here right about
expressed in this particular figure. So this is the uncut surface and you have a tool point or a tool
tip which is actually a single point tip though, but then there is a cutting edge which is associated
with this. And it moves with respect to the work piece in directional which are parallel to the
direction of the movement of the work piece.
So the tool is in the same is in the direction parallel to the work piece, this in fact is the tool edge
which is performing the cutting action. And this is the part of the tool here again and you have
motion or velocity of the tool V be chipping action which been to happen this is of course a chip
is being formulated. So the upper surface of chip is rough surface because of you can think of it
that the tool actually tries to removed the metal of the pack of cards.
And it tries to create different sections where there are some kind of inter layers assessed we can
generated because of which there is a jaggedness on the top of this chips which is being created
here as you can see. And the bottom surface remains planer because it goes more so with respect
to the face of the tool and so it leaves the shiny surface on the surface of the chip. So the angle at
which this chip comes off the surface is known as the rack angle.
And simultaneously the face of the tool which face of the tool which rack face the chip is known
as the rack face. And you have the other side of the tool which is also sort of overriding the
finished surface which you can see right here this is the finished machined or finished surface of
the particular drilling operation or machining operation. So here you can see that the angle which
is formulated between the face here and the surface this is normally known as the relief or
clearance angle.
Because if the angle is zero when peel would rub on the surface of the finished material at that
would spoil the quality of surface finished related to machine you have also shear angle which
basically is made by this shear plane at the central distance of time where the shearing action is
happening. And is if the push of the tool is found to remove this out in this particular direction
because the tool is not moving in certain relative motion respect to the work piece.
So there is going to be always angle formulated at certain angle which is probably later or less
going to be the angle corresponding to the minimum power consumption for the tool and that
lead to formulation of this shear. So you have the uncut thickness which is actually the area
5
which is graced away or graced off as a chip and then there is a cut chip thickness which the tc
value here which is actually the final thickness after deformation etc of the chip that takes place
on it.
And having clearly illustrated all this different parameters let us now play around the little bit
with the different angle and geometries and forces that are associated with respect to machining
process.
But before doing so I would just like to again sort of categorized this process as a orthogonal or
oblique cutting process, when the orthogonal process is typically cutting edges is perpendicular
to the direction of velocity of the tool you can see here, the cutting is exactly perpendicular to the
direction of the tool motion which is actually this case I will be shown as a direction of work
piece motion though.
But the tool motion can be thought of relatively moving against the direction in the work piece is
moving. So in this particular direction in this tool is exactly perpendicular if it is not
perpendicular as you can see here for example, the tool is moving in the oblique manner or with
6
respect to the work piece, the work piece is moving in the straight direction here but the tool is
moving in the certain angle so these are known as oblique cutting.
So when the cutting is at the angle not equal to 90° to the direction of the velocity of the tool the
cutting is oblique cutting. So these two theorizations are completely different we are going to
now consider the orthogonal cutting action.
And if time permits we will do some oblique angle but by largely will focus on to this orthogonal
cutting operations related to mostly used form of cutting within the industry. So let us look at the
geometry aspects of how chip gets formulated. So you have a work piece here and you have a
chipping process which happens in this particular zone right about here, due to which there is a
formulation of finished surface which comes up.
And let us say there is a tool that I have produced here as shown by the shaded region. And
obviously this tool is at an angle with respect to the perpendicular drawn at this particular chip
work piece tool interface. So this angle is really the angle that the tools rake face which respect
to the perpendicular and I called this angle as α, I think I have just illustrated in the earlier
diagram how this rick angel or rich face can be defined.
And obviously you have a certain direction of the chip velocity which is actually the chip is
moving in this direction. So I would say that the chip velocity is also in the direction of
7
movement of the chip. And if I really take the thickness of the cut and uncut surfaces here I
would extend this particular plane all the way backwards to find out what is this thickness, let us
call it t1 which is actually in this case the uncut chip thickness.
And I would now utilize this particular thickness right about here which I called the cut chip
thickness t2 okay, so this is the cut chip thickness. So having said that now you have various
parameters like the uncut chip thickness, the cut thickness, the rate angle, the chip velocity, the
tool so on so forth. And obviously there is this plane formulated here, which is also known as the
shear plane okay.
And the angle that is they are in turn basically the shear angle, so this is the shear angle. And I
would just draw a small perpendicular from this particular point here which are called S okay,
which is beyond of the zone which formulation taking place. Let us this point be O, and let us
call this point M. And then if I just move the perpendicular from the point S to the tool surface I
call there are two points which are keep one is on the chip itself which I call the point Q, the
other one is on the tool surface which I call P okay.
So we also drop another perpendicular to this tool surface right about here I this particular case.
So we have one perpendicular on the axis, one perpendicular here starting from the zone where
we the formulation ends on the work piece surface all the way to the tool surface, and then there
is another perpendicular you want to just make on the top of the tool surface right about here
from S.
And we call this point of intersection N on the tool surface, so this point right here is called N.
So we have a perpendicular here on this particular tool surface, having said that now, if I look at
the triangle OSN yeah.
8
So I will just relate the figure a little bit or the sake of understanding. So you see then again the
same point SONP and Q is now this point is here right about here, right about here is the vertical
intersecting with the perpendicular projection of the point S on to the tool surface okay. And the
shear angle here is Ф for example, this is N point where the perpendicular form has tool surface
again and that is how the geometry is okay.
So if we do again the various geometrical constructions here the angle PSN which is actually,
this angle right about here should be equal to the angle POQ which is actually this angle right
here is α. The reason being that if I have to angle OPQ, the angle OPQ in triangle again OPQ
with angle P or Q equal to α should be equal to (90-α), and with the same angle (90-α) if I look
into triangle PSN which is also an right angle.
∠ PSN=∠ POQ=α
∠ NSO=∠PSO −∠ PSN=∅ −∝
The angle PSN should be equal to again 180°- (90+α), so angle PSN should be equal to 180-90-
(90-α) it should be actually equal to α okay. So we have this angle PSN and angle POQ be equal
be equal to α or angle NSO which is actually equal to the angle right about here should be equal
to the angle PSO minus the angle PSN. And angle PSO is nothing but ϕ because these are
alternate angles and they are equal to each other.
So ϕ-angle PSN it is actually equal to α in this particular case is the angle NSO. So having said
that now I have two formulations here one talks about angle PSN, angle POQ and other talks
about NSO. Now if I were to see the length OS divided by the length SN it should be equal to the
9
secant of (ϕ-α). Or in other words the value SN here which is actually represented by this
particular length here should be equal to OS cos (ϕ-α).
SN t2 SM t
OS= = = = 1
cos ⁡( ∅− ∝ ) cos ⁡( ∅− ∝ ) sin ∅ sin ∅
So the evaluation is actually equal to t2 if I may just recall this t2 and this S and R parallel to each
other and therefore I can say that OS becomes equal to t2 / cos (ϕ-α). Further the triangle it
proves the one of its sides is hypotenuse, and I can represent OS here from the triangle to be
equal to SM/sinϕ. So therefore this SM/sinϕ further would mean t 1 /sinϕ. Thus, we have an
expression t1 / sinϕ is equal to t2 /cos (ϕ-α).
t1 sin ∅
= =r
t 2 cos ⁡( ∅ −∝ )
rcos ∝
tan ∅=
1 −rsin ∝
Or in other words t1/ t2 which is actually a very, very important component also known as chip
thickness ratio is defined now sinϕ/cos(ϕ-α). So we are going to do this take use of its time to
close this particular module. In the next module we will try to go actually go head and see how
this thickness ratio would be able to define the shear stresses and strain which are needed to
make this chipping process happen, thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
10
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
11
Course Title
Module – 35
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1, module 35. We were
talking about the chip thickness ratio.
1
And in context of that we have derived out this formulation related to the ratio of t 1 and t2, t1
is being the uncut chip thickness and t 2 being the cut chip thickness. And it basically resulted
in the angler ratio sin φ / cos(φ – α). And this is very important term the cutting ratio, because
that determines the lot of properties to the chipping process and it also determines how
smooth would be the surface finish based on the different velocities and the depth of cut and
cutting ratio all these terms together.
∠ PSN =∠ POQ=α
∠ NSO=∠PSO −∠ PSN=∅ −∝
2
So let us now do a little bit of mathematical conversion here, we already had sin φ divided by
cos of φ – α = r and from that formulation we can always have sin φ is r cos φ cos α + r sin φ
sin α. I am just expanding the cos (φ – α) term here. And then we do some rearranging and
try to get all the sin φ is together, so I have (1 – r sin α) sin φ on one side and that becomes
equal to r cos φ cos α.
SN t2 SM t
OS= = = = 1
cos ⁡( ∅− ∝ ) cos ⁡( ∅− ∝ ) sin ∅ sin ∅
t1 sin ∅
= =r
t 2 cos ⁡( ∅ −∝ )
rcos ∝
tan ∅=
1 −rsin ∝
And so from that I can easily have tan φ which is sin φ / cos φ is r cos α / 1- r sin α. So we
have a deterministic formulation for determining the here angle φ and basically the φ would
really depend on what is the r and what is the α that is how the tool makes an angle with
respective to the vertical of the break face of the tool makes an angle with respective to the
vertical in any cutting process.
3
AK
γ=
∆
∠ K AO=∅
π
+α =∠ OKA +∅
2
π
∠OKA= +α − ∅
2
AK AN + NK
γ= = =cot ∅+ tan ∠ K ON
∆ ON
γ =cot ∅+ tan ⁡( ∅ − α )
So having said that now we want to just further take one geometrical estimate of what is
going to be the shear strain which is involved in the chipping process for that let us actually
just draw this chipping formulation process again. Let us say this is the chipping action which
is happening and point to that there is a shear angle which has been formulated, let this angle
φ be there with respect to the work pieces surface.
And we have the extension of the work piece surface. So this right here is the rack angle and
φ and this is the remaining portion of the cut surface, this right here is the tool. So we making
a clearance angle on the tool on one side and the rack angle of the other side. So having said
that now we want to really find out what is going to be the total shear strength that is needed
to do this the chipping action that is going to take place.
So let us call this point S as usual, and what we do here is this is the work, this is the direction
and motion of the work V, this point we call O. And what we are now interested in is to sort
of draw a line which is parallel to the shear plane okay, this is the shear plane. So we draw a
line parallel to the shear plane, in a way so that the angle that this line makes with respect to
the finished work pieces also in the same φ okay.
4
And then we consider a triangle by putting and we call this point A and the point which is
obtained by just projecting the point S forward and the intersection with the line that we have
just drawn here as the point B, and the point which is corresponding to the tool chip interface
here with the intersection of the dotted line that we have just drawn as the point K okay, so
this point is K.
So if we were to actually drop a perpendicular form the point O on the surface AK let us call
that perpendicular here connected to the dotted line as the point N. We have a case here
where the total amount of deformation that would otherwise happened to a surface, because
of the cutting action can be easily record. So if we just look at a magnified view of this
particular region right here, let us draw this region somewhere here and a call out.
So we have now a line which is perpendicular at the point O where with respect to that you
define the rack angle, so this line with a line OA which is corresponding to this flank of the
triangle that has been illustrated. And then a point K here somewhere here which is
corresponding to the point where the line parallel to the shear plane has cut the tool chip
interface.
And then a line jointing the points A and K obviously the angle here of this line along the A B
direction a part of it, segment of it AK is add an angle φ with respect to the finished work
piece, and you have a perpendicular dropped from O all the way to the point AK and this we
call SN. So if I consider the initial thickness of the chip to be Δ, let us say the thickness is
defined here.
For example, this particular thickness is Δ, and we want to find out what is really the
deformation which is happened on to the chip for I would say that the presence of the tool
makes the chip change from orientation OSBA to the orientation, if I call this let us say prime
OSS’K. So basically, the chip present is like this, you know it is like this parallelepiped that
you can look at it okay.
So this is the parallelepiped OSBA all the way here and the chip is being deformed because
of the chipping action or the chipping process because of this next element which happened
here is OKS’S. So the total amount of shear strain, of the magnitude of the shear strain
would actually be hold to γ is the total displacement that has happened to this element
moving from OABS to OKS’S okay, that is total displacement is AK divided by the initial
thickness Δ.
5
So that is how define the shear strains and in this particular case the AK can again be split up
into two parts AN + NK, and the total shear strains magnitude would be AN + NK/Δ. And
now let us actually see what are the different values for example what is going to be AN/Δ,
and what is going to be NK/Δ okay, and so far doing that we just geometrically tried to
estimate the angle OKA.
So the angle OAK is actually this angle right about here and if we consider that to be some
value let us say θ, then obviously in the triangle NOK the angle NOK should be equal to 90-
θ. So you have a case here that you have an angle 90- θ here which your adding to 90- ϕ and
to α and together the sum is actually one right angle which is demonstrated by this AO, and
let us call this some value Q, so AOQ.
So then from that the θ can be expressed in terms of ϕ and α, so θ here for example, would be
90-(ϕ-α). And if I were to just explore what is the value AN/Δ, so AN/Δ and Δ is basically
ON or where that is the ON was drawn here as a perpendicular, so it is basically the thickness
of the un-deformed chip you can say. And so this ON value becomes equal to Δ and AN/ON,
so basically this is nothing but AN/ON.
And AN/ON is actually tan(90-ϕ) which can be recorded as cotϕ okay. So this is tan (90- ϕ)
+NK/ON and NK/ON is basically again tan(90-θ). So you have this has tan (90-90+ ϕ-α)
which is actually the value of θ, and so therefore I just continue here the value of the shear
strain γ is actually equal to cot(ϕ+tan(ϕ-α). So just by knowing the angles now which is ϕ
and α you should be able to predict what is going to be the value of the magnitude of the
shear strain which is generated for the chipping process to happen again.
AK AN + NK
γ= = =cot ∅+ tan ∠ K ON
∆ ON
γ =cot ∅+ tan ⁡( ∅ − α )
As a recall we are just assuming the initial thickness of the chip to be this Δ which is actually,
although the chip is parallelepiped, but the thickness which actually is the initial thickness is
the Δ value and you actually subjecting the chip to shear, so that it moves along the distance
AK and from a horizontal orientation it goes like this. So there is some kind of shear
deformation which happens and that is what we are trying to get by looking at the magnitude
of the shear strain.
A shear strain obviously is the perpendicular deformation per unit the thickness of the
material.
6
So let us do numerical problem now coming back to this problem here during and orthogonal
machining operation with the cutting tool having a rack angle of 10° the chip thickness as
measured to be 0.4 mm the uncut thickness is being 0.15 mm. We have to determine the
shear plane angle and also the magnitude of the shear strain. So the first think that we have to
do is to determine what is they are thickness ratio which is actually t1/t2 as we can see earlier.
So this is actually the uncut chip thickness by the cut chip thickness 0.15/0.40 is obviously
the thickness changes because of the shear deformation process, so this comes out to be equal
to 0.38. And from the r and given value of the rack angle α we could calculate the ϕ and so
we have ϕ as the tan-1 of R cos(α)/1-R sin(α), α being 10°. So this comes out to be 21.8
degrees and from that you could further record what is the magnitude of the shear strain γ
which is actually cot of just in the last step we have formulated ϕ+tan(ϕ-α).
So this comes out to be equal to cot(21.8°+ tan(21.8°-10°)=2.5 + 0.21 or 2.71. So that is how
you calculate the γ value and the r value, and also the ϕ value and this problem example. So
having said that this kind of brings as to the end of this particular module, but in the next
module so we have now figured out what is the geometrical relationship between the various
dimensions as well as angles that the tooling formulates with respect to the surface where the
chipping action is taking place.
0.15
r= =0.38
0.4
0.38 cos 100
∅=tan − 1(1 −0.38 sin 10 0)=21.80
21.8o + tan ( 21.8o −10o ) 2.5+0.21=2.71

γ=cot ∅+ tan ( ∅− α ) =cot
7
The other thing that I would like to point out now is what are the interplay of the forces are
one of the relationship between the various forces that are involved and then finally try to do
something on energy minimization. So that we can estimate how the shear plane gets
formulated by different cutting criteria. So having said that I am going end this module here
and look forward to see you in the next module, thank you so much bye.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
8
Course Title
Module – 36
By
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing processes technology-part I (Module 36).
In the last module we had looked at some of the geometrical relationships which are available
between the various dimensions like the uncut and cut chip thickness on the angles and tool
formulates with respect to the work piece as well as to the vertical plane. Now we are going
to look into the force analysis aspect and this actually comes from a theory which is also
popularly known as Merchant theory.
1
Where it talks about a sort of universal diagram which associates all the forces with various
angles in the other geometrical parameters that we have seen in that cutting zone be a turning
beet, drilling any other machining metal to metal operation would definitely in necessitate to
involve such a cutting force and symbol, so that the equilibrium conditions could be obtained
and then you know you should treat that chip as a rigid body than there can be some
supposition which comes in if you do not treat it as a rigid body, it makes it slightly change
because of that.
So this all comes into one account called earns ton Merchant theory and I would like to start
this with looking at the Merchant circle diagram. So far understanding this diagram let us
actually see part by part what goes into this, so the scientific treatment of the metal cutting
was first proposed by Ernst and Merchant. The exemption that was made was that idealized
shear plane model is good enough to predict, the approximate value of the power
consumption of the cutting power.
So approximate value of power consumed in the cutting process and so let us now look at
how the chipping process as happening here let us say this is the work piece that we
considering and there is some kind of a chip formulation which takes place somewhere here
you know this chip actually comes out from this particular plane and you have the chip
travelling in this particular direction, so this is actually the chip.
The work piece from which the chipping process as happened. So you also have the tool
component here which is actually had an angle α the rake angle with respect to the chips
surface, so this is the tool component which is there this angle being the rake angle α and we
have the various issues related to what are the forces total amount of forces in the cutting tool
2
or what are the total amount of forces in the chip which would and also on the work piece
which would be in equilibrium with each other given the dynamic condition that the work
pieces moving against the tool at relative velocity of V with respected to the tool.
So let us see what are the assumptions involved in modelling this for the chip above the shear
plane, this being the shear plane you well aware of the plane along which the chip gets
basically sheared off from the surface of the metal of the chips above the shear plane is
considered as a rigid body moving with constant velocity. The resultant force acting on such
a rigid body from the rake surface of the tool the resultant force on the rake surfaces ‘R’ let us
say there is a perpendicular force that is given by the tool surface to move the chip away from
it is rake surface and then there is frictional force which is going to come against to the
direction of movement of the chip.
So either chip actually moves forward with the velocity we here the frictional force will
exactly come in the opposite direction as illustrated by this arrow right here and the resultant
component of this force is actually obtained by something of summation of these two forces
one of them we call the normal reaction of the tool face, another we call the frictional force F
of the chip on the tool as it moves along the rake face, and so the resultant component is R
and then simultaneously component should also we generated by the work piece, because
obviously when the chip is moving against to the work piece is going to have a shear force
which is going to be in the direction opposite to the chipping action.
So the chipping action is happening in this direction, so obviously there is going to be shear
force in this particular direction opposite to the direction of the chipping action and then there
is going to also be a normal force which the work piece would provide to the owing to the
ploughing motion of the tool with respect to the work piece and this two forces together
generate a resultant component R dash and the presumption here is that the total amount of
forces on the chips or chip is always assumed as a rigid body in this particular theory and
Ernst and Merchant theory and in the rigid body as you know the lots of physical and it is no
deformable.
So it is solid body where distance between two points as a function of time remains fixed
actually, so in this particular case also the total amount of forces are which are result of the
forces from the tool to the chip on one side and the total amount of forces because of the
work piece on to the chip on the other side. They should have a resultant of a zero and what
it means is that R and R’ are really equal and opposite to each other and R’ = –R for that rigid
3
body condition to be valid. Otherwise the chip will deform the distances between it will
change; it will not be treated as a solid body anymore.
So the total R can be resolved into the components F and N along the rake surface and normal
to the rake surfaces as such, since F must be the friction force due to the existence of the
normal load N and we have according to usual conventions F /N = µ i.e. friction coefficient
between tool & chip. This µ is actually more like an average µ which is based on the fact that
the average frictional force coming in the chip, as a result of the normal reaction.
However if you would like to look at the sectional profile of the way that the chip curls
around. The chip actually as varied distribution of the normal loads on the contact that it has
chip comes off from the tool rake surface like this, so obviously that would be some point
which will be more loaded in comparison to the other and if you consider that distribution
than you will have a real friction from area to area of the chip tool interface, but in this
particular case, we have consider only an averaging effect and an averaging friction force in
the Ernst and Merchant theory as assumed in the earns ton merchant theory in this chipping
case.
So having set that now I can actually utilize this Merchant theory to the lay out all the forces
together in a circular manner in a circle diagram which are also known as a Merchant circle
diagram let us see how.
4
So based on this theory of the chip as a rigid body we draw a force diagram. here we have a
section of the part as the normal work piece. There is a chipping action happening, because
of which there is a shear plane is formulated with respect a tool which as present right about
here and you can say that you know this is how the work piece actually would look like this
is the direction of the chip velocity. This is the rake angle, that the rake face would make
with respect to the vertical and we have the shear force component if you draw on the shear
plane, this is the shear force component.
Let us call it FS given by the work piece on to the chip, similarly we have another component
which is the normal force component we call this FN which is given by the again the work
piece on to the chip, let us draw it little properly which appears to be like exactly like
perpendicular. Something like this, so we call this component FN. So I already explain to
you what this mean and the resultant of this two would actually be a normal reaction in some
direction let us say this is the direction of the total resultant reaction force.
I am sorry not the normal reaction but resultant reaction force and the similarly we have now
the similar kind of situation because of the frictional force and the normal force, so we would
like to draw the frictional force parallel to the chip surface, the tool surface and opposite to
the direction of the velocity of the chip. So this we call the frictional force F and we also
draw a normal force which would actually mean to generate a resultant that is equal and
opposite to the direction of the resultant that we have just generated because of the shear
force and the normal force.
5
So we obtain this right here as the direction of the normal force and that would result in a
resultant R dash which is actually exactly hole an opposite to the direction of the resultant R
and further there would be a situation where we have a cutting force which of the tool gives
on to the work piece, so this is although not on the chip, but again there is a chipping process
which is happening of the chip from the work piece.
So whatever forces are there on the work piece in a way before the chipping has completely
happen would also influence the process and so therefore these forces are also of at most
considerations so obviously the amount of force that the tool would give to the work piece
would be recorded as a cutting force, so I would like to call this force to be in a direction
opposite to the direction of ploughing of tools.
So let us say the work piece goes in this direction of the tool travels in this direction. This
force cutting force should be exactly opposite to the directions of traverse of the tool. And
then we have another tangential force that the work piece would offer, because of the cutting
process. You already saw that in case of milling where each component would be offering a
force in the perpendicular directions.
So all these forces together would result in a common resultant R and I can actually make
these forces over the diameter R meaning there by the draw a circle, it would be able to
connect all these forces together and these therefore becomes the common diameter R you
know which all these forces are connected. So that is why we call it Merchant circle
diagram.
Obviously this angle that the shear plane makes with respect to the direction of velocity of the
tool with respect to the work pieces Ф and so we have a verity of different other angles which
are there in this the diagram that we have finally obtained. I am going to now discontinue
this part here because the module is going to be over now in the interest of time, but what I
am actually now going to do is to sort of take this circle and take the various other angles like
for example the friction angle or for example the rake angle and the shear angle and then
correlate all this different forces that we have put together is a single circle.
So that there is relationship between the various forces which come off and from there we can
see if we can do some energy minimization in terms of cutting power minimization, etc.,
through which we can arrive at an optimum situation of the cutting. So having set that I
would like to close this module here and looking forward to talk to the next module. Thank
you so much.
6
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
7
Course Title
Module-37
By
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part-1 module 37
A brief recap of what we did in the last lecture we were talking about the different geometrical
aspects of machining particularly in the machining zone where you could actually correlate
between the uncut chip thickness and chip thickness with respect to the various angles that were
formulated particularly the shear plane angle the friction angle the rake angle of the tool that the
tool makes with the vertical etcetera.
Today we are going to look at again the force analysis aspect and for that we had just started
covering the dynamics of the chip formation process particularly as the chip sort of comes out of
the material and separates from the primary work piece material it is treated as a rigid body and
there are a lot of forces acting over it particularly from the rake face of the tool or from the shear
1
plane or from let us say the tool to the work piece and all these kind of balance together as a
common resultant. So I am just going to recap that portion before starting again.
So the assumptions that we may have been brought forward as I earlier mentioned by theory
proposed by Ernst and Merchants and the assumption that was made was that idealize the shear
plane model is good enough to predict the approximate value of power consumption of the metal
cutting process or the metal chipping process whatever you may called it as and the assumptions
also were that the chip above the shear plane was considered to be a rigid body moving with
constant velocity and in this respect.
We had actually drawn a diagram which talks about the chip formulation process. let us say this
is the cutting area the cutting zone and there is a chipping action which happens over this
particular plane let us say this particular plane is formulating or is responsible for formulating the
chip or this is the shear plane this is the chip the work piece and the tool makes an angle α with
respect to the vertical axis here and which is also known as the rake angle which is going to
separately show the tool face.
Just in case you know although they are sort of meeting with respect to the chip but we are
showing it separately because of for the sake of convenience of the force analysis that would be
projecting so this angle right here that the tool face makes with respect to the vertical is the angle
α and we also know that this plane angle here right here is Ф and basically if we consider the
2
chip to be a rigid body meaning thereby that two different points on this body will not have a
positional variation with respect to each other as a function of time.
So it should not do any deformation etcetera so chip should be in force equilibrium conditions
and for that the resultant of the forces acting on such a rigid body and let us just write this down
here that the resultant of forces acting on such a rigid body from the rake face of the tool and the
work surface along the shear plane should balance out so I call this R’ for example should
balance out so only if there is a force balance it can be treated as a rigid body.
And basically we are also talking about a constant velocity case that means the chip velocity here
V is treated to be in variable with time so there should not be any acceleration component
involved and the forces should be in just in equilibrium with respect to each other also we
assume the cut velocity in this case to be constant so therefore the force that the tool applies on
the work piece and that whatever the work piece applies back as a resultant they should also be
equal and opposite to each other.
So these are some of the presumptions which are made in order to analyze the Merchant’s circle
or the force circle that comes in this three components that is the chip the work piece and the tool
so the total of the forces acting on the chip by the tool is basically also a function of the normal
reaction that the chip would have by virtue of its curl by virtue of its pressure that it imposes on
the top of the tool surface and the frictional force which happens because the chip is moving in a
certain direction.
Let us say the chip is moving out in this direction V and so therefore there has to be an opposite
frictional force F which acts on this particular chip opposite to the direction of its motion over
the rake face okay so informal force N which is because the chip has applied certain pressure on
the top of the rake face obviously you are trying to scribe it out meaning there by that you are
trying to take it to a position along the shear plane.
So that earlier whatever component it had is now deformed and because of the deformation
process so there is a resultant force which acts because of both these forces and this can be
treated as the resultant force R because of the friction that the friction and the normal reaction
provided by the tool face on the chip surface the other hand on the contrary you have a resisting
3
force opposite to the again the shear direction of the chip so the shear is along this plane
particularly.
So obviously the resistance that would come to the work piece R or the resistance that would
come as a result you know the resistance force from the work piece to the chip that would come
as a result of the chip fragmenting from the work piece will have FS shear force in the direction
of the shear plane and also it will have a normal force FN which is actually opposing the force
that the chip is facing on its mating face with the tool surface.
So there is a normal reaction and there is again a shear force and the resultant of these two I
consider to be R’ where R’ can be said equivalent to be -R that means it is equal and opposite to
the resultant reaction of the chip by the tool face so the chip being a rigid body now you have
these two kind of forces one generating from the shear plane right about here and one generating
from the tool face right about here.
And it is a constant velocity situation there is no accelerated component which is there so we can
consider the summation of all these forces to be equal and opposite to each other and the chip
exists as a rigid body we are not assuming deformation in this particular case because at least
you know just after the formation process or after the chip has started to peel off that is the case
that we are evaluating obviously there would be deformation because the chip was earlier the
work piece which was extended by this dotted line here.
Which is actually rotated in this direction to formulate what you call this chip but we are not
talking about that instance we are talking about an instance when this formulation has taken
place already and the chip has started to formulate and come out and there we are trying to do the
rigid body assumption okay so in that even the R’and R are equal and opposite to each other and
the total force F and N which is acting as a result of the frictional and the normal reaction on the
chip from the tool surface.
They can also be correlated by putting coefficient of friction µ between the tool chip interface as
a ratio between both the forces µ is the friction coefficient between tool and ship and again we
are just assuming a average friction coefficient and an average friction force obviously the force
distribution would vary quite a bit at this interface because the chip may not be curling equally
on the top or the chip may not be putting equal pressure on the top of the tool face.
4
Obviously the pressure would be more towards the cutting zone and lesser so there is a
distribution lesser in the outward zone so there is a distribution and basically the idea that we are
having here is that we report an average value of this frictional force and therefore this
coefficient here is an average friction coefficient between the tool and chip surface so having
said that now we want to sort of do a force balance between whatever forces we have now
outlined and for doing that we would like to again draw this or redraw this diagram of the force
various forces which are acting on the surface of the work piece and the chip.
Let us say this is the chip being formulated and the shear plane is represented here we have
remaining portion of the work piece and let us say this is all connected so this is the same work
piece that we are talking about and here we have the tool so obviously if we look at the tool
angle so the tool angle is between this vertical line and the tool face right about here I would call
5
this alpha rake angle and what we want to do is to just slightly offset the point of intersection to
the point where there action would obviously come.
So I am going to have a parallel axis just off shifted a little bit just to address conveniences and
then again another plane and across this we would like to find out what goes on in terms of all
the forces so you have a shear force component between this and this okay so this is FS we can
write this FS here maybe I will just make the FS magnitude a little bigger all the way up to here
so this is FS and similarly we also have a normal reaction component which is going somewhere
here so we call this FN.
Let me just clear this a little more so that it is convenient to understand so here we just extending
this component all the way here the angle here should be 90 º . I am just going to make this a
little look like orthogonal to each other so this right here is FN and there is because of these two
forces resultant reaction which would be applied to this particular point right about here and this
we consider to be the reaction R similarly we have a component of the friction which is parallel
to the rake face.
So this component of friction is in this direction parallel to the rake face we call this force F
frictional force and we again have another component which is just perpendicular to the rake
face of the tool and we call this the normal reaction N just for sake of convenience I am going to
just shift this term FN to its vector component here okay so this is FN so this is kind of the force
diagram which gets generated because of the two resultant being equal and opposite to one
another.
So having said that now so obviously the R’ was talking about would come in some direction
here which is exactly opposite to the direction of the R which is result of the summation of you
know the forces of friction and the normal reaction of the tool face so by the by this particular
angle then would be equal to α obviously because it is the same as this particular tool angle the
tool angle alpha that has been represented earlier.
And I would again like to just mention here that the velocity of motion of the point of
engagement of the tool which is again opposite to the velocity of the work piece with respect to
the tool the feed velocity that velocity also being constant we can say that the forces that the
6
work piece exerts on the tool should be equal and opposite to the forces that the tool exerts on
the work piece.
So that the accelerative component is zero now and there is a constant velocity case this point
and up moves forward at V feed velocity equal to constant and so here in that event what I would
assume is that the total forces that are given by the cutting zone on to the tool are one in the
perpendicular direction and another in the direction parallel to the coordinate axis system that has
been shown here.
So one is obviously in this direction right about here okay and I call this the cutting force FC
which the tool exerts on the work piece or the work piece gives back as a reaction to the tool
surface and this can actually be measured by putting a small dynamometer on the top of the tool
surface and then there is another force right about here which is actually called the tangential
force we call it F tangential okay.
Which is perpendicular to the direction of the tool movement okay and it comes by virtue of the
fact that the tool actually is grazing and pushing into the work piece surface and this resultant
should also be the same R and R’ so that there is equilibrium and this V can be considered to be
constant so having said that now so obviously at a constant feed velocity you would ensure that
you provide a force equal to this F T and FC so that this tip moves at a constant velocity with
respect to the surface but in any event the reaction force that comes out should be balanced.
So that this reaction force is in a way able to have a situation where the point of engagement
moves at a constant velocity so this is actually overall the force diagram I can actually draw a
circle around this force diagram and such a circle drawn is also known as the Merchant’s circle
and this force diagram under this circle is called the Merchant.s circle diagram so having said
that let us now figure out some of the angles the angle between the shear plane.
And the horizontal here happens to be Ф and the angle which is actually between the frictional
force and the normal reaction mind you µ is actually F/N which is also equal to the friction angle
the tan of the friction angle tan λ it can be represented here so λ is this particular angle between F
and N, F /N = tan λ and having said that we have this angle right about here which we find out as
π/ 2 -λ because obviously the you know the total sum of the total angles here.
7
In this particular triangle where you know which comprises of the friction force F and N and the
resultant reaction are basically is 180 and this angle being λ obviously makes this other angle 90-
λ and so basically the total angle this right here can be represented at 90º- (90 – λ)- α which is
actually represented again as λ -α so this angle right here can be represented by λ- α and you
have Ф , you have λ-α you have α you have λ all these different angles.
Now defined obviously if this is Ф then this should be 90 – Ф and same this should be 90 - Ф so
this angle must be Ф then okay so you have more or less all the angles defined now and having
said that now the force vectors FS, FN, FT and FC has certain angle based component based
relationship and what I am now going to do is to sort of put together what are the different kind
of relationships which exist in this kind of a case so this we will actually continue in the next
module in the interest of time I am going to close on this module thank you very much you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
8
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
9
Course Title
Module – 38
By
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part one module 38.
We were talking about the force circle diagram.
1
FC =F S cos ∅+ F N sin ∅
FT =F N cos ∅− F S sin ∅
F=FC sinα + F T cosα
N=F C cosα − F T sinα
F S=F C cos ∅− FT sin ∅
F N =F C sin ∅+ FT cos ∅
FS
R=
cos ⁡( ∅+ λ − α )
FC =R cos ( λ − α )
FT =R sin ( λ − α )
F F sinα + F T cosα
μ= = C
N F C cos ∅ − F T sinα
Or the merchants circle diagram and we had drawn this particular diagram in the last module and
tried to correlate the various angles and the forces which are involved in chip formation process I
am going to now today write the different components of the forces and the force balance
equations which would involve from this first equation I write here is that
FC =F S cos ∅+ F N sin ∅ .
Let us see in the diagram how I have formulated that, so F S cos of φ is basically this right here
and cos of φ is the component towards the FC direction and again you know the Fn which is
actually this particular force right about here has a you know same kind of a 90 - φ direction
when we when we talk about the normal vector so along the F C direction the component of F and
that will work is Fn cos of (90 – φ) that is FN sine φ.
2
So basically we have FS cos φ + Fn cos of (90 – φ) which is actually written down again as F S cos
φ + FN sine φ. So I am NOT going to get into the sort of you know how these really I mean only
this one relationship from this one relationship it is clear why we are recording FC in terms of FS
and FN or how we are recording FC in terms of FS and FN in terms of the angle so there are many
other angular relationships available in this diagram I am simply going to write down all the
force balance equations.
So the second equation then would be FT equals FT =F N cos ∅− F S sin ∅ please be very
careful about the directions so just in case of F C you had seen that the component of the force FS
is in the same direction along the FC is along is the same direction as the component of the force
FN along the FC. So in some cases it may be opposing in nature and so you have to either you
have to be very careful about this signs of the force balanced by the various components which
would be indifferent dimensions directions.
We can also calculate the friction force F in terms of F=FC sinα + F T cosα we can calculate
the normal reaction N as N=F C cosα − F T sinα . we can calculate FS as
F S=F C cos ∅− FT sin ∅ . calculate FN in terms of F N =F C sin ∅+ FT cos ∅ . so on so forth
FS
the resultant reaction R can be recorded as R= . if you can see here this right
cos ⁡( ∅+ λ − α )
here is λ - α and you have an angle φ here + λ - α as this total angle and what you are doing is
essentially you are resolving the R cos of φ + λ - α R being this particular vector.
So you are resolving this vector in this direction FS direction and that is the F S okay, so here is
where you have a relationship between R and FS we can also derive a relationship between F C =
R cos (λ – α) we can derive a relationship between F T which is equal to FT =R sin ( λ − α ) . so
please look again carefully at the various angles which have been illustrated in this figure and try
to figure out from 1 to 9. I have already told you about 1. I have already told you about 7 the
remaining I would like you to actually figure out how these angular relationships are, so having
said that the measurement.
3
F FC sinα + F T cosα
μ= =
w t1 τs
F S=
sin ∅
F S cos ⁡( λ − α )
FC =
cos ⁡( ϕ+λ − α )
1
FC =w t 1 τ s cos ⁡( λ − α )
sin ϕ cos ⁡( ϕ + λ − α )
1
W =F C v=vw t 1 τ s cos ⁡( λ − α )
Of FC and FT is easily done with the help of a tool dynamometer, so typically you can actually
either embed the dynamometer onto the surface of the tool or you can just mount the tool over
the dynamometer okay. So that way you can have an average data of the total amount of cutting
forces and the tangential forces in the cutting zone obviously there are the small you know micro
sensors or micro dynamometers which can actually be able to gauge what is the kind of
distribution of the forces at the cutting zone by just embedding the system just below the rake
face.
So that you can have a real measurement of the forces along the rake face, so once F C and FT that
is the cutting force and the tangential force have been experimentally found F S, FN, F and N that
is the shear force the normal force along the shear plane the force of friction and the normal
reaction along the tool rake face can easily be determined from earlier equations 3 to 6 which is
represented here you can see this equation 3 into equation 6 and so these are all the relationships
4
between the various cutting forces and the tangential forces with respect to the angles that they
formulate in the direction of the friction forced action of the normal reaction of the shear force
and of the normal force along the shear plane okay.
So having said that the µ friction angle which is F by N and you can also write it by the tan λ is
actually equal to the relationship between FC sine α + FT cosα which is actually how the F is
described the friction force is described divided by F C cos of α - FT sine of α in the way that
normal reaction along the rake faces define the tool. So let us call this equation 10. and basically
the idea is that if we want to really estimate everything in terms of cutting power I should be able
to also involve a material property aspect here.
F F sinα + F T cosα
μ= = C
Because obviously the material is now taken to the yield stress value for it to start you know the
flow of the material okay. So therefore we have to see what is the ultimate yield strength of the
material is somehow plug that is a material property into this whole modeling so that I can get
the power consumption of the cutting as an estimate of the various material you know
components which are there or material properties which are there of the work piece or the tool
and also as a function of the various geometries like the uncut thickness, the cut thickness which
defines the shear plane angle and the rake angle of the tool which are thereby important for all
the machining processes.
So we should now be able to correlate these forces to material properties such as ultimate shear
stress call this tau s. obviously once this value is reached the chipping information or chipping
process will start to happen and the chip will start to plastically or to separate from the work
piece the shear force FS along the shear plane can be written as the amount of area of the cutting
zone which is actually the width of the work piece times of the uncut chip thickness t1 . let us
look back and see what we mean by that so there is a shear plane formulated in this particular
direction and we are having a uncut chip thickness which is round about this thickness right here.
So this is t1 that is this point how much away it is from the zone of machining on the vertical axis
so obviously the total area that this particular plane would have multiplied by the ultimate yield
shear stress would actually define the amount of shear force that is necessary to separate the chip
from the work piece material, so the component of this t 1 here this particular thing here along the
shear plane okay.
5
It is basically t1/ sine φ so this is t1 / sine φ and if I assume the width of the cutting zone of this
particular zone as coming out of the page or going into the page as W so this is the total area that
this particular face would have. So t1 sine φ *w by sine Ф is the total area that this face would
have and we will be left with the total shear force necessary W*t 1 / sine φ that is the area of the
shear plane times of the ultimate shear yield stress of the material which is a property of the
material and it defines the extent of cutting forces that has to be applied for the material to start
machining off or peeling off from that area.
w t1 τs
F S=
sin ∅
So this is how you define the total shear force okay, so I will just mention this that here the W is
the width of the work piece under the chipping zone you can say and t 1 is the uncut chip
thickness. So from earlier equations 7 and 8 as you can see right here 7 was related to how the
resultant varies with respect to shear force and 8 was how the cutting force varies with respect to
the resultant we can write the total amount of cutting force FC as FS cos (λ – α) / cos (λ + φ - α).
F cos ⁡( λ − α )
FC = S
cos ⁡( ϕ+λ − α )
So obviously you have to put the value of R here, so F C becomes equal to FS times of cos λ – α /
this whole term cos φ + λ – α, so once this F S is now defined by the earlier process here with the
material property and the geometry I just plug this value here so that it's completely independent
of the forces. So let us see how F C then varies as, so we have W* t 1*τs times of cos λ – α / sine of
φ times of sine cos of φ + λ – α or in other words I can write the F C it is completely independent
of all the other forces and only related to the material properties as W* t 1*τs *cos of λ - α and this
term right here can be written as sine φ cos of φ + λ – α.
1
FC =w t 1 τ s cos ⁡( λ − α )
1
So we will now perform an optimization here because obviously the power that is consumed is
also the force velocity product and the cutting force that the tool is applying on the work piece or
the work piece is applying back on the tool is given by this F C which is now related to all the
material properties and geometry properties. So we are going to now do some kind of an
optimization in the next module where we will talk about how power consumption minimum
criteria could actually result in the relationship of the various geometries that we have considered
6
corresponding to which you feel operating power would be optimum. So with this I would like to
end on this particular module and in the next module we will do this optimization of power of
cutting, thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
7
8
Course Title
Module- 39
by
Hello and welcome to this Manufacturing process technology part 1 module 39 we were talking
about how you can express Fc the cutting force in terms of a shear force and ultimate shear stress
strength of the material that you are cutting and in context of that we wanted to do some
optimization for the total power requirement that could be sued for cutting processes.
1
w t1 τs
F S=
sin ∅
F S cos ⁡( λ − α )
FC =
cos ⁡( ϕ+λ − α )
So it basically try to map Fc the cutting force in terms of shear force FS cos of λ- α/cos of ϕ+λ-α
in the last module and we further expressed this F S from in an earlier equation as function of the
material properties and also we total cutting area by w t1 τs / sin ϕ where τs is ultimate shear yield
strength of the material and w t1 /sin ϕ was the total interfacial area between the cutting zone and
the work piece.
From which could get otherwise separated so if we substitute the value of F S from equation let us
say 11 which we are done earlier all the way to equation 12. F C comes out to be equal to w t1 τs
cos of λ-α/sin of ϕ cos of ϕ+λ-α and the power consumption which is otherwise taken as the
force velocity product that means the cutting force times the velocity the feed velocity or cutting
velocity,.
1
FC =w t 1 τ s cos ⁡( λ − α )
So that basically the power that is consumed in the separation of the chip so basically the power
consumption during machining is given by W=F C times of velocity V that is cutting force times
the velocity of the cut and this comes out to be equal to V w t 1 τs cos of λ-α times of 1/sin ϕ cos
of ϕ+λ-α. So as nature always tries to take the path of least resistance during the cutting
operation ϕ would take value such that the least amount of energy.
2
1
We consumed several time assumed or W is minimum, W being the total amount of work in
order to do process successfully which is minimum. so as V, w width of the cutting zone and α
are fixed quantities for a certain machine given machine operation machining operation if we
assume that τs and λ are also time in variant.
So this is something that we are just a assuming although in the real case the friction coefficient
as well as the ultimate yield strength of the material shears would typically various function of
the temperature rise or temperature increase. So we are not considering that here in this we are
considering this to be time invariant property and as such clear to the property material.
Then you can say that W is only a function that is total work done per unit time or total model
power that is consumed W is only a function of ϕ. so W actually is so therefore we can also say
that this is equal to some constant here which is related to all this different parameters v, w, t 1, α
you have cos λ-α even λ and ts/ the term sin of ϕ cos of ϕ+λ-α we assume that minimum power
would be consumed only corresponding to a certain orientation of ϕ.
constant
W ( ϕ )=
sin ϕ cos ⁡( ϕ+ λ − α )
So basically we have to minimize this number here the total amount of power or work done per
unit time with respect to ϕ okay and see here what ϕ vales this power consumption would be
minimum or it would again the angle would formulating way as a cutting action is happening
3
through the least path of a resistance being offered to the tool surface which is otherwise is
scrapping through the material to remove it.
So w(ϕ) will be minimum when the denominator is maximum which also can be obtain by
differentiating with respect to ϕ and putting equal to 0. so we have again cos ϕ cos of (ϕ+λ- α)-
sin ϕ sin of (ϕ+λ-α)=0 or cos of 2 ϕ +λ-α=0 which can only happen when 2 ϕ+λ-α is π/2. so this
case this kind of condition also obviously λ is as you know tan inverse μ we assuming due to the
constant in variant of time so that is the optimum machining criteria.
cos ϕ cos ( ϕ+ λ − α ) −sin ϕ sin ( ϕ + λ − α )=0
And definitely ϕ would take a value which would be dependent on that particular relationship
corresponding to the minimum power consumption. therefore the equation 2ϕ+λ-α = π/2
provides a way to determine the shear angle corresponding to a certain value of α and friction
angle λ. so we have in sort of optimization criteria here.
cos ( 2 ϕ + λ − α )=0
π
2 ϕ+ λ −α =
2
2 w t 1 τ s cos ⁡( λ− α )
FC =
1− sin ⁡( λ − α )
So the value of FC can be evaluated corresponding to this condition of 2 ϕ+λ-α= ϕ/2 so the FC
was recorded as w t1 τs cos of λ-α/sin of ϕ cos of ϕ+λ-α so if I put the value of ϕ+λ-α from the
relationship obtained earlier it can be obtain as π/2- ϕ . 2 ϕ+λ-α was π/2 by the relationship. so I
substitute this value here and try to see what happens to the situation so this becomes equal to w
4
width of the cutting zone times thickness and cut thickness, τs shear stress cos of λ-α/sin of ϕ
cos of ϕ/2- ϕ.
And in other words this can be represented as sin 2ϕ and sin2ϕ if I just substitute if I just multiply
numerator and denominator by 2 can also be written as 2 w t 1 τs cos of λ-α/1-cos of 2ϕ okay. so
cos of 2 ϕ obviously is nothing but again if I look at this particular equation can be ϕ/2-(λ-α)
okay. so we just substitute that again and try to see what happens in other form the equation
could take this is tries w t1 τs cos λ-α/1- sin λ-α.
Obviously cos of ϕ/2-λ-α would be sin of λ-α. so this is ultimately the form which comes out
from for the fc value on this particular optimum criteria corresponding to the value of ϕ that is
been recorded using this power minimization criteria and Merchant found out that this theory
yields quite agreeable so the results when cutting synthetic plastics but agrees poorly with results
of machining metals.
So this is the small modification done by PW Bridgeman who realizes that the shear stress
ultimate shear stress τs is not completely independent of the normal stress σ which would come
into the picture in fact what alternate theory he proposed was that can be relate the τs to basic τs0
value + something proportional to the normal the normal stress σ that is coming at the shear
plane okay.
τ s=τ s0+ k 1 σ
Where K1 is a constant and σ is the normal stress acting on the shear plane. let take this side own
k1 is a constant and σ is the normal stress at the one the shear plane . so if I just substitute this
value here for the τs value there will be some deification which would happens to the overall you
know equation and if we look at those modifications are so.
5
We know that the if we just sort of consider what is the normal stress. so the normal stress
actually is nothing but the normal reaction which is given by the work piece on the metal per unit
area and actually it is the sine component of the angle ϕ of the normal force and I just like to
redraw what I did before just to explain this concept here.
F
σ= N
w t1
sin ∅
This is chipping power formulation of this chipping formation process which is happening and
this is the tool which is at the certain rake angle α with respect to the perpendicular direction and
further as I think as illustrated earlier we have shear force acting in this direction F S there is an
normal force which acts in a perpendicular direction which is given by this vector light here.
This is the normal force so this one is F N and this results in some kind of a resulted here
somewhere here and we can say this is R just wanting to sort of repeat what we did in terms of
the force diagrams also we had too more forces that is the frictional force to the chip as offered
by the tool rack face and the normal reaction which again was offered by the rack face we called
them FN.
And obviously there would be a third cutting and tangential force we should be offered by the
work piece on to the tool surface because the tool is having a ploughing motion into the work
piece okay. so having said that obviously the normal force on the shear plane it could be the
normal stress would probably come up because of this FN value right here.
6
And the area of the zone I think which we had done earlier was actually w t 1/ sin ϕ so that is also
because the total amount of uncut chip thickness is t 1 and the angle across which this thickness
needs to be translated in order to get to the shear plane is ϕ so therefore t1/sin ϕ is what the
length of the hypotaneous would be this triangle and w is the width of the cutting zone coming
out of the paper or out of the board okay.
All going in sides so this w t 1/ sin ϕ would be the total area of this particular face on which force
fn is acting so this is going to be σ value or the normal stress on the shear zone and further if I
wanted to put this value in the suggested modification of the Bridgman, the final shear stress
would come out to be into two components one is τs0 and another is some constant k1 times of
this σ value which again is fn sin ϕ/w t1 so there is actually sin ϕ based variation in the total
shear stress which is because there is a component of the normal stress of the shear plane acting
in order to define what is the ultimate shear will stress of shear strength of the material.
F
τ s=τ s0+ k 1 N
w t1
sin ∅
At the zone of cut or zone of chip formation so we already know that we have a correlation
between FS and FN and so FS/FN was earlier recorded to be equal to tan of ϕ+λ-α if you remember
the values that we talked about so the value here of if you look at F S/FN is really how to resolve it
as component here in this particular figure.
FN
=tan ( ∅+ λ − α )
FS
F N =F S tan ( ∅+ λ − α )
So we have this angle equated to ϕ if we realize from earlier statements this was the angle λ and
the way we look at this angle was λ-α which we have done in earlier calculations this angle right
here was actually α and the angle taken here in this particular area was ϕ so obviously the total
amount of angle between the FT and FS in this right triangle would be ϕ+λ-α . so ϕ +λ-α so this
is the total angle of the force triangle corresponding to the normal force in the shear plane and
the shear force.
Let me just separate this out here this is FS this is FN and the angular relationship between these
two therefore resulted in these two forces at an angle of ϕ+λ-α . so obviously FN /FS in this
particular case become tan of ϕ+λ-α and having said that if we wanted to now substitute F N value
in terms of FS in this equation we would have the fn equals to FS tan of ϕ+λ-α and
7
correspondingly τs as τs0 +k1 times of FS tan of ϕ+λ-α/w t1/sin of ϕ. further I can actually now
the from this whole equation the value of τs is 0 which comes out to be F S/w t1 by sin ϕ times of
1-k1 tan of ϕ+λ-α.
FS F tan ( ∅+ λ − α )
=τ s 0+ k 1 S
w t1 w t1
sin ∅ sin ∅
FS
w t1
[ 1− k 1 tan ( ∅+ λ − α ) ]=τ s0
sin ∅
The reason being that you have on one side τs value which you can write down simply from the
earlier equation as FS/ w t1/ sin ϕ so if you substitute this value in τs the τs is 0 value from this
substitution comes out to be fs/wt1/sin ϕ times of 1-k1 tan ϕ+λ-α or in other words fs can be
recorded as w t1 τs0 /this whole term right about here which is sin of ϕ times of 1-k1 tan of ϕ+λ-α
or n other words you can write this down as again if I just this as sin cos ratio.
w t 1 τ s0
F S=
sin ∅ [ 1− k 1 tan ( ∅+ λ − α ) ]
So I should be able to write it as w t 1 τs0 times of cos of ϕ+λ-α/ sin of ϕ times of cos of ϕ+λ-α-k1
sin of ϕ+λ-α okay so having said that we have now the relationship were we can again use the
same logic underline the logic of trying to find out the cutting force and trying to do the force
velocity product and minimize the force velocity product to obtain a final solution which could
be a slightly different.
And in the solution that was obtained earlier which we did not consider the assumption of the
normal force so this brings has to the end of this module 39 and in the next module we will do
this force velocity product optimization and try to find out the new angle ϕ thank you.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
8
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
9
Course Title
Module- 40
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part –I module 40.
We quickly recap of what we did in the last module we were talking about a relationship between
the ultimate shear strength of the work material in terms of a component or contribution of the
normal stress in the shear plane as well as the actual shear stress component. So in doing that we
arrived at a formulation where we try to find out the shear-force the total shear force.
1
w t 1 τ s0
F S=
sin ∅ [ 1− k 1 tan ( ∅+ λ − α ) ]
FS
R=
cos ⁡( ∅+ λ − α )
FC =R cos ( λ − α )
As a function of material properties and the geometric parameters. so in fact we wrote Female
Speaker: = Wt1 τs0 Cos (ϕ + λ - α)/ Sin ϕ (Cos ϕ + λ – α – k1 Sin ϕ + λ – α) okay. so from an
earlier relationship which we had obtained between cutting force and shear force and the much
in first theory we assumed FC = Fs Cos λ – α / Cos ϕ + λ – α if I just substitute the value of FS
into this equation we find out the relationship between FC and all the material in geometric
parameters which was a way we did in case of merchant first theory so with the bring them
assumptions true we have FC = Wt1 τs0 Cos λ - α / Sin ϕ Cos [ϕ + λ - α] – k1 sin ϕ +λ - α, so
we now do the force velocity products.
w t 1 τ s0 cos ( λ − α )
FC =
sin ∅ [ cos ⁡( ∅+ λ − α ) − k 1 sin ( ∅+ λ − α ) ]
So the average powers the minimum energy consumption for you know the case w2here the
average power is represented as the force velocity products so FC times of V where assumed to
be constant we need to minimize this so we definitely need to write the power equation in terms
of all these different terms Wt1 τs0 Cos λ - α times of Sin ϕ Cos ϕ +λ - α –k 1 sin ϕ + λ - α
times of V and as we assumed earlier we would assume all constant C.
2
But time invariance in the case of the friction at angle and a certain machining operation the
invariance of the velocity of cutting, the rake angle α and constant material properties and
geometrical dimensions including the width of the zone of machining as well as the uncut chip
thickness so basically the power again W becomes only a function of ϕ and minimization can be
obtained by minimizing or maximizing this particular denominator here.
So I would just do the differentiation of this with respect to ϕ and equate that to 0. so this
becomes equal to Cos ϕ Cos ϕ + λ - α – k 1 times of sin of [ϕ + λ - α] + sin ϕ times the
derivative of this whole term here so this becomes equal to –sin ϕ + λ - α – k 1 cosine of ϕ + λ
- α and so this whole term is equated to 0 and from that we are able to if you separate these
terms out we are able to write this separately as Cos ϕ + λ - α – sin ϕ sin ( ϕ +λ – α ) – k1 times
of sin ϕ + λ - α times of Cos ϕ + Cos [ϕ + λ - α] times of sin ϕ.
d
d∅ {
sin ∅ [ cos ⁡( ∅+ λ −α ) −k 1 sin ( ∅+ λ − α ) ] }=0
And this is equated hence this equated to 0, so the way that this can be again rewritten is
cos2ϕ+λ-α=k1.sin2ϕ+λ-α meaning thereby that the 2ϕ+λ-α becomes equal to tan inverse of the
value 1/k1, because you know the sin/Cos is basically the tem component and this is actually a
constant k1 so obviously 10 inverse of 1/k1 can be treated as a constant. In other words, our
condition.
Now changes to 2ϕ+λ-α= a constant Cm earlier from first theory it was π/2 this c1 now is
something which is dependent on the dependent on k 1 value which is actually the coefficient as
defined by Bridgman as A, is a multiple of which the normal stress in the shear plane would
formulate a part of the ultimate yield strength and shear of the material. So that is how the
formulation here becomes little different then the first theory of Ernst- Merchant. in fact there are
many other theories proposed by different people and I am going to just not get into the
derivation of all those any more but just write down some of the different results that have been
obtained by various sources.
2 ∅+ λ −α =C m
−1
Cm =cot k 1
3
So I call this shear angle relations, the first theory of course is the one which is proposed by
Ernst- Merchant. You derived this which indicates the following optimized condition 2 ϕ+λ-α
recorded as π/2 have a yet another merchant’s second theory which comes into being because of
the Bridgeman assumptions. so that makes 2ϕ+λ-α become equal to C m . then there is one theory
proposed by Lee and Shaffer where ϕ+λ-α can be recorded as π/4. I am not going to prove this in
the interest of time and the yet another proposed by Stabler which talks about ϕ+λ-α/2=π/4.
π
Ernst ∧ Merchant : 2∅+λ − α =
2
'
Merchan t ssecond solution :2 ∅+ λ −α =C m
π
lee∧ Shaffer ::∅+ λ − α =
4
α π
Stabler ∷ ∅+ λ − =
2 4
So with all this on board I think we can now proceed towards doing some numerical examples to
estimate what is going to be the value of the different geometric parameters given a certain
cutting condition and certain material property and we can actually go for this optimum power
consumption criteria to have a good relationship of the whole cutting process. So I would just
like to discuss this example, problem here that during an orthogonal machining operation on
mild steel the results obtain by measurement of different geometrical and force parameters are
following we have the uncut thickness t1 as 0.25mm the cut thickness so the cut shipped
thickness as 0.75mm.
4
The width of the cutting zone w given as 2.5mm, rake angle of 0 degrees so tool is actually
almost perpendicular to the surface that is cutting or scribing and there are force measurements
of the cutting as well as tangential force which are required mostly by the tool dynamometers
kept near or just on the bottom face of the mounting are of the tool mount so the cutting force is
recorded as 950N and the tangential force is recorded as 475N we have to determine the tan of
friction angle the coefficient of friction µ. And we also want to determine the ultimate shear
stress τs of the work material. So having set that let us actually now try to answer eh question
point by point.
F FC sinα + F T cosα
μ= = =0.5
w t1
As=
sin ∅
rcosα t1 1
tanϕ= = =
1− rsinα t 2 3
1
ϕ=tan −1
3 ()
=18.4o
w t 1 0.25 ∗2.5
As= = o
=1.98 mm2
sin ∅ sin 18.4
F S=F C cosϕ − F T sinϕ=751.3 N
FS 2
τ s= =379.4 N /mm
As
5
So we find out µ by ratio of F / N that is the friction force by the normal reaction and in terms of
cutting force and tangential force F can be expressed as FC sign of α + FT cos of α and normal
force can be expressed as FC cos of α – FT sine of α, so obviously this can now because α being 0
it can be recorded as FT/ FC and this becomes equal toi 475 N /950N which is equal to 0.5 so
that is what the friction coefficient is µ and the second part addressing the ultimate shear stress τs
of the work material if the shear plane area is As let us say and the shear plane angle is the angle
φ then we have φ or we have the as = t1w / sin φ of I that is basically the uncut chip thickness
times of width of the cutting zone and the component you know t1 / sin φ along the shear plane
and the tan φ in that case obviously as I defined earlier is also the cutting ratio r * cos α / 1 – r sin
α. in this case r can be calculated to be a third so t 1/ t2 basically which is 0.25/0.75 as defined the
problem 1/3rd so tan Ф becomes equal to 1/3 rd cos of 0 degree so divided by 1-1/3 sin of 0
degrees. so basically 1/3rd so ϕ becomes equal to the tan inverse of .333 1/3 rd which is 18.4
degrees so that is how you calculate the ϕ also the AS on the shear plane area and this particular
case is basically equal to the thickness t1 times of the width of the machining zone also recorded
as 2.5 mm in the problem divided by sin of ϕ the sin of 18.4 degrees.
Basically comes out 1.98mm2 and if I wanted to look at what is the value of Fs, so fs can again
be recorded as the combination of the cutting forces FC and also the tangential force F ts
recorded in the cutting zone has FC cos ϕ-FT sin ϕ look at the equations that have been
illustrated earlier so in this case it is to be 950 times of cos of 18.4 degrees which comes out to
be about 0.95- of 475 times of sin of 18.4 degrees which actually comes out to be 0.316.
So the totality comes out to be 751.3 N so obviously the τs are the shear stress in this cases shear
force penetrate the shear plane area so 751.3/the shear plane area which is 1.98 N per mm 2 which
comes out to be 379.4 N per mm2 so that is how you actually tackle these problems about the
different unknowns like what would be the shear strength ultimate shear strength in the zone of
the cutter etc by looking at the geometrical parameters.
And also looking at the measured forces of in the cutting and the tangential direction at the zone
of the cut so with this I would like to end this topic there are any more topics to cover including
what is going to be temperature distribution of the cutting zone as well as what is going to be
specific energy of cut which is needed but will do this in subsequent module thank you.
Acknowledgement
6
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
7
Course Title
Module- 41
by
In the last lecture we had talked about numerically deigning a case where we had non value of
the measured forces as well as the geometrical parameters based on that we estimated what is
going to be the ultimate shear streets of material in the cutting zone. let us actually reverse that
cycle and try to estimate from material properties and geometric parameters given what is going
to be the cutting forces okay in the following example.
1
So we have one example here which talks about a mild steel piece being machined at a cutting
speed of about 200m/min and this is being done with the tool rake angle of 10 0 that means
respect to the vertical the tool rake face is at 10 0 the width of cut and the uncut thickness are
given to 2mm and 0.2mm respectively and the average value of the coefficient of friction and
now we are just treating this to be taking this to be average value although the presumption of
taking an average value is a not completely true.
Because due to the unequal distribution of pressure of the chip on the rack face that may be
change in the normal force that it receives and from the tool face there by resulting in differential
friction And also the coefficient friction changes with respect to temperature as the cutting
process happens so but we are right now assuming this to be uniform and a average value
reported of 0.5 and shear stress τs of the work piece is now is material property again we want to
consider it to be time invariant although it is not completely true because shear stress also
sometimes depends on the temperature of the cut zone so here in this case we treat that to be
temperature independent and as 400 N/m2 .
So we need to determine what is ϕ the shear angle is this particular case and we also need to
determine what is the cutting and thrust component of the machining forces so using the
merchants first solution let us actually assume that we are using the first solution for our
calculations here, we already know that 2Ф + λ - α is = 900, α here is given as 100 the friction
2
angle λ can be calculated as tan inverse of average μ which is actually = tan inverse 0.5 over
26.570.
π
Ernst ∧ Merchant : 2∅+λ − α =
2
λ=tan − 1 μ=26.570
Having said that we have now the ϕ value recorded as 90+ 10 – 26.57 / 2 36.7 0 and the fs value
the shear force value here they call it as Wt 1 τs / sin ϕ as I had illustrated earlier this being the
total sheer plane area and this actually = to ultimate yield strength of the material in shear so it is
already given to be a constant value 400 N/ mm2 and the problem example so we want to put this
value of the width which is 2 mm times of the uncut chip thickness within this case 0.2 mm.
π − λ+ α 0
∅= =36.7
2
So 0.2 times of τs which is 400N/mm2 / sin ϕ so sin of 36. 7 0 so in this case the FS would come
out to be here the shear force would come to be close to about 262. 3 N and the way we calculate
from the shear force the various components F C and FT so you already know that the resultant
force times of cos of ϕ+ λ - α from the merchants circle diagram represents a shear force so in
this case obviously.
w t τ 2∗ 0.2∗ 400
F S= 1 s = =262.3 N
sinϕ sin 36.7
Then the resultant of the shear and the normal forces in the shear zone or you know the similar to
the resultant of the frictional and the normal reaction of the tool face on the chip so that is going
to be equal to 262.3 i.e. FS value divided by cos of ϕ which is 36 .67+ λ again 26 . 57 – α which
is 100 okay so this whole thing corresponds to about 438.6 N which is reaction force or resultant
force R and you can calculate FC and FT by putting the R component and F C is defined as R cos λ
– α.
FS
R= =438.6 N
cos ( ∅+ λ −α )
I think we have illustrated this earlier in the merchant circle so this becomes equal to 438.6 times
of cos of 26.57 – 100 420 N and FT becomes = R sin of λ- α which is 438. 6 sin of 26.57 0- 100
which is = 125 N, so that is how you calculate the cutting force as well as the tangential force to
the direction of cut so in a nut shell you can now estimate from the material property and the
geometrical property the normal forces and the cutting forces in the tooling zone or the cutting
zone.
FC =Rcos ( λ −α )=420 N
FT =Rsin ( λ − α )=125 N
3
And in the earlier example we had done the reverse way by looking at the measured cutting and
tendencies forces what is going to be the you know the final shear ultimate shear strength, so
having said that I think we have covered more or less everything that is need to understand
Merchant theory properly.
We now need to go to a little bit different aspect about calculating the specific cutting energy of
then material and for that let us assume that if FC is the cutting force when a machining is done.
let us say at a velocity v the total power consumption I think we had earlier discussed comes out
to be the force velocity product right so it is basically FC *v that is used to defined the power at
the same time if t1 and w are the uncut thickness and the cutting zone width, the volume of the
material removed per unit time is then obviously w t1 v right. so this is basically the total volume
or total sectional area of the material and v is the velocity and so that is going to be the total
amount of volume per unit time that is being removed okay.
Now what happens to the deformation process or how the chip gets deformed and wise or rights
on the rake face is a different question but the amount of volume that you are flying out as chip is
typically the volume that you are saving of the material right so in this case this is the if I assume
v to be in a direction perpendicular you know in the cutting direction, so cutting velocity so
obviously cutting velocity times w t1 should be able to give the sufficient volume per unit time
removal.
4
Which would result in again deforming and riding on the tool face and formulating into a chip,
so having said that the energy consumption per unit volume rate of material removal okay which
we commonly also known as the specific cutting energy most specific energy is then given by Uc
= FC v which is the amount of energy consumed per unit time / by the volume rate of removal per
unit time which is w t1 v by another words it is FC / w t1.
W =F C v
FC
U c=
w t1
So this 1/ w t1 factor is really pretty important and it give you a relationship between the cutting
force and the specific energy that is being spent in order to remove a certain material at a certain
volume rate of removal. therefore now I can probably say that the amount of energy that is need
per unit time or the amount of cutting power that is needed represented by w can be represented
as Uc Q where Uc is the specific energy of the material and Q is the volume rate of removal that
is how many mm3 / min or s is being removed of the materials of Q is the volume rate of
removal.
W =U c Q
And this Uc is basically again the power spent per unit volume rate of removal so multiplying
that with the volume rate of removal would actually give you the total power that is need for
cutting the system or cutting performing the whole cutting process. so this specific energy is a
very convenient cases for judging the power required for a given process. if I say the specific
energy related to a volume certain volume rate of removal is higher or for a certain process is
higher it means that you can basically you would like to consume more amount of power to
remove the material in that particular system.
If the specific energy is lower of a certain system then you have to use less power in order to cut
more material of the system so an examination of the various.
5
− 0.4
U c =U 0 tˇ1
A literature data suggest that you know you can relate this uc to the uncut chip thickness t1
through a relation U0 to the power of – 0.4 where and this is again completely a sort of a core
relational formula so where this t 1 is the magnitude of the uncut chip thickness of the cutting
process okay and this is measured because this is kind of regression formula this t 1 actually is
measured in mm.
So in this particular relationship the t1 is an mm and the value of U 0 really depends on the
materials so obviously we are splitting down the Uc into two components: one is material related
property and another which is actually related to the thickness of the cut that you are excising so
at one particular you know round cutting how much material or how much depth you are giving
in terms of you know cut chip thickness is also critical to determination o f the rate of
consumption of energy which would be need to remove that material.
So therefore we are trying to split it up into material property U0 and thickness t 1 to power of –
0.4 so having said the value of Uc can be substituted in the relationship which we developed here
right here and we can say that you know uc which is actually = Fc / w t 1 and found out before is
nothing U0 t1 to the power of – 0.4 and basically fc therefore become equal to w t1 times of u0 t1
-0.4
J/ mm this J can be corresponding to Nm you could actually represent this you know by
changing this to 1000 N mm and I can write this down as 1000 w t1 u0 t1-0.4N okay.
− 0.4
Fc =1000∗ w t 1 U 0 tˇ1 N
So that is how you can actually find out the cutting force requirements given material property
U0 of particular material that is what is the specific energy of the material and also the width and
6
the depth of the cutting zone so this is very important to determine how much force would be
necessary And sufficient to start removing the material so let us do a numerical problem example
to find out how we apply this specific energy concept in the cutting.
So let us say we have a case where we need to find out the order of magnitude of the cutting
component of the machining force and during the orthogonal machining of mild steel with an
uncut chip thickness of 0.25 mm and width of a cut w being equal to 2.5mm so we already know
that the U0 which is a material specific property assuming this to be a mild steel as I already told
you here component U0 for mile steel is recorded as 1.4 J / mm3.
So having said that the amount of cutting force FC = 1000 times of the value of the uncut chip
thickness which is 0.25 mm times of the width of the cutting zone w times of 1.4 the U 0 value
form mile steels specific cutting energy of mile steel times of t 1 the uncut chip thickness to the
-0.4
power of -0.4 which is again represented here 0.25 N so this becomes equal to 3500 times of
0.250.6 N which is 1517 N.
− 0.4 − 0.4
Fc =1000∗ w t 1 U 0 tˇ1 =1000∗ 0.25 ∗2.5 ∗1.4 ∗ ( 0.25 ) =1517 N
So this is the kind of force requirement which is there for starting to cut on this mile steel sample
to compare this FC value which is predicted in the or which is calculated in to the last step here
with respect to let us say something to the estimated force of cutting from using one of the
7
criteria which we illustrated earlier let us say we use the Lee & Shaffer criteria which talks about
ϕ = π /4 + α- λ okay tan inverse μ.
So we can probably find out whether we are still in the range of you know what ever is estimated
by this specific energy method at least order of magnitude y is are the force value same so in this
case let us assume that α= 00 rack angle of tool which is almost vertical μ some of the parameters
we have assumed earlier as 0.5 and the ϕ calculated from which the Lee & Shaffer condition
which is 450 + 0 – tan-1 of 0.5 which is actually 26. 540.
π
Lee ∧ Shaffer :: ∅+ λ −α =
4
π
∅= − λ+α =18.43o
4
w t 1 τ s0 cos ( λ − α )
FC =
sin ∅ [ cos ⁡( ∅+ λ − α ) − k 1 sin ( ∅+ λ − α ) ]
2.5 ∗ 0.25∗ 300 cos 26.57
FC = =1000 N
sin 18.43 [ cos ⁡45 ]
This becomes equal to 18 so the FC values here would be equal to obviously the width of cut
times of the uncut chip thickness t1 times of t ultimate shear incase of milt steel which is 300 N/
mm2 is assumed to be that value times of cos of λ – times of cos of λ – α or cos λ okay divided by
sin ϕ times of cos ϕ + λ - α , so this value is basically cos of λ and because α is 0 in this
particular case as you have seen in the assumption itself so cos of λ which actually becomes =
cos of 26.570 okay and right here is basically sin of ϕ which is sin of 18.43 0 and cos of ϕ + λ – α
which is actually = cos of 18.43 0 + 26.570 - 0 this becomes equals to roughly about 450
So that much N would be the force FC from normal Lee & Shaffer’s criteria for optimization of
power. so which find out that the values of pretty specially very close FC in this case comes out
to around 1000 N if I just calculate by substituting the value of this cos 26.57 and all the other
sin and cos parameters in the denominator the total force of cut happens to be about 1000N
which is at least order of magnitude vise write close to this 1517 N okay.
So at least with both methods we can predict similar orders of magnitude of the cutting force as
illustrated here now the other issue which I would probably like to take after in the next module
would be related to heat transfer process and temperature rise in the cutting zone because of the
cutting action obviously there is a shear plane across which the chip is being deformed and that
all energy is stored in terms of increase in temperature or heat energy.
8
And so there is going to be a you know toll temperature zone which comes up because of all this
energy exchange so apart of the energy probably goes to the work piece a part is flying away
with the chip and the fly is retain by the part is retained the tool so in that manner we will try to
model to see what is the heat flow and what is the temperature rise of all these 3 zones while
doing a machining operation as if now in this particular module I would like to end it here. thank
you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
9
Course Title
Module- 42
by
We will be today discussing mostly about the temperature rise and the cutting zone because of
the various portions of the power consumed in the primary, secondary and the tertiary zone of the
cut. So let us actually understand the problem little clear as to what these different zones are in
metal cutting so when the material is deformed elastically.
1
Some energy spends to increase its strain energy which is returned during the unloading right so
some energy is spent to increase its strain energy and obviously because it is in the elastic range
the material will return back so this is return during the unloading process which is returned
during the unloading process. However in a plastic case or it is basically plastic deformation
most of the energy is spent in converting.
Or getting converted into heat and temperature rise of the material right so you just write it
down here that first in plastic deformation and by the by most of the metal machining processes
are based on plastic deformation and so therefore 99% of the energy in that case is converted into
heat energy, so in the plastic deformation most energy is spent for convergence to heat in case of
machining because most of it is based on plastic deformation almost 99% of the energy is
converted into heat.
So obviously it brings a very strange situation that because of this heat flow into the 3
components which are actually connected to each other in machining one is work piece, one is
the tool and one is the chip obviously the heat is going to get its there would be a heat flow from
the cutting zone into all the three components that is the chip the work piece and the tool
obviously there would be a temperature rise because of that.
So if we are using a condition where because of the continuous you know power consumption of
cutting there is an increase in the heat it may lead to the deformability of the tool or change in
the properties of the tool and it may also simultaneously result in a you know change in the
2
material properties of the work piece material because you know things like let us say shear
stress etc vary a lot based on what is going to be the temperature of the cutting zone.
So in any event there is going to be an overall change because of this you know rise in the energy
level and you know retained energy level in terms of temperature state which comes onto the
chip as well which is work piece as well as the tool and it creates a situation where we need to
estimate now what is going to be the temperature rise because of all this energy flow or all this
power which is consumed in doing the machining operation.
So especially for ferrous metals and may be some other high strength materials like ferrous
metals would machining the temperature rises the speed of machining and the tool strength also
decreases so obviously it would create more tool wear and sometimes even tool failure okay if
the temperature is more very high so this definitely should put limit to the cutting speed, so limit
the cutting speed.
And that is why an analysis is needed then how much would be the kind of optimum speed
which would be needed for all these different failure aspects would not creepen and have the
machining operation carried out at a certain optimum speed, so the if we look at how the chip
formulation process again takes place I am going to just draw the work zone in case of a chip
formulation process.
So this right here is let us say the chip which has been created and this right here is again the tool
which on which or on the surface of which the chip rest and let me just show these two
boundaries of the tool face with this shaded regions this is the tool, this is the work piece, this is
the chip so obviously the major plastic deformation if we look at because all the temperature rise
and the heat flow is a function of where the deformation is most.
So the major plastic deformation occurs in the shear zone so when the chip is shearing off with
respect to the work piece there is going to be a change in the energy here this is plastic
deformation mostly converted into heat and so there would be heat coming out in both these
directions from this primary shear zone. So this is because of the nature of the plastic
deformation process here which is really the determinant of the material removal.
This is a heat source which contributes to most of the heat release. so heat source contributing to
most of the heat released and also referred to as the primary heat zone obviously because this is
3
the primary reason why the heat is being generated that the chip is being script of from the work
piece obviously a large fraction of this heat goes to the chip it does also flow into the work piece.
Because work piece is at a lower temperature and wherever there are two different temperature
states heat flow would take from the higher temperature to the lower temperature there is another
reason why heat should offer and that because the chip is moving at a certain velocity with
respect to this tool face right about here and so the sliding motion of the chip also generates heat
energy and this energy is primarily generated in the tool face.
Because of the frictional face at the chip would have against which it has to move at a certain
chip velocity VC, so let us say the chip velocity is V C whereas the cutting velocity here in this
cutting direction is V so there may be a relationship between VC and V which we need to obtain
in order to estimate what is going to be the quantum of temperature increase because of the heat
generated by virtue of rubbing action, okay.
So there is another heat zone so this is typically call the secondary heat zone, so there is another
one which is really this flank okay now this flank of the tool and because of the rubbing of this
flank with respect to the surface the finished surface and the we can say that this zone can
produce heat due to rubbing of the flank face of the tool with the finished work piece surface
upto obviously if we can have sharp at tool this rubbing action can be avoided.
But in any event this is also known as tertiary heat zone, which hardly contributes any heat
because if we sharpen the tool a little bit then this problem of rubbing action of the flank with the
finished work piece would be solved and there would not be any heat generated because of that,
okay.
4
W =W P +W S
W S =F v c =Frv
W P=F c v − Frv
( 1− Λ ) W P
θ P=
ρcv wt 1
ρcv t 1
Θ=
k
27.5
Λ=0.15 ln ( )
Θ tan ϕ
θS ≈ 1.13
√ ( Θ t2 WS
l ρcv wt 1
WS
)
θS av =
ρcv wt 1
l
=[ 1+tan ⁡( ∅− α ) ]
t2
WS
θS ≈ 1.13
√ 1
cv t 1 k [ 1+ tan ⁡( ∅ −α ) ] w
θ=θ o +θ P +θS
( )
So having said that now the question is, how can be estimate the different powers which are
consumed in the process so obviously I think I have mentioned many times earlier doing during
the Merchant’s circle diagram analysis of the forces the total power consumption of the cutting
process during machining is obtained as cutting forced times of cutting velocity or the force
velocity product.
5
And I would just assume this to be totally converted into heat so total rate of heat generation is
actually this W rate of consumption of the power we can we assume that 99% of the power is
consumed in you know the cutting process because obviously the forces are very large and also
force velocity product is pretty large so if the rate of heat generation the primary zone and
secondary zone or let us say WP and WS respectively.
This is the rate of heat generation in secondary zone and this is the rate of heat generation in the
primary zone so then W can be recorded as the W =W P +W S obviously there is no other
source into which or from which the heat would result. we are assuming the tool to be sharp
enough so that the flank where does not contribute to any rise in heat flow or something, so these
are the two sources principally from which this total cutting forces supposed to be consumed.
One is the frictional aspect that comes as a temperature rise of the tool face as well as the chip
surface another is the primary aspect of shear which rises the temperature of the chip as well as
the work piece surface. So now let assume or let is try to find out what is the chip velocity and
this we find out from the principle of continuity so obviously the amount of material that is being
scrapped off is a material which is removed as the chip so we say the principle of volume
continuity enables us to find out what is the volume rate of removal of the material which is
V*W* t1 . I think I had mention this earlier V is the cutting velocity in the direction of the cutting
force, W is the sort of width of the cutting zone and t1 is the uncut chip thickness.
So this much amount of volume is being removed and the same volume is converted as the chip
velocity so if I have considered t2 as the cut chip thickness and W as the width of the cutting zone
so the t2 times W times VC, where VC is the chip velocity would give the same rate of volume as
the volume which has been scrubbed off from the work piece surface so therefore on the VC or
the chip velocity.
In this case can be estimated as t1/ t2 *V obviously the W they all go up because the width is
same whether it is cutter on cut side of the deform shape or the per-deformed shape you know
as the part of the material so t1/ t2 times of V this we call as a cutting ratio times of V and
secondary heat generation WS can be recorded as the frictional force F that the chip faces times
of the chip velocity which is also can be represented as the frictional force that the chip faces
with respect to the tool face times of the cutting ratio R times of the cutting velocity.
6
So FrV so that is the secondary rate of heat generation which can be plugged in to this equation
to write about here as WS value. let us calculate the WP so obviously WP would be W- WS, W
already has been recorded as FCV – Fr V so this becomes equal to Fc - FR where R is the cutting
ratio times of the velocity V, so that is what the primary zone would be enabled to provide as the
rate of heat generation.
W S =F v c =Frv
W P=F c v − Frv
So once we have calculated the WP and WS let us see what is the impact in terms of temperature
or the surface temperature and when a material particle moves across the primary deformation
zone the temperature rise that would be there θP would be given really as the amount of fraction
that is lost of the primary heating zone into the work piece okay, so 1 minus that is basically the
amount of power primary power that escapes into the let us say the chip okay.
Divided by the mass rate of flow which is actually again the density of the material times of the
cutting velocity times of t1W which is the rate of volume removal of the material, so this is the
mass rate of the removal of the material right, so the specific heat capacity okay. So Q = mCT as
you know so if the total amount of temperature rise of the chip because of the primary power is
θP then we can assume that to be a fraction of the power that actually moves into the chip.
By unit ρv t1WC which means it is the mass rate of removal of the material times of the specific
heat capacity of the material part of the deformation so that is giving you an indication of what is
going to be the rise of the temperature because of the primary heat, so here λ is actually the
fraction of primary heat source going into the work piece, ρ is the density of the material, C is
the specific heat of the material.
( 1− Λ ) W P
θ P=
ρcv wt 1
And t1W is basically the uncut chip area which is the product of the width of the cutting zone
times of the uncut chip thickness. So there have been the reports in the literature which is really
determine this λ from dimensional analysis.
7
So λ is estimated from dimensional analysis and I am not really going into the details of this
analysis because from at strand point of estimating the temperature we can actually assume this
formulation okay and work out what is going to be the increase of the cutting temperature in the
zone of cutting because of the primary heat component, so λ can be estimated as 0.15 natural log
( 27.5/ θ tan ϕ) where this parameter θ is again a non dimensional parameter which has been
recorded as ρvc t1/k.
ρcv t 1
Θ=
k
27.5
Λ=0.15 ln ( Θ tan ϕ)
c is the specific heat capacity of the material and k is obviously the thermal conductivity, so you
have to sort of create this non dimensional quantities and try to find out what is the relationship
between this fractional of heat release as well as this whole quantity here and it is found that you
know with respect to experiments as well as the final non dimensional parameters which are
related to each other.
It comes out that λ becomes equal to its inversely proportional to the ln( θ ) this parameter here
non dimensional parameter here and also inversely proportional to tan ϕ again which is non
dimensional in nature. So now therefore θP that is the rise of temperature of from the primary
zone or primary contribution can be estimated. We can similarly do the estimation of the θ s the
secondary zone and the maximum temperature rise as well as the average temperature rise.
8
Because of the secondary power and so in this case what we can do is, the maximum temperature
rise θs again you know coming out of literature has been estimated to be 1.13 √θ t2/L Ws the
secondary power which is actually generated by F rV as I told earlier divided by ρcv w t 1 okay. So
obviously this is again the mass rate of flow okay times the specific heat capacities so the mC
component and obviously the Ws signify the rate of heat generation.
θS ≈ 1.13
√ (
Θ t2 WS
l ρcv wt 1
WS
)
θS av =
ρcv wt 1
So the rate of heat generation per unit the rate of mass flow times this specific heat capacity
gives you an idea of the θs, so just because you can understand that you know there is a if you
look at really how the chip is contacting the tool surface the chip really is having a length of
contact okay on the tool surface let us say this is the tool that is being considered and this is the
work piece surface this is the shear zone being created.
Because of the chipping is happening this is the chip processes so the chip really is trying to go
out right, so as it removes the chip goes out like this okay and there is also a finite length which
is contacting on the tool surface, so this length is what tis L is, the length of contact of the chip
on the rake face and it basically gives you a you know an attempt to as a function of this length
can record what is the θs values.
So the length is lower and lower and this point is closer to this particular you know point of
engagement of the tool with respect to the work piece of the work zone actually the θs would be
higher and higher that is why this inverse relationship is obtained here, so the this contact length
here as again being correlated experimentally, so experimentally you know people have reported
this contact length L varying in relation to t2 which is the cut chip thickness.
Remember this again t2 here term basically represents the cut chip so the cut ship thickness where
just because this side is the t1 if you may remember from earlier analysis the cut ship thickness is
after the deformation of the ship has happened actually and here the L/t2 okay is experimentally
found out to be a function of ϕ and it basically is represented as 1 + tan ϕ – α okay. So this is
also borrowed from an experimental result.
l
=[ 1+tan ⁡( ∅− α ) ]
t2
9
So in that event if I substitute all this values and try to find out you know and try to find out the
coverall form of what θs would take by substituting the value of ϕ etc. The θs maximum and this
is the maximum temperature on the chip or temperature distribution on the chip because of the
relatively different lengths of engagements that the chip has with respect to the tool face we can
get this as 1.13 √ and we put the value of θ here as ρvc t 1/k thermal conductivity of the material
times of t2.
Which again can be represented as L/1 + tan (ϕ – α) so that is how you represent θ t 2/L because
√θ t2 / L that is what it says and so this get cancelled out times of ws the amount of secondary
power times of ρcv wt1, so this can again be recorded as 1.13 √1/ρcv t 1 k 1+ tan ( ϕ – α) times
of ws/w okay and that is how you can get the contribution from the secondary zone already you
have had a contribution of the primary zone by virtue of this value of λ here as recorded here in
this particular statement 1 – λ wp/ρv t1 w C , okay.
WS
θS ≈ 1.13
√ 1
( )
cv t 1 k [ 1+ tan ⁡( ∅ −α ) ] w
θ=θ o +θ P +θS
So an average temperature also can be plotted out as just simply the ratio between the rate of heat
generation at the secondary zone per unit the mass rate of removal time specific heat capacity of
the material so this is an average temperature rise, so this is not of much significance there may
be some numerical estimation where this is of some important but what is in the normally
important is to correctly estimate what is the overall temperature rise.
And the overall temperature rise here in the cutting zone is I may just look at this particular zone
so there is a heat flow because of the primary heat which is generated and there is also a heat
flow because of the frictional heat which is generated which is maximum at this particular point,
so the maximum temperature here would actually be equal to the ambient temperature θ0 plus
the increase because of the primary heat.
And the increase because of the secondary heat so that is how you can calculate the maximum
temperature in this particular case, so interest of time I am going to close this module but in the
next module I am going to make you teach or make you learn about how you can actually
estimate and what arte the kind of values or atleast order of magnitudes which are involved of
10
temperature rise because of this various thermal models that have been represented in this
particular module. So as of now, thank you and good bye.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
11
12
Course Title
Module – 43
By
So brief recall about what we did in the last lecture we were talking about various temperatures
which have arrived at during the cutting process in either the tool side or the work piece side of
the cutting zone. And we in fact actually suggested a model where which you could actually
predict the temperature of the various fronts and then also estimate what is the overall cutting
temperature in the cutting zone you know through some experimental and some modeling based
mechanisms.
Today we are going to look at actual numerical design of the temperature of the cutting zone and
I am just going to make.
1
→ ∅=45 o − tan − 1 ( 0.5 )+ 0o=18.43 o
w t τ 2∗ 0.25 ∗ 400∗ 106
→ F s= 1 s = =632.6 N
sin ∅ 106 ∗ sin18.43 o
632.6 cos 26.57 o
→ F C= =800 N
cos 45 o
sin ∅
→r = ( as r=0 )=tan ∅=0.333
cos ∅
→ F T =FC tan ( λ − α )=0.5 ∗800=400 N
→ F=F C sinα + F T cosα=392 N
Sort of case here where we have to determine the maximum temperature along the rake face of
the tool when machining mild steel given the following conditions work material shear stress is
around 400 *10 6 N /m2 this is the ultimate shear stress of the work material the total amount of
rake angel that the tool makes with the vertical is 0 in this particular case the velocity with which
cutting is happening is 2 m/s we also given the the uncut thickness t 1 as 0.25 mm we are also
provided the width of the cutting zone as I think I had illustrate it in the last lecture the zone you
know for the total width coming either out or going in to the page you know for the two
dimensional view that we showed.
So that is 2 mm there is a coefficient friction µ which is 0.5 a total amount of 7200 kg /m 3density
the density of the mild steel of the material whatever is being used in this particular case it is
mild steel, we also have been given the values of thermal conductivity of the mild steel sample as
43.6 watts /m0 C the total specific heat capacity of the material as 502 J /kg degree C the ambient
2
temperature where this whole process is taking place where you can assume this to be the base
line temperature is about 400C.
So it has been sort of given that you know the particular case would like to deploy Lee and
Shaffer’s the shear angle relationship, and we are ask to find the maximum temperature of the
rake face of the tool surface okay. So first of all let us try to put down the Lee and Shaffer’s
relationship here is 5 = 450 – λ tan inverse of µ, µ is 0.5 so λ the friction angle is basically tan
inverse of 0.5 plus the rake angel α and this comes out to the equal to 18.430.
→ ∅=45 o − tan − 1 ( 0.5 )+ 0o=18.43 o
Then we would like to find out the shear force FS which can be given from the equation FS = w t1
τ s / sin of φ in this particular case the w is given out to be 2mm. the total uncut chip thickness
has been given to be 0.25mm. the total shear stress of the material that is the ultimate shear stress
of the material has been given as 400 x 10 6 N /m2. So I have to simply divide this by 10 6 to make
it N/mm2, so the units can be consistent this is mm this is mm and this has to be divided further
by sing of φ which is φ of 18.43 0 and this comes out to equal to 632.6 N, so that is who much
shear force is needed to do the machining operation.
w t τ 2∗ 0.25 ∗ 400∗ 106
→ F s= 1 s = =632.6 N
sin ∅ 106 ∗ sin18.43 o
We also use the relationship cutting force FC = the shear force FS cos of λ – α / cosign of 5 + λ –
α so that is FC and FC in this particular case can again be written down as 632.6 n times cos of tan
inverse of 0.5 – 0 and this write here is 26.570 divided by the cos of 45 which can be broken
down in to the cos of φ obtained earlier has 18.43 0 + λ which is about 26.570 tan inverse of 0.5
26.570 – of α which is actually going to 00 in this particular case.
So this comes out to be 632.6 times of cosign 26.57 0 divide by cosine of 45 ∑ 18.43 and 26.57,
so the FC the total cutting force comes out to be equal to 800 N. let us try to find out the chip
thickness ratio are which is actually given as in this particular case as sin φ divided by cos of φ –
α, α being 0 = tan of φ, φ being 18.43 0 so this becomes tan 18.43 0 which is actually 0.333 so that
is how you defined the chip thickness ratio are in this particular case you already know that ft the
total tangential force is dependent on FC tan of (λ – α) from the force relationships earlier through
merchant circle.
625 cos 26.57o
→ F C= =800 N
cos 45 o
3
sin ∅
→r = ( as r=0 )=tan ∅=0.333
cos ∅
So this becomes equal to FC tan λ, tan λ being equal to 0.5 and so therefore the FT becomes equal
to 400 N. so these are all needed as you may recall in finding out the expression for the
temperature there are various zones primary secondary etc from which contributes to the heat
flow and rise in temperature.
→ F T =FC tan ( λ − α )=0.5 ∗800=400 N
→ F=F C sinα + F T cosα=392 N
→W P =F c v − Frv=( 800 − 400 ∗0.333 ) ∗2=13 33W
→W S=F v c =Frv=400 ∗0.333 ∗2=26 6.7 W

ρcv t 1 7200∗ 502∗ 2∗ 0.25 ∗10− 3
→Θ= = =41.5
k 43.6
→Θ tan∅=41.5 ∗ 0.333=13.8
27.5 27.5
→ Λ=0.15 ln (
Θ tan ϕ )
=0.15 ln
13.8 ( )
=0.1
( 1− Λ ) W P ( 1 −0.1 ) ∗13 33 ∗1000 ∗1000

θ P= = =3 32 oC
ρcv wt 1 7200 ∗502 ∗2 ∗0.25 ∗2
We now calculate the F value from the force relationship sustained earlier through merchant
circle f is basically related to FC sin of α + FT cos of α so I can say in this particular case α being
4
0 it should be equal to FT and FT came out earlier to be equal to 400n so the force of friction F is
basically 400 N in this particular case. So calculate again the primary and the secondary zone
power consumption which we earlier defined as WP and WS we already know that WP was
recorded as cutting force times velocity minus of the friction force times the chip thickness ration
times of velocity.
So we want to actually in this case do the same thing with cutting force already calculated earlier
as 800 N minus of the friction force which we just calculated in the last step as 400 N times of
the total chip thickness ratio which is 1/3 in this particular case times of the velocity the velocity
here is 2 and so that can be recorded as watts, so joules per second and this comes out to be equal
to about 1333 w. in a similar manner we calculate ws the our consumption the total power
consumption at the secondary shear zone which is actually given with or given by FVC or FrV.
→W P =F c v − Frv=( 800 − 400 ∗0.333 ) ∗2=1333W
→W S=F v c =Frv=400 ∗0.333 ∗2=266.7 W
So in this particular case that comes out to be equal to 400 times of 0.333 times of 2watts and
this power can be calculated as 266.7 watts. So having set that let us now try to calculate what is
the thermal number so the thermal number in this case the number θ as you may recall earlier is
actually given as a ratio of ρ cv t1/ k. please recall the derivations detail derivations in this area
in the earlier lecture. So this can be calculated as 7200 times of 502 the specific heat capacity
times of 2m/s velocity times of the thickness which is 0.25*10 -3 you have to convert the
thickness from mm to m is all units a SI and this you have to divide with the thermal
conductivity 46.3w /m0 C.
ρcv t 1 7200∗ 502∗ 2∗ 0.25 ∗10− 3
→Θ= = =41.5
k 43.6
So this thermal number than calculates as 41.5 let us also calculate what is the θ tan φ this terms
comes out to be equal to 41.5 times of again tan φ which is 0.333 just as does in the earlier step.
so the ratio θ tan φ comes out to be 13.8. We already know that we have to calculate the fraction
of primary heat which goes in to the work piece which was defined as capital λ and this was
recorded as 0.15* a natural log of 27.5 / θ tan φ this was as for the derivation made in earlier
module.
→Θ tan∅=41.5 ∗ 0.333=13.8
27.5 27.5
→ Λ=0.15 ln (
Θ tan ϕ )
=0.15 ln
13.8( )
=0.1
5
So this comes out to be now equal to 0.15 times of ln 27.5/ 13.8 this is about 0.1, let us calculate
what is the primary rise or primary temperature rise in the primary zone, so the temperature rise
in the primary zone is defined as θ p = 1- λ the percentage of heat which goes in to the or friction
of heat which goes in to the work piece times of the primary zone power consumption divided by
ρ c v t1 w.
So in this particular case we will have almost 10% of the total power going in to the work piece
so about 90% is retained by the tool in the primary one or either by the chip or by the tool, so 0.9
times of WP which we calculated earlier as 1333 watts divided by value of the densities
7200kg /m3 times specific hat capacity which is 502 Joules /kg 0 C times the velocity which is 2
m/s times the uncut chip thickness is 0.25* 10-3 times of 2 again x 10-3.
( 1− Λ ) W P ( 1 −0.1 ) ∗1333 ∗1000 ∗1000
θ P= = =332o C
ρcv wt 1 7200 ∗502 ∗2 ∗0.25 ∗ 2
So this becomes close to about 3320 C so the total temperature rise in the primary zone because
of the primary shear of the power consumed it happens to be about 3320 C.
θS ≈ 1.13
√ (
Θ t2 WS
l ρcv wt 1 )
=1.13
√ 1000∗ 1
7200 ∗502 ∗2 ∗ 0.25∗ 43.6 ∗1.333
∗
362 ∗1000
2 ( )
=458 degreeC
o
θ=θ o +θ P +θS =40+ 325+458=823 C
Now let us calculate the maximum temperature rise along the rake face of the tool due to the
secondary source is give by θs = 1.13 √ 1/ ρ c t 1vk [1+ tan (φ-α)] times of total amount of power
6
consumed in the secondary zone WS divided by the width of the cutting zone w so we try to
calculate what is the maximum rise of the temperature among the rake face because of this
contribution from the secondary zone and that temperature comes out to be equal to 1.13 times of
1 divided by 7200 * 502 * 2mm * 0.25mm * 10 -6 because this has to be converted both of them
have to be converted in to be as times of 43.6 * 1333 watts whole under the root.
So it is 1/x t WS which is coming out to be 266 or 267 watts from the last step divided by width
-3
of the cutting zone which is 2* 10 so this comes here okay and that happens to be calculated as
4580C. so now we have the case that w have calculated the contribution of the temperature
because of the secondary power the contribution of the temperature because of the primary
cutting and so the maximum temperature comes as a result of the ambient θ 0 plus the
contribution because of the primary plus the contribution because of the secondary power
consumption and so you can record this as 400 plus 3250 as from the primary plus 475 0
C
approximately 823 0 C.
So I would like to specially recall the values of the primary and the secondary power as you can
see here a temperature rise because of the secondary power is in this case recorded as greater
than the temperature that is resin because of the primary power and one of the reasons probably
is that you know because when we are talking about the secondary power it is actually between
the chip and the tool surface and the chip is very small.
So it get heated up to a certain level of temperature very fast and so most of the heat dissipation
in the secondary zone happens to be going in to the tool whereas in the work piece because of the
larger mass of the work piece still there is some dissipation of heat because of which the cutting
zone does not have so much of contribution you know in terms of temperature rise.
Because part of the heat has dissipated in to the large work piece which is thermal mass in this
particular case. So the secondary temperature is always you know the secondary contribution is
always little higher and particularly we are talking about the maximum secondary in this case
mind you there is a distribution of temperature based on how the chip length that is interacting
with the rake faces placed with respect to the rake face obviously the point which will have
maximum pressure of the chip on the rake surface would have this temperature rise because of
highest friction normal force being the highest.
7
And as the chip curls upwards and try to leave rake face temperature would definitely reduce so
this is how you kind of classify or try to calculate numerically how you can you know really
estimate the temperature of the cutting zone because of the contribution of the various
components. So having set that now let us actually go back in to the whole machining process
and try to look as what are the effects because of this temperature or what would really be the
thermal map on the tools surface or the work piece surface or the chip surface.
And then because of such temperature rises what are the consequent effects on the chip
formation process or for example on the surface finish process which would be obtained in the
machining. So just to recall the total mechanism of chip formation and the associated get release
happens in this way.
That the uncut layer undergoes severe plastic deformation in the primary shears zone you can see
here this is the primary shear zone right about here just after formation the chip flows over the
rake surface of the tool and strong a adhesion between the high temperature chip and the rake
face results in some sticking action you can see this is a small you know points which are
resulting from the sticking of the chip which is at a certain pressure and you can see the
maximum pressure is somewhere here and as the chip bends you know able to deform from its
work piece the pressure kind of gets in a distributed manner and it may not be equal at all points
8
the maximum point may be where the chip actually is having you know the rake face as a tangent
you cann do it.
So this is the secondary shear zone where these heating because of the rubbing action of the chip
with respect to the tool rake face will take place at low speeds lower uncut thickness large rake
angel and suitable cutting fluids the chips get produce as continues and ribbon like. I am going to
come to this just by showing you some high resolution images of the chip formation process. So
basically it is very obvious that if you have lesser depth of cut and you cutting at a low speed and
then you know using kind of large rake angle and if you can have suitable heat dissipation by
applying or cool in then it on the chip comes out like a ribbon in one continuity.
And this hardly any breakages that as the tool is moving or grazing along the surface of the work
piece it is continuously producing the chips, there are no stresses or there are no very high
stresses for the material to get embrittled and you know it is to get formulated in to different
pieces. So at higher speeds uncut chip thickness and smaller rake angle the temperature increases
and the tendency of plastically deform material adhere to the rake face also increases.
And a lump actually is formed which also known as a built up edge and you can see here that this
built up edge is basically very determent to the overall surface finish because when this built up
edge is a sort of an extended tool you can say which you now the tool kind of you know adhere
to some of the some of the material from the surface of the chip and the material is severely
plastically deformed so it is strain hard and quite a bit because of that.
And because of this hard and nature it kind of grazers and when it becomes brittle to an extent
that it leaves start leaving residue it is starts leaving this residues on the flank face of the tool you
know and which is actually the finished work piece surface. So this is the finished work piece
surface. So there is a tendency that whenever this BUE happens it generally spoils the surface
finish, so BUE typically happens when the depth of cut is probably quite large and using a
smaller rake angel okay and there is a larger temperature increase because of that and you are
cutting at a super high speed okay.
So there is a tendency of the plastically deform material to be heated to an extend that it starts
sticking and building up this edges. So one principle fundamental principle in machining is that
built up edge should be avoided because that leads to a detrimental surface finish. Although you
9
may think suitable either because of the built up edge the virtual hardness of the tool probably
increase and BUE may results in some kind of increase in the or enhancement in the tool life but
in general situation people are more interested about what is the work face surface finish that you
are getting and then in that case sharper the tool the better it is and try to avoid the BUE in this
manner.
So on one hand it is a trade of really that as the tool life would increase because of BUE the
surface finish would really gets spoiled you know and so you can go to an extent of making a
decision of whether it need really the BUE for a particular application or not. So if the material is
little bit brittle and it ruptures let us say during the high sped cutting intermittently this results in
discontinues chips okay.
And discontinues chips can be recorded here for example I can show you this different cases
where we are talking about the formulation of the continues chip you can see that this is the
really the chip which is getting formulated and it appears as the chip is like you know a pack of
cards which is moving with respect o each other relatively because there is obviously a lot of
shear in this particular zone and the but it is one continuity. So they not braking down or there
not you know coming out as species and it is like one continues ribbon like structure which is
coming out which obviously corresponds to a high cutting speed or small depth of cut.
10
So if you really wanted to see what is the depth of cut in this case you have to draw the shear
plane here.
And kind of imagine you know the depth of cut as an extension of the point that the end of the
shear plane with respect to the work piece surface. So that is the t 1 value here so it is relatively
very small, uncut chip thickness and it always results in this kind of a continues chip orientation
you can have a continues chip with secondary shear zone at the tool chip interface this you can
see here very well that.
So you can have a continues chip with the secondary shear zone at the tool chip interface . you
can see the tool chip interface here particularly where there is a complete stick, you can I mean
not sticktion but a complete gape glosser of the chip on the surface of the tool and the conditions
are pretty much similar toward continues chip otherwise would have with narrow straight
primary shear zone in this particular case this probably corresponds to a even lower depth of
uncut chip thickness where whatever is coming out of the material is sort of in such a continues
manner that it hardly separates you know it just comes in a ribbon like manner and slides over a
considerable portion of the tool rake face.
There are cases of built up edges where particularly the situation where there are relatively larger
depth of cut you can see this built up edge right here coming at the end of the tool and you can
see this schematic here which says what exactly going on. so what has happen is that because of
11
the high power consumption and the higher rate of temperature increase and severe plastic
deformation rate as well the material gets stain hardened heavily and results is virtual tool face.
And the tool as know as a higher hardness right so and then it actually starts along with that the
tool plaughning the material of because of its enhanced strain hard and condition and you can see
that because of this formulation of the built up edge now the tool life is relatively made higher
because the built up edges kind of sticks to the tool and you know it will like to protects the rake
face of the tool but it is detrimental because after while it is starts breaking down and you can see
these small portions here which are actually a result of whatever revenants has come out from the
built up edge and it does not leave a very good surface finish on the complete surface.
There is a case of serrated or segmented or non- homogenous chip because of the severe plastic
deformation again there is a pack of card like motion of the chip and you can see the
discontinuity which arises here discontinuous still not taken place, but there is definitely a
serration. So this is recorded as a surface you know of the chip something like this okay where
there are shear planes formulated on the chip surface coming out of the from the tool rake face
side okay and this is how it would actually look like.
And supposing the plastic deformation rate is much higher these serrated chips now get this
continuous okay. So this actually the first what is continuous deformation where disseverations
probably come off from one other, they are not able to hold together and that is how you actually
visualize high resolution pictures of the different you know type of situation related in the cutting
zone.
So having set that I would like to end this module now but in the next module I will also give
you a detail about how the temperature would be distributed and what are some methods which
you can use for doing some heat transfer or cooling on the face of the chip and the tool so that
you have a higher tool life particularly and also to some extent a smoother surface finish. So with
this I would like to end this module here, thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

12
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
13
Course Title
Module- 44
by
We were talking about the various different kind of chips that were produced like the continuous,
discontinuous one with built up edge so on so forth in case of machining.
1
So let us actually now look at a little sort of different aspect here I think we had discussed about
the built up edge in great details and said that here is going to be the residue formation on the
surface. On one hand which will result in sort of a bad surface finish for the material on one hand
and on the other hand as you can probably see that because of the built up edge formulation on
the top of the so, because of the built up edge formulation on the top of the tool it acts like a
virtual material of higher hardness and starts grazing the work piece thus protecting the tool life
okay, so it is a trade-off really between the surface finish.
And increase the tool life that you are sort of involved in when you try to depositor when you try
to analyze the situation when machining happens with built up edge, so built up edge which can
obviously be reduced because you know most of the time the requirement is that of a higher
surface finish, so you can decrease the built up edge by increasing the cutting speed for example
decreasing the depth of cut increasing the rake angle you know.
So if you are having some kind of a grazing rake angle this right here is the rake angle so if alpha
is more and this tool is somewhere you know which is like sort of grazing the surface you can
see that probably you can increase the rate at which you know chip formulation is happening at
lower temperatures or lower using lower powers, you can use a sharper tool again to remove the
built-up edge completely you can use an effective cutting fluid so that there is sufficient amount
of heat transfer and the chip does not really weld whatever is formulated here although it is
2
highly strain hardened it does not weld anymore to the tool surface so that the BUE condition
may come.
So using tool with lower chemical affinity for the work piece material is another important you
know way out for sort of preventing the built up edge from happening, so if I looked at the
harnesses and these are all the HK values of the chip as well as the built up edge and the work
piece, so you can see this built up edge to be formulated as a part of the tool maybe you know so
this is the tool actually.
And you can see the harnesses of this region the built up edge region is really very high even
higher than the hardness of the work material and obviously that is the reason why it grazes onto
the work material so hardness is as high as 704 for example okay, 704 HK Knops hardness is
recorded here in case of this built up edge whereas if you look at the standalone chip again the
chip does not have hardness more than about half the value about 372.
And so is true for the work piece surface, so no reason because of all this the built up edge is
kind of ploughing on the surface and is able to successfully cut metal as a virtual tool surface, so
the figures here show some high-resolution pictures of what happens you know when the turning
or milling processes happen and what happens because of the built up edge in turning and
milling operations.
3
W also need to explore the temperature rises due to heat lost in cutting and I think I had
theoretically modeled this earlier and also help you solve numerically the temperature rise in the
cutting zone now the major adverse effects which happens because of a temperature rise is that
you know it lowers the strength the hardness the stiffness the way resistance of the cutting tool
itself okay so the tool life is the most which is affected.
And in fact we are going to do some formulations to sort of optimize the cutting conditions so
that the tool life can again be enhanced and you do not need tool changing any more or minimum
times tool changing requirements are there so that you can you can actually do machining at a
lower cost, so another important bad effect that temperature rise would have is that it causes
uneven dimensional changes particularly in the machining parts think of it.
All the metals are amenable to change dimensionally when subjected to higher temperatures they
all have coefficient of thermal expansion and so therefore there can be overall change in the
dimensions while the cutting process is on which can be again you know affecting the assemblies
into which these parts would be going after the machining operations are performed, so they can
induce thermal damage and metallurgical changes in the machine surface properties can
adversely affected because of that.
And sources of heat in machining if you look at really the primary shear zone the tool chip
interface and the sort of a you know tool rubbing on the machined surface using particularly
tools which are burnout or not having high sharpness etc, so this is a sort of a you know recall of
4
what we had also seen earlier in terms of a model that what impact the temperature rise would
have onto the machine surface in question.
So if I look at the various temperature distributions which have been found out in the primary
zone the tool chip interface you can see that you know there are very large temperature gradients
particularly in the cutting zone if you look at the gradient here for example the temperature line
the isotherm here which is recording hundred and thirty degree Celsius is just closely spaced to
the two temperature which is about 500 degree Celsius.
And if you look at the same here you can see the tool where the maximum chip pressure happens
and you already have seen it theoretically how because of the chip pressure there is a variation in
the temperature so the maximum temperature rise is more or less similar to 700 degrees okay and
this probably leads to some kind of a plastic welding between portion of the chip onto the tool
surface okay. So the distribution happens in a way that there are very large temperature gradients
in the cutting zone you know 500 to 130 in 130 in a matter of just a few microns and because of
that again this points here have the tendency to formulate what you call the built up edge again.
5
So the measurements of such temperatures or temperature distributions can be you can be can be
experimentally made by using thermocouples which can be either placed on the tool or the work
piece surface on a non-contact manner through infrared radiation so you can use a radiation
pyrometer for example from the cutting zone which only measures the surface temperature you
cannot go into measuring the depth temperature obviously thermocouples can be placed in a
manner at a certain depth within the tool where you can actually get this complete isotherm.
You can see here for example you have temperatures even within the tool like in this particular
portion on this particular portion so that can only happen when you have an embedded
architecture for doing measurements and there are experiments where embedded thermocouples
are put into the tools for carrying out experimental determination of the temperature isotherms.
6
The other issue which I wanted to really emphasize is that because of all these temperature rise
and you know severe plastic deformation of the chip material formulation of built up edge there
is an effect on the tool life you know particularly because of the wear and failure in many cases
of the tool or in some cases sort of a protect length layer which happens because of which the
tool I may increase okay.
So tool wear is gradually it is like a gradual process which is created due to high localized
stresses at the tip of the tool also because of high temperatures especially along the rake face
sliding of the chip along the rake face sliding of the tool along the newly cut work piece surface
and this normally happens in case of tools which have particularly worn-out the Charlie's level is
in decreased.
And this is called the flank face where which one has to avoid because it results in a bad surface
finish and that should be avoided generally in the machining process, so the rate of tool wire
depends on tool and work piece materials depends on the tool geometry that you are using.
What is the kind of the tool geometry which typically includes all the tool angles or even certain
things related to the change in shape because of flank wear etc. The tool wear and tool life also
depends on process parameters particularly cutting conditions that are very significant to the
change in the wear rate or the tool life and then finally on cutting fluids because these are used to
normally do the heat transfer in the cutting zone.
7
So that the overall temperature does not go to a value where the built up edge formation etc starts
to take place okay, so these are some of the dependent parameters which govern how what kind
of tool life can be there or what kind of wear characteristics of the tool would occur.
→V T n=C
So there is an empirical relationship given by Taylor which basically tells about the relationship
between the tool life and the cutting speed in meters per minute and this is also better known as
Taylor's tool life equation so the tool life T in minutes taken to develop a certain flank wear
where flank wear is really the wear which occurs on the relief face of the tool or the flank face of
the tool due to rubbing of the tool on the machined surface and typically this wear is also the
adhesive or abrasive wear.
And also because of high temperatures you know adversely affecting tool material properties so
as for the Taylors tool life equation VT n = constant C it depends on really the cutting conditions
and if you look at some of the ranges of you know this exponent n in case of Taylors equation
for the various tool materials, so for high speed tools steels steel tools for example the N varies
between 0.08 to 0.2 forecast alloys varies between 0.1 to 0.15.
Carbides it varies between 0.2 to 0.5 coated carbides 0.4 to 0.6 ceramic 0.5 to 0.7, so obviously
as the n is more and more you can see that the tool material is getting harder and harder okay. the
only difference is in case of cast alloys versus high speed steel which comes here, so note that in
this Taylor's tool life equation the exponent n and the coefficient C are basically determined
8
experimentally and you can say that C is really the cutting speed corresponding to a tool life of 1
minute so if T were equal to 1 minute then C = V, so that is how we define the tool life constant
in case of the Taylor equation.
C 1/ n
→T =
V ( )
C
→V = n x y
T d f
To appreciate the importance of the exponent n if I can just simply rearrange the Taylor's
equation it results in T = C/ V1/n . so thus for a case where C is constant let us say for a certain set
of tool a certain cutting conditions certain set of cutting conditions including the tool and the
material if I have a smaller n which means you know higher this coefficient 1/n so you should
have a smaller tool life.
So that is more so because if I just looked at this part of the equation here obviously as we have
already told that the C is constant so this equation can be written down as C 1/n /V1/n and the C1/n is
any event a constant K / V1/n so if n is a smaller and 1/n is bigger so obviously the tool life going
to go down okay, so which makes sense which is being represented in this particular equation.
So tool life equation can according to be monitored for different processes for example for a
turning operation the equation may be modified slightly to a form V T n dx fy = C, d obviously is
the depth of cut so it is same as the initial cut of initial cut thickness or you can say this is t 1 or t0
9
as we had earlier taken in merchant circle and F is the feed of tool in millimeters per revolution
okay.
And again the coefficients x and y are determined experimentally for each cutting condition and
it is more like an empirical relationship just like the original Taylor's tool life equation of
V to the power V Tn= C.
Extending this logic further the tool life curves can be plotted for different values of n the
exponent n can be determined from the tool life curves really you can see here you already know
1/n
that C/ V or some constant K which is C /V1/n = tool like T obviously if n is a smaller value
and 1/n is quite large then if V varies let us say V increases or V just varies so for a larger
coefficient here the tool life should be able to vary more.
So if supposing V increases in this particular condition and n is really small or 1/n is really big
then the tool life should decrease much faster in comparison to the condition where and n was
10
bigger and 1/n was relatively smaller, so therefore you can have a higher slope situation here that
for little variation in the cutting speed you have a higher variation in the tool line just because of
the decreasing value of n or increasing value of 1/n.
So therefore this line for example corresponds to high speed steel which probably has a range of
0.08 to 0.2 n value this is cast alloys, cast cobalt alloys this is for examples carbide this for
example set up ceramic where I think I had earlier mentioned just about one or two slides back
that for example in the carbides case it is 0.2 to 0.5 that is value of n . so n has increased here
really coated carbides and ceramics they are even higher 0.4 to 0.6, 0.5 to 0.7.
And so therefore this falls in line with the logic here that the ceramic tool just because the n
value is higher there should have a lower variation in tool life in comparison to a increase in
cutting speed as compared to let us say carbide cast cobalt alloy and high speed steel. so once
again just trying to bit rate here that as the n decreases and 1/n increases a smaller amount of
variation V would result in a larger amount of variation in T.
Which actually is determinant of this tool life so n can also be negative at a low cutting speed a
situation where an increase in speed would also result in supposing n is very small and 1/ n is
actually large so an increase in speed would result in increasing tool life, temperature also
influences whereas the temperature increases the flank were rapidly increases, so- so far we have
kind of seen what are the various possibilities and how you can obtain the n values from
prodding the tool life with respect to the cutting speed and determining it from the tailors
equation VTn = C.
This equation is particularly significant when we talk about machining conditions and optimum
machining conditions particularly used to find out what is the overall cost of the machining
process or overall time in the machining process and this particularly holds true for CNC systems
where there are many such inserts and there is a tendency of the inserts to be repeatedly where
doubt because of high speed machining processes.
And you have to actually either grind them or increase the sharpness of these tools before reuse
so there the optimization of the criteria as which are followed for the optimization are totally
dependent on the tool life equation and we would like to present one such case here.
11
→V T n=C
Where we want to determine the machining conditions and manufacturing times having specified
the work piece material machine tool and cutting tool the question is what can be controlled to
reduce the cost and increase the production rate and the controllable variables in this case are
cutting speed for example V the feed F the depth of d jointly the velocity cutting velocity the
cutting feed and depth they are referred to as machining conditions.
So there are a number of model which specify the optimal machining conditions out of which the
two that I am going to teach here is one is the minimum cost model so this is actually the
minimum cost model and the other is actually the again minimum time model which is related to
the total manufacturing time, so let us suppose that in a particular case of machining you have a
cost rate which includes labor and overhead cost rates could be some unit of currency per unit
time.
So you also have a tool cost per cutting-edge which depends on the type of tool that you use. it
maybe an expensive tool which has slightly higher to life okay, so C1 will be higher in that
particular case C is obviously a constant in the tools to life's equation VT n = C, V is the cutting
12
speed in meters per minute let us assume F to be the feed rate millimeters per revolution, d to be
the depth of cut millimeters.
And we are just trying to evaluate probably a CNC turning process in this particular case n
happens to be the exponent in the tool life equation and t 1 is the non-productive time consisting
of the loading and unloading time for the part in the machine as reported in minutes and t c is the
machining time per piece in minutes per piece. The actual cutting time per piece may be slightly
different than the machining time per piece.
Because you know this if you are talking about a CNC system involves the absolute positioning
in the point of machining and some displacement of the tool all the way to the start of the work
and therefore the tac actual cutting time per piece may be slightly different then the tc but in all the
cases that we would be considering here we will probably consider them to be similar they are
not very much different because obviously all the controllers are designed to have almost
optimum minimum possible idle time.
And that is how the path planning in the motion controllers are done, T is the tool life in minutes
and td is the time to change a cutting edge cutting edge means an insert therefore if you wanting
to change an insert because of its where you need about t d time to change that insert in the
machine so having said that let us actually bring out what is the kind of cost of labor overhead
tooling so on so forth which is used or in sort of machining.
And then try to optimize or minimize the cost you know in this particular case so the minimum
cost per piece in this case, consists of the following costs so the average let us say the average
cost per piece to produce a work piece consists of non-productive cost per piece Plus machining
time cost per piece Plus tool changing cost per piece plus the tooling cost per piece given the
Taylor’s tool life equation which is VTn = C, a constant.
So obviously the Cu which is also the cost per component that you are manufacturing on this
high-throughput system comprises of this non-productive cost which is actually very well written
as the non-productive time which is involved in loading unloading of the sample onto the
machine times of the total amount of cost rate of the labor overhead etc, which happens to be
multiplied with time t1 to give the overall cost.
13
So this is C0 t1 the cost per component also includes the machining time cost per piece so the
total amount of machining time in this particular case is taken as t c okay and during this time the
total amount of overhead cost that is spent is basically again C0 per unit time, so I can say C0 t c
as the total amount of machining time cost per piece + and the tool changing cost per piece and
here we have to bring in the tool life.
Because we know that T is the tool life and the actual cutting time t ac in this case supposing
involves more than one tools, so really the tac /T would be the frequency of change of the tool and
so that many number of times that means t ac /T times you have to spend the time to change
cutting tool in each case and the total such time spent would be equal to t d times of tac /T where td
is the frequency td is the time per cycle of change and tac /T is the cycle frequency of the change
per say.
And during that time you are again spending the labor and overhead costs so I just multiply this
with C0 so this gives you an idea of what kind of time because every time there is a change and
there are n such changes because you know that you have to extinguish n tools in order to
consume this whole one pieces cutting time which is tac so n times of td really is the total time and
C0 n times of td is really the total cost which is involved.
So this is the total changing cost per piece and then we have a tooling cost per piece which is
actually equal to again the tool cost per cutting edge and you are actually including around n
cutting edges for the cutting process given by t ac /T the frequency you know and this times of C1
basically gives you the total amount of tooling cost per piece and so this summation here of all
these terms together give you what you call the cost per component.
t t
( ) ( )
Cu =C0 t 1+C 0 t c +C 0 t d ac + C1 ac
T T
Now let us actually try to see whether what is the optimum solution so that the tool life probably
can change accordingly and the overall cost can come down for certain conditions of machining.
14
1 /n 1 /n
π LD π LD V π LD V
Cu =C0 t 1+C 0 ( 1000 vf) (
+C 0 t d
1000 vf )( )
C
+C 1 ( 1000 vf )( )
C
d Cu
=0
dV
And so the first thing that I would like to illustrate here that if we consider a single pass turning
operation right and supposing we also further consider that L capital D and f are the length of cut
in mm, diameter of the work piece again in mm and feed weight in mm per revolution
respectively then the cutting time per piece for a single pass operation can really be given as t c
which will approximately consider to be tac in this case.
Considering the controller to be optimized for the composition setting etc for the tool and so that
becomes equal to πLD. we remember the D actually and the length of cut both are in L
millimeters divided by 1000 vf where V is the velocity again and this velocity as had been
recorded earlier is in given in meters per minute, so we can always have this equal 1000
millimeter per minute and f is basically the feed rate which is millimeters per evolution.
So obviously the πLD gives you an idea of the total surface area which is removed and that times
of that divided by thousand vf gives you an idea of how much time in a single pass would be
taken to remove of this much amount of so the t c here actually is represented as the more or less
the tac so the cutting time and the actual cutting time are similar to each other and they are given
by this equation πLD / 1000vf.
L and D are both in millimeters velocity being in meters per minute has to be converted into
thousand millimeters per minute and F again is the feed rate in millimeters per revolution, so this
15
really shows you the cutting time or in a simple single pass turning operation and upon
substituting this values as well as tool life equation in the cost per piece-- equation as obtained in
the last line.
We get already the Cu was defined as C0 t1 + C0 tc + C0 td times of tac /T + C1 tac /T obviously we

know what is the actual cutting time or t c value here from geometrical parameters length of work
piece diameter of the work piece the feed rate and the velocity of the cut and cutting speed and
also we know from the tool life equation that T can be written down as C/V 1/n meaning there by
1/T can be recorded as V/C1/n-.
So having said all this we substitute these values back into the cost equation so we have C 0
times t1 + C0 tc which is again π LD/1000 vf + C0 t d the time to change a cutting edge in minutes
times of Tac again which is we π LD/1000 vf times of 1/T which is V/C 1/n C1 times of again tac
which is π LD/1000 vf times of V/C1/n so on so forth, so that is what you know about cost per
piece.
And having again set this and there is of course a t d term here which means the time to change
the cutting edge so now the feed rate and depth of cut for any turning operation single pass
turning operation are normally fixed so the feed rate and which is key defined by f in this
particular case and the depth of cut and also the initial dia of the work piece and normally fixed
to their allowable values whatever they may be.
On therefore the cutting speed really is the decision variable upon partially differentiating C u
with respect to V equating to zero and solving, we obtain the minimum unit cost cutting speed,
Vmin. so let us now do this by substituting dc u/dv =0 and try to see what is the implication of that
what is the final form of the equation between emerge.
16
[ ] [ ]
1 1
dCu C 0 π LD −1 C 0 π LD t d d C 1 π LD t d d
( )
−1 −1
n
= 2
+ 1/ n
V + 1/ n
V n =0
dV 1000 f V 1000 f ( C ) dV 1000 f ( C ) dV
( )[ ]
1
C 0 πLD 1 πLD t d 1
( )
−2
n
1 /n [ 0 d 1]
2
= C t +C −1 V
1000 f V 1000 f ( C ) n
1 1 /n
C0 (C)
V n=
1
n( )
− 1 [ C 0 t d +C 1 ]
C
V min = n
{( )[
1
n
−1
C 0 t d +C 1
C0 ]}
C 0 t d + C1
T min= ( 1n −1 ) C0
Actually based on that so the dcu / dv in this particular case can be written down as C0 π
LD/1000 f times of -1/v2 + CO π LD td / 1000F C1/n d/dv V1/n -1 + C1 πLD/ 1000 feed f c 1/n
times of td times of d/dv( V1/n -1 ) and that becomes equal to 0. so C0 πLD/1000f times of 1/V 2 =
πLD/1000fC1/n times of C0 td + C1 times of 1/n-1 v 1/n – 2 and. therefore we can obtain a condition
from this equation that V1/n becomes equal to C0/ ((1/n)-1) times of C0 td + C1 times C1/n.
In other words V minimum which is corresponding to this value of V becomes equal to the
constant C/[1 /n -1 times of C0 td + C1 / C0] n upon substituting the value of cutting sped in the
tool life equation we obtained the optimum tool life I can say this is T minimum corresponding
to the minimum unit cost model as T min is 1/n – 1 times of C0 t d + C1/C0 okay, so that is how
17
you obtain the time minimum and the velocity minimum where the term min corresponds to the
velocity corresponding to the minimum cost of machining.
So this is how actually you try to optimize and I am going to show with problem examples how
V can be determined using Taylor's tool life equation to do this optimization, we will
subsequently talk in the next module about another way of determining the cutting conditions
based on minimum time of manufacturing so then you can actually consider in various cases the
optimum cost at the optimum time models to report the various cutting parameters, so with this I
would like to end this particular module and I look forward to again provide some optimization
related issues in the next module followed by the start of welding or joining processes module,
thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia
18

@copyright reserved
19
Course Title
Module- 45
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing processes technology part 1 module 45, A brief recall
of what we did in the last module, we were actually talking about the.
Optimum machining conditions by cost minimization, where we discussed about the various
productive and non-productive costs, the times which are used for loading and loading which are
otherwise non-productive times and then productive times based on which there would be actual
machining operation and then we tried to optimize the cost and based on that optimum cost we
had a velocity for minimum cost and to life or minimum costs, as again related through the
Taylor's tool life equation. Today we are going to look at just an identical model but it will be the
minimum time or maximum production rate model, which is really assuming that you have the
time per piece of manufacturer to be minimum or the manufacturing time manufacturing rate or
1
production rate goes to the maximum level as a manufacturing time per pieces low value, so let
us now look at this model for just you.
It is kind of an alternate criterion used for determining the optimum conditions of machining
corresponding to the maximum production rate okay, which is inversely proportional obviously
to the production time per piece, so as this time reduces the rate should increase and that is the
fundamental assumption here that we make for determining what is going to be the optimum
parameter.
So the time of production of one piece we will be defined as the non-productive time and a piece
plus the machining time per piece plus tool training time piece. So if we want to express this
mathematically the total time of production per piece tu can be defined as t 1 which really was the
non-productive time for the tool changing the work piece loading and loading so on and so forth
plus the actual time of machining which was t c plus again the tool changing time per piece which
was td times of the number of times that the tool would be changed.
Which is actual cutting time divided by the two live T okay, so there is the frequency at which
the tool would change per unit work piece times of t d which is the time every time there is a new
cutting edge, which needs to be deployed in the system, so if I substitute again the value of t c and
tac which are more under similar to each other again assuming the situation, where you know all
these different machining centers have hardly any relaxation time or idle time as designed
2
because of the optimum path of the controller and the rapid feed etc. So this is again I written as
π LD divided / 1000 vf and therefore TU can be defined as t 1 + πLD / 1000 vf which is tc + td times
of π LD / 1,000 vf times of 1 /T which is V / C 1/ n okay.
t
( )
T u =t 1 +t c + t d ac
T
π LD π LD V 1 / n
T u =t 1 +
1000Vf
+t d ( )
1000 Vf C
So that is how you define Tu and I want to just optimize this time per unit component minimize
this, so that the production rate goes to the maximum so upon partial differentiation of Tu with
respect to V and equating to 0. You get that condition of optimum Tu corresponding to maximum
production rate. So let us now do that derivative derivation here.
[ ]
1
dT u πLD −1 πLD t d d
( )
−1
n
= 2
+ 1 /n
V =0
dV 1000 f V 1000 f ( C ) dV
( )[ ]
1
πLD 1 πLD t d 1
( )
−2
n
= −1 V
1000 f V 2 1000 f ( C )1/ n n
1
( C )1 /n
V n=
1
n( )
− 1 td
3
C
V max = n
{( ) }
1
n
−1 t d
T min= ( 1n −1) t d
dTu /dV which is actually = π LD /1,000 f times of - 1 / v 2 + πlD / 1,000 F C 1/n dV to the n- / dv T
D = 0 and obviously from that equation again let us just modify this a little bit and so therefore
this π LD / 1000 F times of - 1 / v 2+ πLD / again 1000F C to the power of 1 / n times of 1 / n - 1
V 1 / n - 1 / n - 2 td =0 linked to us a condition ILD / 1000 f C 1/n times td times 1 / n - 1 v n-2 equals π LD
/ 1000 F times of 1/ v2 so these guys cancel each other and we are left with the condition V 1/n
1/m
equals C divided / 1 / n -1 times of t d in other words the velocity of cut corresponding to the
maximum production rate condition okay.
That is why this subscript V max equals C divided 1/ n - 1 times of the total number of times
needed to change one cutting edge to the power of n and just substituting this value in the
Taylor's equation V Tn=C. I can always find out what is the time corresponding to the maximum
production rate.
So the minimum time what the maximum production rate and that that = 1 / n - 1 times of t d okay,
so that is how you define the optimum criteria for the maximum production rate model just as
we did in the earlier case for the minimum production cost model. So let us actually now work
on a problem where similar kind of a situation is the risen.
4
And for that we would like to consider a lot of about 500 units of steel rods 30 centimeter long 6
centimeters in diameter turned on a numerically controlled lathe at a feed rate of 0.2 mm per
revolution and a depth of cut of about 1 mm, these things are fixed for the cutting process only
thing which probably can vary is the speed and if we look at the tool life equation is given by V
0.20
T is 200. it is the machining constant for the Taylors tool life equation. T is the tool life
minutes; V is the meter per minute cutting speed or cutting velocity.
The other data which are needed or given here as machine labor rate is about 10 units of currency
per hour machine overhead rate is 50 % of the labor rate , grinding labor rate is similar 10 units
of currency per hour and the machine overhead rates are about 50% of the grinding labor. Now
the work piece loading unloading time is given to be 0.50 minutes per piece and all the data
related to the tools are provided these are brazed inserts, original cost of the tools are about 27.96
units of currency and the grinding time is about 2 minutes to changing time is about 0.5 minutes.
And it has also been given that the tool can be ground only 5 times before it is discarded. So
basically we are talking about just using the tool edge for 6 times okay, so 5 times it is used after
regrinding and 1 time it's used as is when it was original and was the first cut that goes executing
okay. So there are about 6 such processes which could be or 6 times the process machining
process could be carried out with one brazed insert with a little bit of again labor cost as you see
here, the dining labor rates and overheads have been mentioned here and we need to now
5
determine the optimum to life optimum cutting speed, so that it works on a minimum cost model
or maximum production rate model.
And then also the minimum cost and maximum production rate which are the obtained from the
you know the conditions, as given earlier and also estimate time per component and the lead time
and similarly in the production rate model estimate the corresponding cost per component of the
time. So we start sort of using the formulation that we had learnt earlier in this particular case
and the first thing we need to.
Cu =C0 t 1+C 0 t c +C 0 t d ( tT )+ C ( tT )
ac
1
ac
C
V max = n
{( )[
1
n
−1
C 0 t d +C 1
C0 ]}
1 C t +C
T min= ( )
n
−1 0 d 1
C0
Get here is the optimum tool life and optimum cutting speed, to minimize the cost per piece. So
Co here is the machine labor + the machining overhead cost and as we know here the total cost is
10 units of currency per unit time given in hours + again 50% of the labor rate which is again 5
units of currency and because its per hour per minute conversion can be made by dividing
through 60, so this comes out to be 0.25 minutes of currency per minute.
6
So let us also try to estimate the C t which is the actual tooling cost and here the original cost of
the tool per cutting edge would be important. added to that would be the total amount of grinding
effort that is grinding time times of the grinding labor and overhead rates which is paid for the
grinding is to be added on to this original cost of the tool per cutting edge.
So the original cost per cutting edge obviously is the total cost of the tool as has been given in
the question earlier is about 27.96 units of currency and we have already said that this tool can be
used for 6 times so per cut or pert cutting per cutting edge. The total original cost would be
divided or split up by 6 and then we add the grinding overhead and labor rate to it, so the total
grinding time is given to be about 2minutes and the total grinding labor and overhead rates are
calculated as 10 + 0.5 times of 10 again in the same manner divided by 60, so this comes out to
be = 5.16 units of currency as the Ct value or the value of the original value of the tool per you
know for one particular machining operation.
So we simply apply the minimum cost model so we obtained earlier the total tool life for this
minimum cost model is 1 / n - 1 times of C0 td + Ct / C0 so we record the n value from the Taylor's
tool life equation as given in the question to be 0.20 and therefore this is 1 / 0.20 - 1 times of
0.25 which is the C0 value * TD which was given as the tool changing time which is 0.50 minutes
+ the total amount of Ct value 5.1 6 units of currency divided / the total co value 0.25. So this
becomes = 84.56 minutes and. if we similarly calculate the minimum cost criteria the velocity
add the minimum cost per piece can come out to be the machining constant tailor to life divided
by the time for the minimum cost model to the power of n.
So in this particular case it will come out as 200 divided by 84.56 minutes corresponding to the
optimum to life to the power 0.20 and this comes out to be 82.337 m/min or 82.3m/ minute so
this is how you estimate the velocity corresponding to the optimum cost model and this is how
you estimate the time corresponding to the optimum cost model.
So we also now use the or trying to solve the second part of the problem which is about you
know the maximum production rate model so optimized to life and cutting speed to maximize
production rate here obviously Tmax could be obtained as one by eta - 1 times of td refer back to
the derivation that has been just made in the earlier module and similarly this can again be
written as 0.20 inverse minus1 times of 0.5 0the td value and that becomes = 2 minutes.
7
Similarly the velocity corresponding to the maximum production rate condition has obtained
from the equation Tmax n inverse times C so this is 200 divided / 2 0.20
makes it 174.11 meter per
minute. So that is how you estimate the Tmax and the Vmax corresponding to a maximum
production rate model. We also want to determine the minimum cost per component time per
component and corresponding lead time so let us look at that.
Extent. so minimum cost per component time per component and corresponding lead time, so let
us first calculate what is the total amount of cutting time in this particular case t c and tc has been
as you already know provided through the formulation P I LD times of thousand Vf and the V
value that we are using is corresponding to the minimum cost per component model, so it's V n
and Vn has been borrowed from step a of the earlier parts, where V mean was it remind us
82.337m/m.
And we can write this here as 3.14 value of π times of the total length of machining which is
about three 100mm, 30 centimeter long, that is how the question recorded in terms of the
diameter of the in terms of the length of the work piece the diameter was 6cm in this case you
can record it as 60mm divided /1000 times of the velocity corresponding to the minimum cost
model 82.337 times of again, the feed which is 0.20.
8
And this comes out to be = 343.4325, so if we want to determine the minimum cost in this
particular case per component this would be recorded as again the C 0 t1 which is actually the non-
productive cost per piece + C0tc what is the machining time cost per piece + the C 0 td tac / T
which is the tool changing cost per piece + finally the tuning cost actual C 1 tac / T. So in this
particular case we calculate the C0 as 0.25, which is the Machine labor and overhead rate
corresponding to the situation that has been described here times of the t 1 which is actually the
non-productive time consisting of loading and unloading of the part in minutes. So in this case
that is given to be 0.50 minutes per piece the work piece loading and unloading.
Time refer back to the question times off or + C 0 again 0.25 times of tc which was obtained from
this minimum cost criteria, as 3.4325 + 0.25 times of t d which is actually = 0.50 minutes again
the time to change one cutting edge times of t ac, which can be treated 50 as tc so times of 3.4325 /
Tminimum which came out to be in the last part a solution 84.56 minutes and then finally this is
added on to the cooling cost that is used which is about 5.16 times of the total t c value 3.4325
divided / again the T minimum value here 84.56. Hence the price per component comes out to be
1.197 units of currency per piece.
Similarly the production time per piece which is equal to the maximum production time per
piece at the velocity which is corresponding to the minimum cost condition and that is given by
Tu = t1 + π LD divided by 1000 V minimum F + π LD divided by 1000 V minimum F times of V
minimum / C1/NTD and this becomes = 0.5 0 + again 3.43 which is this value here right about here
as obtained earlier in this step + again the same value 3. 4325 times of V minimum which was
also obtained as 1 / T minimum.
So T minimum was obtained as 84.56 so I will just substitute that value here1 divided by 84.56
times of the td value which was again 0.50 the time to cut onetime to replace one cutting edge for
the drilling operation. So this is calculated as 3.95 minutes and therefore if we include the major
setup time which is you know a part of the major setup time which is a major part of sometimes
the total lead time.
The total life time is really in the time needed to make the 500 pieces at the rate of 3.95 minutes
per piece which makes it about 1976.4 minutes in totality. So with the Taylor's tool life we are
able to estimate that corresponding to the minimum cost per component criteria and optimizing
9
the tool life we have a lead time which is about 1976 minutes and a total cost per component
which is about close to 1.2 units of current the piece. In a similar manner we can do the same for
the maximum production model.
So let us actually now do this for Part d, Part d asks about the parameters you know including I
mean the production time per piece or let us say the cost at the maximum production rate, so
maximum production rate model you have to find out the corresponding rate the corresponding
cost of machining and lead time in this particular case.
So we have the again the first part is to sort of estimate what is the actual cutting time, so
considering the Vmax now that means the velocity corresponding to maximum production rate the
total cutting town comes out to be = 3.14 times of 300 times of 60, the various length and
diameter parameters of the work piece divided by 1000 times of 174.11, which is the velocity
corresponding velocity cutting velocity corresponding to the maximum production rate kinds of
0.20 the feed.
And this comes out to be 1.623 minutes of time and. similarly the production time per piece at
Vmax can be recorded as the total amount of non-productive time per piece t 1 + the total cutting
time of the corresponding work piece on the machine t c + td which is the tool changing time per
cutting edge divided / the number of times it is needed for changing the cutting edge of the tool
in a particular work piece recorded as tac / T.
10
So in this particular case I can put all these or plug all these values here this t 1 happens to be 0.50
minutes the non-productive time this happens to be tc which has been calculated as 1.623
minutes, just about the last step time + td which is one point which is 0.5 0 times of tac again tc
1.623 divided by Tmax which is actually in this particular case two minutes has calculated
earlier.
So divided by 2 and this is recorded as 2.53 min per component okay, so if you consider the
maximum production rate model then the total time per component which comes out is only
about 2.53 minutes and therefore if I wanted to look at the lead time again without really
considering the major set-up time of the machinery it is just the time per component times the
number of compounds to be produced that is 2.53 times of 500 and this corresponds to about
1264.6 min. And similarly the total cost and the maximum production rate model comes out to be
= again the non-productive cost 0.25 times of 0.50 + the total amount of cutting time which is
again 0.2 or total cost because of the cutting time actual cutting time which is 0.25 times.
Then you know time of machining individual component which is in this case 1.623 + the total
amount of time for tool changing, so in this particular case the tool changing time can be
recorded as again 0.25 times of 1.623 times of 1/2 times of 0.50. This happens to be the optimum
cutting time tac or tc 1 / 2 because this 2 right here is the optimum tool life which is 2 minutes in
this particular case.
And this 0.25 again happens to be the 0.25, which happens to be the Machine labor head labor
and overhead cost plus the cost because of the tool changing operation and the total amount of
tooling cost. Which is involved here and this is 5.16 times of the total time of cut divided by the
time corresponding to the maximum production rate which is two minutes and this comes out to
be equal to 4.82 units of currency per piece.
So you can see here that corresponding to the maximum production rate model we have been
able to determine the optimum time of cutting and then from that predicted the total time per
component corresponding to the maximum production rate, and the total cost per component
corresponding to the maximum production rate.
So this is how Taylor's tool life equation can be suitably used to optimize some of the cutting
conditions particularly in high speed machining etc and it is a very useful equation as such for
11
predicting some of these production rates or you know the costs of the components given some
particular condition of Optima, so having said that now I think we should look into.
Some aspects regarding cutting fluids and why they are used, so as you may recall that any liquid
or gas applied directly to machining operation is generally done to improve the cutting
performance. The two main problems which are addressed by the cutting fluids include the heat
generation and you know particularly because of machining you know that there is a shear zone
and a friction zone where there is a lot of heat which is generated, so this is one of the problems
which are addressed and the other problem is obviously the friction at the tool chip and the tool
work interfaces which again causes abnormal rise of temperatures in the cutting zone and
somehow by putting cutting fluids.
You ensure that machining operations become smoother, so some of the other functions and
benefits that the coolants or cutting fluids would provide would be to wash away the chips which
are generated from the machining zone, particularly in grinding milling operations, you can also
reduce temperatures of the work surface and this important for easier handling particularly with
manual handling components are involved and then obviously you reduce the coefficient of
friction at the chip tool interface.
Due to the formation of a weaker compound at the interface due to some kind of you know
chemistry between the cutting fluid and the tool surface the tool surface as well as the work piece
12
surface. And finally you protect the finished surfaces from corrosion by putting a layer of this
cutting fluid, which always flows into the finished surface from the working zone while it is
being applied.
So what is some of the characteristics associated with an ideal cutting fluid? So they have they
should have a large specific heat and thermal conductivity, so that they can easily carry away the
heat thus lowering the temperature in the cutting zone, they should have a low viscosity. So that
they are easily flowable and may be small molecular size these are probably they go hand in
hand contain a suitable reactive constituent be non poisonous and non corrosive and also should
be inexpensive and easily available and having said that now.
13
The cutting fluids can be classified really according to the functions, that they are used in or they
are put to some of the cutting fluids can be used as coolants, which are typically designed to
reduce effects of heat in the machining zone and some of them can be used as a lubricant where
it is designed to reduce the tool chip and tool work friction.
The many types of cutting fluids typically water-based or oil-based mineral oil based, the
coolants are typically the water-based fluids which would have a again higher thermal
conductivity high specific heat. Again the lubricants you know they would have more slightly
more viscous kind of fluid and also they would typically be mineral oil based fluids.
14
If we look at coolants whatever is used as a base in the coolant? Type cutting fluids and most
effective of operation range is basically at high cutting speeds, where heat generation and high
temperatures are very prominent problems and these coolants are most effective on tool materials
that are most susceptible to temperature failures example, let us say high speed steel etc.
On the other hand lubricants usually are oil based as I earlier pointed out based out of mineral oil
they are more effective at lower cutting speeds and they also help in reducing temperature in the
operation, but they are slightly more viscous in comparison to the coolants because they typically
have to workout layer of film which would form which would which would really necessarily
provide the lubrication between the tool and the work piece surface.
15
So there are many advantages particularly economic advantages of using cutting fluids, one is
the reduction of the tool cost, another is the increased speed of production again reduced heat
and friction, so high higher cutting speeds can be obtained and probably maximum production
rate conditions could be arrived at.
Obviously reduction in labour cost if you have a uniform or uniform surface finish then finishing
costs come down drastically tools may be able to last longer and may require less regrinding or
less down time in or reduce cost per part and, then finally you know production of power costs
because of the additional advantage of formulating you know a zone, which either acts as a
lubricant or as a sort of a coolant or reduces the temperature so that you need not.
So reduction of power costs typically the cutting fluids ensure if they are used as a lubricant they
ensure that there is a small layer between the tool and the work piece and obviously in that case
the frictional effects are reduced quite a bit, so the frictional dissipation would also be
subsequently reduced and then finally because of that reduce friction less power could be
required for machining.
So with this I would like to sort of close on the machining module and obviously the next step
would be that once we have learned how to do the primary fabrication process in terms of casting
and then probably you know trying to machine them machine the components so that they can
come into an assembly.
16
The obvious secondary manufacturing process which comes into your mind is how to join things
together? So that there can be a positional relationship between different components and they
can work out into machines or assemblies, where there can be an input side which could be in
terms of power or velocity and there could simultaneously be an output side.
So now the focus that we will have on this course from next module onwards would be typically
on joining processes and this would constitute for another three or four modules beyond which
we will like to end this course. So thank you so much for listening I would look forward to talk
about welding in the next module thanks.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia
17
@copyright reserved
18
Course Title
Module- 46
by
Today we will be mostly talking about the joining processes particularly the different solid and
liquid state welding processes and in that we will try to understand the physics of welding will
also try to describe some of the associated designs that are involved in planning a welding
design, so let us look at all the joining processes and why it is necessary, okay.
1
So unlike the manufacturing processes employed to produce a single component, the joining
processes are used to assemble different members to yield complex shapes I think I had earlier
described that you know when you talk about assembly obviously there is has to be relative
orientation between the various parts or components before that joining is a very, very important
issue.
So sometimes the geometries that are involved in plugging these components together are so
difficult or so impossible to obtain by using only the manufacturing processes etcetera therefore
joining processes aware maybe two or more components are joined together to realize one
particular link is employed for the benefit of you know reducing the complexity of the
manufacturing processes, so therefore joining is extremely important as a process.
The joining of different elements can be either temporary or permanent in nature also the
mechanism of bonding accordingly may be either temporary or permanent. So for example, in
case of you know nut and bolt kind of system which is joining or maybe screws which are
joining two members in an assemble we can easily open or close based on our convenience and it
can be recorded as a temporary joint. Whereas something like let us solid state welding where
there are two components which are pressurized very close to each other so that there is some
kind of bond formulation between them maybe easily recorded as a permanent joining process,.
So that is how you classify and this is a first classification for all the different joining processes,
so we will basically describe some of the principles and the mechanisms in all such processes
2
and with the physical or mechanical point of view and also some other metallurgical view points
which emerge while studying such joining processes would be treated in this particular area.
So let us look at a classification schematic of the various joining processes so typically joining
process can be classified into mechanical bonding and atomic bonding, mechanical bonding
could be again classified into permanent or semi permanent kind of joints and a temporary with
screw elements for example as I just mentioned earlier. In the permanent semi permanent
category there can be reverting, there can be stitching between two surfaces or stapling between
two surfaces or you may shrink fits sometimes which ensures that you have some kind of semi
permanency between the joints that means if for example in the case of rivets without destroying
the rivets or without breaking the rivets open you cannot really undo the joining process.
So it is some kind of a semi permanent intermediate kind of a joining, so therefore that is how
semi permanent joints can be interpreted. Now the other type of joining happens more on a
atomistic bases where you can have two crystals for example where two different materials for
example taken so close to each other by visual of pressure and some deformation that there is
some kind of a cold weld which is formulated within the two surfaces.
So such surfaces are or such kind of bonding is also known as solid state bonding there can be
again liquid state bonding and bonding can also be solid and liquid state I will just explain some
of the solid state bonding. So one of the examples you know could be cold welding where two
3
members two metallic plates for example I have brought very close to each other and applied
with certain pressure.
So that the distances between the surfaces become almost equal to that of a grain boundary, so
there is automatically a increase in the atomic forces because of probably the electrons of one set
of atoms attracting the, getting attacked by the nucleus of the other set of atom, but that close
proximity or close distance between the surfaces need to be coming for this kind of a bonding to
take place.
There can be again cases of ultrasonic welding where you vibrate one of the compounds one of
the members and ultrasonic frequency so that you can again introduce proximity between the
members in a manner so that there is a solid state bonding which takes place. You can also in this
category introduce exclusive welding, similarly other solid state bonding phenomena or friction
welding diffusion welding hot forge welding so on and so forth.
In the liquid state and fusion welding processes you typically use a source of heat so that you are
able to either melt the parent material or a different material together for introducing the bonding
between the two, so in the liquid state particularly you can actually use an electric arc okay,
where what you normally do in arc welding and there is a arc established between an electrode
and a surface which is very high power and high power consuming and it generates stream of
electrons which completely melts the parent materials together so that there is some kind of a
melting and solidification, re-solidification which would ensure the bond ability to be same.
So the electric source can either be an arc where you can record this is an arc welding process it
could be electromagnetic induction causing any currents which would lead to the local heating of
the material particularly metals. so then either induction welding or resistance welding where
there is a pressure as well as a strong current between the sheets that are being joint or the two
members that are being joint which results in a local heat increase and a local melt pool between
both the sheets.
The other forms of liquid state welding as basically the source changes from electrical to a
chemical source. it could be either a hot flame producing produced by a gas or by the transition
metal oxides and aluminum fuel particles together known as thermites and the heat source in a
4
gas welding typically is an oxyacetylene flame which causes film material to melt and go into the
two heats and then it re-solidifies to formulate the weld ment.
So there are other cases of particularly solid, liquid state welding for example let us say adhesive
bonding where there is an adhesion layer which is applied between two different solid material
so without really changing the state of the materials into a liquid form the adhesive layer which
itself being liquid when it dries up it introduces bonds between both the layers they may be of
temporary type but that those bonds are also considered to be good enough for weldment.
For example, you can actually bond plastic to metal which is one of the key things in automotive
industries which is based on adhesive bonding, you have soldering and brazing where again the
film material is basically taken to its melting temperature and it generates some kind of local
melts in the periphery of the weldment and there is some kind of some degree of diffusion into of
the welding zone in the periphery which results and again re-solidification and joining between
both the solid members, okay.
So these all examples of classifications of different joining processes, so having said that now let
us look into a little more fundamental aspect about joining processes.
And let us try to first classify into various schemes based on different modalities. let us talk
about the classification of welding into autogenous, homogenous and heterogeneous processes in
5
category . an autogenous process no filler material is added during the joining all the types of
solid phase welding and resistance welding are booked into this category so there is no filler
material, then there are homogeneous joining processes where the filler material that is used the
same as the parent material.
So filler material is same as the parent material and then obviously there are heterogeneous
processes where the filler material maybe completely different, is different okay, so these are the
soldering and brazing related processes where it may necessary that the filler material is same as
the parent material it is different than parent material, so soldering and brazing for example at
two such joining processes where the filler material in one case is copper and tin.
Another iron and silver and both of them are soluble in the parent material so therefore there is a
zone of local melt which is created inside the parent material where there is some kind of a you
know sort of solubility and diffusion of the liquid metal or the liquid filler and then when it re-
crystallizes it re-crystallizes as one whole and joints both the sheets in this particular case or both
the members in this particular case.
So as discussed prior to this in the section n materials we had illustrated how the bonding forces
between the two metallic atoms decrease very sharply with the inter atomic distance so obviously
as we have recorded earlier that if the inter atomic distance changes to almost a single atomic
spacing there is a tendency of the electrons of one of the atoms to be attracted towards the nuclei
of the neighboring atoms, so these interacting forces are very, very large which results in a very
strong bond between the two particularly when the two atoms species are displaced to a distance
of or more or less the inter atomic spacing between the or the lattice spacing between the two
atoms of the lattice.
So the force sharply increases and attains a very large value when the distance is reduced from a
few atomic spacings. Thus, if it is possible to somehow bring the two metallic surfaces closer so
that nothing but the grain boundary separate them the two bodies will adhere with very large
forces okay, and that is what we call welding okay. So how to do this and how, what kind of
mechanisms are deployed are basically again part of solid state welding processes.
6
So in a solid state welding process basically which we can carry out the welding particularly at
room temperature and obviously also at an elevated temperature but without melting any part so
okay, so still there are surfaces which have solid surfaces they do not loss their integrity and you
know you can basically apply a pressure as well as heat here to perform the welding. So for a
better understanding of the quality of the solid phase joint it is worthwhile to recapitulate the
strength and cohesion of metals, okay.
So a defect free crystal normally fails along a sort of a crystallographic plane where the inter
atomic force is the weakest okay, so that is how there is a development of a crack so wherever
there is a case where the inter atomic force is the lowest value and supposing you are now
putting the object to a tensile strength the failure would happen from that area where the bond
between the material is the weakest.
What happens after the failure takes place so the two the material is separated along a crack
portion or let us say around a small kind of fissure and there are two new surfaces which would
7
come into existence and therefore the surface energy should increase because of the creating of
two of these surfaces, okay and the two new surfaces which are produced would let us say
demonstrate surface energy γ.
And you know this energy is basically defined as the work done in order to create those surfaces
which you are doing externally obviously you are pulling the material to get this crack initiated
or get this you know fissure initiated between the material so whatever energy you are applying
to the system is getting in terms of formulation of those new to surfaces okay, along which the
crack has actually formulated.
So in a single crystal level if we wanted to gage what is the strength σ c of such a pair of surfaces
created the σc happens to be given by (Eγ/d)1/2 where E is the modulus of elasticity of the
material d is probably the lattice spacing okay, so this is actually one lattice spacing we are
talking about crystalline materials and particularly one lattice spacing in the cleavage plane that
is what is of concern to us.
And think of it that in brittle solids the failures take place by extension of such cracks so
therefore there is if supposing some kind of a twin surface here is created it basically extend
itself in a certain direction and we say that this is because of the crack propagation process so
therefore the along that particular line they develop several such inter atomic spacings where
there is a new surface which starts get in created okay, and so there is a complete cleavage plane
which is formulated which maybe more than a few lattice spacings in length okay.
So in that case the σc which comes out or the bulk strength of the material which comes out is
given by again (Eγ/l)1/2 where this l which I just told you is much, much, much greater than one
lattice spacing so the crack is around let us say five different lattice spacings or even more
50,000 more lattice spacing, so it is a relatively larger entity in comparison to a single cleavage
plane created across a single crystal where the question is only of one lattice spacing.
So obviously the σc reduces because of that right, σc in case of crystal is inversely proportional to
d1/2 in this case it is l1/2 and l is much, much larger than d so obviously the σ c would be much
lower in case of bulk materials okay, then in case of crystals. So σ c bulk is much, much lower in
comparison to σc crystals, okay and so that gives you a bases of why solid welding processes
would happen okay.
8
So we have already seen in the first part of our lecture very appropriately that the failure of a
polycrystalline ductile reptile material is typically due to the movements of what we call
dislocations which will be available over only one or two or maybe a little more size lattice
planes and this planes are sort of misfitted into the overall lattice because of which you can say
that there is a tendency of the failure of the polycrystalline materials.
So if all the dislocations move together in certain space there is tendency of the energy in that
region to go high because of which the material will start breaking down and there is plastic
stability because of this, okay.
The foregoing discussion indicates that the bulk strength of the material is much lower than the
bonding forces of the constituent atoms we just had an idea that in one case the total amount of
ultimate yield strength σc is proportional to the inverse of d 1/2 another l1/2 and l is very, very
greater than d. So σc enviously is a lower in value in case of bulk material, so think of it that
when we talk about a joint strength it is about how the material would arrive and its ultimate
yield strength when there is some kind of a crack or separation or something with starts play
taking place between the different planes of the materials.
And in this particular case we are talking about a situation where we are comparing the lattice
misfits okay, because of the pressure generated between two surfaces where the distance is
coming very, very close to that of almost grain boundaries so meaning thereby that the two
9
surfaces that we are pressing in the solid welding is coming by a distance closer than almost one
or two lattice spacing, so obviously that force would be much greater or the yield strength and
that particular region because of that lattice misfits of a few planes between the two surfaces
would be much, much greater in comparison to the bulk strength of the materials.
So obviously when in such a case if we pull the material from both sides the failure will take
place along any other region of the bulk but not on the interface, so that is what the solid you
know welding strength is defined as just because in a crystalline level the ultimate yield strength
increases much more in comparison to that amount of bulk level. You can say that a plane of
lattice misfits because of this kind of a pressure where the surfaces come close by almost like a
grain boundary thickness difference is attains a more larger value in comparison to the overall
bulk strength the material.
So good welding does not require to achieve a strength equal to that between the adjacent lattice
planes, and you must remember that at room temperature the, with negligible creep even a plane
of lattice misfit is not weaker than the bulk material, okay. So in a cold welded junction it is
essentially a plane of lattice misfit which is inserted between the two melting surfaces at a huge
pressure and so the contact if we look at between the two planes which are being brought close
together let us say we ask welding these two surfaces with respect to each other with respect you
know applying a vertical pressure in between the two.
So there are these small, small asperities is between the surfaces which kind of formulate the real
contact okay, and the metallic bridging kind of a thing happens here that supposing there is one
contact which is like a hell another which is again like a hell so there is some kind of a when it
joints each other obviously the real area which is there as I think I had earlier mention a very
appropriately in case of study of friction is much, much smaller so the A real smaller in comparison
to the a apparent you know the apparent area really is that of the surface and the real area is very,
very small.
So in this region it is very easy to come you know for the overall stress to come to the plastic
deformation and there is some kind of a deformation of these two asperities which results in a
cold one and because obviously you have brought them closer than the you know and so that the
bell bulk strength is kind of exceeded at that particular level and this metallic bridging occurs
10
even though if there are some kind of an adsorbed surface level like an oxide or some oils
etcetera presents still this metallic bridging occurs very well, okay.
So the bridges so formed have the property of a true grain boundary and hence they are stronger
than the bulk material as I had earlier illustrated and also there is some work hardening which
takes place in the layers just to beneath the mating surfaces so overall the weldment in this
particular region because of the work hardening under beneath and the strength here of almost
single crystal becomes much larger in comparison to the bulk strength of the two materials σ c. So
therefore, it is considered to be a good weldment.
So let us look at the series of events which happen in such processes so if we consider the σ y to
be the bulk strength of the material or it is the yield strength of the material and we apply a force
11
pe over these two surfaces which we are bringing close to each other so this force is p e, so
obviously the fraction of the area which comes in contact by formulating the weld can be easily
given by pe/σy okay.
And however around the welding zones if I look at really how this asperity is getting deform so
the asperity earlier was present like this and when we have touch the asperity the slight
deformation happens okay, and then there is some kind of a local weld which is taken place here,
so there will be some area which we will come in contact without the actual flow as well.
Supposing there was an area just close by whether the height was not so significant as the plastic
flow would happens.
So supposing these two get welded together and it may be possible that these two just about start
touching each other very close to the surface here okay, so there is obviously quite a bit of that
area which is not so high so that plastic deformation would occur but still they will touch each
other when the plastic deformation may happen across some of the let us say top order asperities
with higher heights or higher larger heights on the surface, okay.
So here we can obviously say that these areas which have just coming contact without any plastic
flow would still be in the elastic region, so this is a elastic region okay, and this obviously is a
plastic region and so really whether the two surfaces would separate or from each other would
depend on whether these elastic forces are greater enough to pull apart the plastic deformation
and weld ment which has being formulated so if this area were very, very high in that event
obviously these surfaces would come closer.
But the elastic range material if it is not able to given sufficient amount of so sufficient amount
of recoiling force so therefore it will not really change anything and the weldment will remain in
that. So experimental results suggest that you know if we include this area the total area of
physical contact with moderate external pressure comes out to be about close to only twice this
2pe/σy you write, σp/σy was the area which was the plastically deformed asperity area.
But the overall area then becomes 2pe/σy when the applied load is removed the two surfaces
separate out only when the elastic forces trapped in the region around the bridges are strong
enough to break apart these metallic bridges if does not happen the weld ment would the remain
as such. So obviously for softer material so the deformation level is much, much higher it results
12
in a better or a permanent adherence because more or less this elastic force may not be that
critical as a number of areas which would have yielded into the plastic range would be much
higher you know in a softer material then in a harder material.
So in the solid phase welding process 4 most important phenomena of factors are associated one
is obviously the surface deformation the other is surface films we sometimes promote or heat or
which sometimes promote the separation between the surfaces and does not allow the contact to
take place, it may be brittle film for example and oxide film where there maybe some local crack
propagation which happens where the strength aspect of bulk verses weld ment the theory may
not hold to any more.
Then is there is also re-crystallization which may happen because of pressure driven heating of
give to their pressure driven deformation I am sorry, of the different grains and then obviously
diffusion which is migration because of concentration gradients between the two surfaces, one
surface is the higher concentration of a certain material in comparison to the other obviously
there would be some diffusion through the solid state happening when it comes closer to each
other.
So the surface deformation that takes place during welding is quite difficult to measure although
some estimates can be brought out.
13
And as such in pressure welding the bulk deformation is used as an index of the surface
deformation so if I say for a heat of original and final thicknesses t i and tf .I want to measure the
bulk deformation, I would simply write this as ti-tf /ti expressed as a percentage and for a heat of
or for a circular specimen of original and final diameters or a circular specimen of original and
final diameters di and df this respectively would become df2-di2/df2 as a percentage okay, so that is
how you express the surface deformation of either flat sheets or around objects.
The strength of a welded joint increases with the increasing bulk deformation and no weldment
would take place below a certain critical deformation happens in the amount of deformation
necessary for obtaining a specific strength decreases with the temperature increase and obviously
a strong weld may be made only with 10% deformation if the working temperature is quite close
to the melting point of the material.
Also the ratio of the oxide hardness and the parent material hardness effectively governs the
amount of necessary deformation which would happen in solid phase welding. So the greatest
hurdle which comes in case of solid phase welding are the oxide layers and so what you know
and or may be some kind of oil films or some kind of separation films which would not allow the
weld ment to happen by making an intermediary their either which would have a crack
propagating effect or would probably have some kind of you know oil or impurity allowing not
allowing the two materials to come to the closeness of that of a grain boundary
So the many methods which are used for taking care of such situations for example you can
scratch over as the oxide layers on the top of the surfaces which you want to solid weld on this
particular manner, so that you still have you exposed the material below it or may be neither with
washing techniques or with some kind of you know etching techniques remove away the layer of
lubricant or the layer of the oil which happens to be a part of the sheet because of its forming
process associated with the easier die-removal etcetera.
So there are many ways of sort of ensuring that you do not have the oxide or the intermediate oil
layers for doing a good solid phase welding. So we would like to continue further in this area but
in the interest of time I would like to close this particular module in the next module we will talk
little more about just extension of whatever we have studied so far followed by studying of
different sources which would be important for us to analysis the liquid state welding particularly
and sources of heat would be something like let us say electrostatic arc welding and how do we
14
really design for a good power system etcetera which would do the welding properly and
effectively, with this I would like to end this particular module thank you so much for listening.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

15
16
Course Title
Module- 47
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology in part 1 module 47.
We left over at how we can you know try to solve it welding to a two different surfaces.
1
And I think we had just illustrated that the greatest hurdle in solid phase welding is most by the
surface oxide layers and also by the films, the liquid films can be remove by heating in hot
welding and by scratch brushing in cold welding the oxide films can be also be reduce through a
certain extent by scratch brushing moreover this oxide layers being hard and brittle fracture when
pressure is a applied and a lateral movement is very useful in particularly ultrasonic welding to
do this removal of the oxide layers.
And basically the fragment that fragmented and get into a thick agglomerates at different regions
of the particular surfaces, which is also we should also good and you know ensuring that there is
close proximity in between the pattern metal surfaces together, so it basically results in more
metal to metal contact area so an excessive oxide contaminations is always harmful resulting in
poor joint efficiency and we also saw that solid phase welding in room temperature is not really
allowed recrystalization and great grain growth at the interface.
To happen so this reduces ductility of the joint some to extent and in increase in working
temperature and not only increases the ductility but also eliminates some other defects we also
record that phenomena of the diffusion though it has not been very well studied is also a plays an
important role on the performance of the sort of solid with joints and sometimes diffusion is used
by creating a concentration gradient between the surfaces, so that there is some kind of you know
migration of the atom surface to other.
2
Causing and we dispersing between the two crystal lattices together. so we will now try to
understand some of the principles of liquid or fusion welding.
As the name suggest, basically technique where the joint is melted in both parts of the joint and
either there is a filler material which is same as the parent material or different and it causes
some kind of a weaker sensation again because of the tendency of the material to solidified and
this solidification results in joining between the materials and so the fusion welding process may
either be autogenous or homogenous. metallurgically if you look at the different zones there are
three distinct zones which are which happens in such a welded part the first zone is a fusion zone
of force.
The second is the heat affected unmelted zone around the fusion zone and the third is obviously
the unaffected original path so there is an interplay of transfer of heat and cross the fusion zone
the unmelted zone around the fusion zone and also the unaffected zone you know of weldment so
that because of this heat flow there is the solidification just as we observed in the case of casting
in earlier in great details and because of the solidification there is an aspect of strength which is
involved in and joining the both materials.
So if we look at the different important factors which are used for governing fusion welding
some this factors would definitely be the characteristics of the source, so whether we are using
3
and dark or whether we using induction mold or may be a thermite material for creating enough
amount of temperature so that melting happens would definitely determine as one of the
governing factors, quality of the fusion welding process also the nature of depositions of the
filler material in the fusion zone and known as weld pool would also be very critical factors.
The heat flow characteristics in the joint would be a very critical factor because to would be
allow us to sort of estimate what is going to be the bigger size level what is going to be the grain
sizing resizing level and ultimately its strength of the joint and the gas metal of slack metal
reactions in the fusions zones are of critically importance.
Because such reactions that creates states which are highly brittle in nature and may result in
some kind of joint failure etc. Because of chemical reactivity and then the cooling of the fusions
zone with associated the contraction residual stresses and metallurgically changes associated
with this poor cooling process could also determine what is going to be the quality of the belt
going to be there, so the first characteristics here as you can see is the heat source and we are
going to try and estimate or evaluate some of the different heat sources or heating process which
are available in the.
4
Welding so what are the difference kind of heat sources that are valuable for liquid state
welding .so we have the electrical Arc which is one of the most common sources in various arc
welding operations. we also have a chemical flame as in a gas welding were use some of the kind
of an oxyacetylene gas and burn it so you can produce enough of energy or you also have an
exothermic chemical reaction called the thermite welding methods where there is a typically and
transition metal oxide.
Like that is a copper oxide or iron oxide being used with the aluminum which acts as a fuel
particle and there is a transfer for oxygen between the transition metal oxide of the aluminum
which results in an exothermic process, okay so typically these are also known as under water
welding phenomena because it does not need any few oxygen in layer cannot do the burning and
then we have a electric the resistance heating where typically the applications would be in electro
slag or other resistance welding process.
The whole automotive to industry is geared around this electric resistance heating process where
sheet metals are typically spot welded to each other. you know in order to pull together as an
adjusting of the particular cast, so the general characteristics of this heat sources will try to nowe
understand and discussing more so let us look at the first heat source which is the arc welding, so
let us look at this particular scheme here, this is an arc welding scheme there is a electric source
there is an arc which is created between electrodes.
5
This the cathode and then the work pieces the anode in this particular case as you made he call
and I am sure most of you have seen the torque welding process is an initiated between and the
electrode which is clamped on to a which is clamped on to welding clamp so typically electrode
is clamped on to the electrode holder and you may also seen that the electrode is slightly broken
from the surface and brought very close to the work piece and then suddenly you take it away
and then it generates.
The high current flow at the instance you are touching the material the pattern material and then
the moment you have to can out the electrode away and there is a arc which is struck between the
electrode and the work piece, so what exactly is happening let us assume that the electrodes
surface that we are considering somewhere here is little bit rough you know and there are many
asperities which are there on the surface, and there is a can whole metal surface or work piece
surface which is can having this asperities.
So as we take the electrode in the you know the holder clamp very close to this surface that are
going to be asperity to asperity welding or locking which would happen you know something
like this okay so there are many such areas, on the electrode which would actually have small
asperity to asperity contact, with the parent materials so in this particular case it is more like a
short circuit which would happen across of few asperities and there would be something called
the short circuit current which is generated.
Which is a huge current by the by from the source or to the work piece surface. so typically the
work pieces is also earthed because all the current that comes into the work piece, so typically
flow so it is a ground at work piece in most the cases and so the all the electrons which would
come of causing high current between the two surfaces would result in some kind of a local
heating resistance heating across this particular surface and therefore in this condition If I try to
disturb this small weldment.
Which have been made by pulling of the electrode back which normally happens there is going
to be a shrinkage in that particular area of the bridge which has been formulated and slowly there
would be a case where in the electrons, which are actually flowing now you know at a higher and
higher density because obviously as the bridges trying to separate out the area between the two
bridges becomes lesser and lesser okay, and so there is a state where the current density is so
high that the electron normal starts boiling.
6
Of the material and such boiling would result in something which would ionize and layer of gas
which is closed by and this we know as a arc okay, so there is a boiling of the electrons from
these small asperity is the areas has reduced and as the trying to separate as you increasingly try
to separate the electrode from the work piece, and because of the boiling the electron start
coming of the metal into the surrounding gases starts ionizing the gases and so there are two
different kind of electrons which are there typically in the you know state which results one is
obviously in the primary electron which is been emitted by the electrode in a close facility.
Or in a close states and the other obviously is the gases which are in the medium which kept
ionized because of this electrons, and anyhow some of the equal regions may be completely in
elastic in nature and they may result in some kind of a additional electrons so you have ions and
electrons which I formulated and so it is like plasma, it is like a hot plasma which is been
formulated in some in a zone like this, so therefore there are many electrons which are coming
out and there are many ions Which are there. and as we increase the distance of the electrode
from the, the metal this arc kind of increases to an extent well you know to an extent that the VI
relationship between the source which has a finite power and the requirement of the this kind of
a arcs taken medium and would balance out each okay, so up to that extent the arc would stay
and beyond that if you again increases a separation between the electrode and the work piece any
further arc would cut off or distinguish.
Because now the power requirements of the arc would not be able get supplied by the power
source that is giving power to this electrode work combination, so again in summary what is
going on then the electrodes getting very closed generating small asperity, as there is a large
current almost a short circuit level current which is flowing and then you trying to increase the
electrode distance which is result in the some kind of again area minimization between these
asperities of plastic well asperities.
Are going to get now and separate at the back and because of the area minimization the current
density increases locally and starts giving raise to situation well there is electron boiling of these
asperities, of this boiling basically ionizes the gas medium around and it starts building up the
arc of high moving high fast moving case atoms and electrons in the space between the
7
electrodes, okay so that you see as the, layering and region which comes between the electrode
and the work in such welding process.
I =C θ2 exp ( − β / θ )
e
β=∅
kθ
So let us just look at some of the physical aspects or let say physical values feature formulated
obviously the electrons having negative charge coming out of the anode would be pulled back
whereas those coming out of the cathode would also be attracted towards the anode and the rate
at which the electrons are emitted from the hot surface is given by this the characteristics
equation I = Cθ2 exponential – β / θ where I is an Ampere per centimeter square this is the
current density.
Level of the particular potion of the surface θ is the absolute temperature to which obviously
because of fast moving electrons the temperature will rise quite a bit which will result in the
some kind of melting, of the weldment in which we want to really either melt the electrode and
place or then when just melt the parent the region around arc. C is the constant and β is given by
this expression here, ϕe / Kθ is that electronic charge 1.6* 10 – 19 columns and ϕ basically is also
known as the thermionic work function.
And is measuring electrons volts and I give you a list of thermionic work function is for the
different materials, and case molds from case cast in this particular case. so in fact the ϕ value
8
these are thermionic work function value represents the kinetic energy that is really necessary
into start boiling of an electron from a often from a surface, so the values of some of the ϕ is
given here for common metal you know you have.
Aluminum, copper, iron, tungsten, sodium potassium nickel and the ionization potentials and this
ϕ the work function values in we here we given is 4.1 to 5.0 as you can see for the various
materials and obvious and that has the equation says β = ϕe / Kθ and also the current density i
equations says Cθ2 exponential – β and θ increase in θ and would obviously and also a reduction
and the ϕ may be would obviously result in a case where the current density is become huge
okay, and it makes you can say the emission of the electrons much easier so with the lower work
function value and higher absolute temperature the electrons would moves out more easily thus
contributing to a higher level of the current density so the current permute area becomes more
and more because of this simultaneously reduction of the thermionic work function, and the
increasing the absolute temperature what started the arc itself becomes a source of ions through
the process of ionizations so obviously there are going to be gas metals which gas irons which
are or gas atoms.
Which are going to be there in the space heated up and then fast moving because of the
turbulences created by some of the electron ions which are generated close to the that would
anode and it results in again few more secondary of the electrons and secondary ions, generating
9
in the process and so you know you have a conducting column of the arc which is created okay
so the ions obviously are attracted in this case by the cathode and the resulting collusions keep
the cathode filament by quite a bit hot. In fact there are many secondary electrons in rated
because of the collusion of such.
Ions into the cathode similarly the anode side is more like an electrons sinks so it will observe all
the electrons here but you know you have to understand that because of it anodic nature there is
already a layer of electrons very close by an any electron which is coming to go to the anode
should have to pass through this layer of electrons which are again close by so therefore there is
a huge drop you know and the anode and at the cathode surfaces, whereas towards the if you
look at we drop along the arc in a if we drop that sharp and as a result we can actually
characterize.
The voltage versus length in case of the arcs to be very sharply drooping across the cathode and
less drooping in nature across the arc, so we will actually do a sectional and we will try to
introduce all things here, the total arc current is correct two sets of electrons that I earlier
mentioned first set is emitted by the cathode directly it is called primary electrons and the second
set is known as a secondary electrons and is produced as a result of the ionization of the arc gap,
and so you know based on whatever material combinations.
You are using for example you may use primary electrons you may use that say tungsten and
carbon electrodes or aluminum electrodes are copper electrodes. so with tungsten and carbon
electrodes normally the primary electrons carry the majority of the current whereas with the
aluminum of the copper electrodes, and may be secondary electrons which carrying majority of
the current, so it really depends on what is going to be the work function value and the θ value of
the arc where you are placing the arc.
Okay in terms of it is creation so and in electron of charging moving and electric field of let say
capitally valued and we obviously expense a force e * E and it is moves with the distance d so
the total amount of work which is done, which is also equal to the kinetic energy of the electron
can be represented as eE/ d, it also moves with an accretion e / m whereas the mass of the
electron, but obviously this kinetic energy is the reason why the temperature would privies up
and cause many secondary ions and electrons to formulate in arc column.
10
so let us talk about the arc structure and characteristics, so I already told you that on the cathode
there is a spot from which this electron emission happens and this is relatively very small area on
the cathode surface as a cathode spot and this is really the causative area of the region for
emitting all the electrons okay, so that is what we know as the cathode spot. Similarly we have
cathode space which is a gaseous region adjacent to the cathode has the thickness of the order
about 10-3cm close to 10-5microns. So this region has the positive space charge, so obviously
cathode which is highly charged, so it will attract all the positive ions near to it.
The region which would have been filled with it has been cathodes and voltage drop obviously in
this region it is necessary for the electrons to pulled out across this region because you have
positive ions, you know and once the electrons goes into this particular space, it will be hard to
the electron into the negative cathode okay. So there is a drop in the suddenly energy of the
electron, it goes into the positive space of the cathodes. So similarly that is following column
11
which is visible portion of the are consisting of plasma, where the voltage drop is not very sharp
and I will actually comment on how with the length the voltage will drop.
In just about the next section particular module and then obviously you have the anode space, the
similar problem the anode being positively charged would attract negatively charged electrons
rounded, so there is a space which would contain negatively charged electrons and it is very
difficult for the electrons otherwise in the medium to penetrate through this negatively charged
region to the anode side. The other reason why there is again a very sharp drop across this anode
region.
And then obviously in the anode in around whatever region what gets formulated the no gas
anodes spots. So this is really the section across which there is a electron flow and current flow
on the anode.
So if you look at the voltage characteristics and show in arc space the potential can value we
have a huge drop and the cathode because obviously is in just earlier huge drop again or potential
across the anode and then relatively smaller depth across the main column of the arc and that is
how you would actually characterize the arc space, so now let us look at how the voltage would
varying as a function of the current across the arc and if you look at the way that the arc builds
up there are many a interesting thing associated with the buildup process so at the beginning up
to the right say about 50 amperes of current the arc is more or less cylindrical in nature okay so if
12
I really looked at the surface area volume ratio of a cylinder let say we have a cylinder here okay
and your length of the cylinder is L and the just diameter of the cylinder is b okay so the surface
area is πdL and the volume is πd2 / 4L.
So obviously the surface towards the volume ration and such a cylinder happens to be about
close to 4 / d okay, so as the d increases obviously the surface to volume ratio would decrease so
supposing now if I had a case where the these increasing of an arc, but the cylindrical
constitution of the arc is carried forward and this happens only up to bound 50 amperes of arc
current so were the current the arc formulated still is about close to cylindrical and shape, so the
surface to volume ratio reduces within increase in diameter.
so if there is a thicker arc for example it will have lesser surface area and comparison to a
thinner arc okay and in thinner a long there arc so because of all these is a reasons what typically
would happen, is that because of the surface area also is a function or is like directly proportional
to the rate of the heat transfer if the surface to volume reduces then of the volume, or the bulk of
the arc which is containing all this gases and electrons and is also a cause of the temperature rise.
Would be able to raise the temperature to a quite reasonable value for these surface area of these
smaller in comparison the volume, may not be able to despite that heat much so it is a hotter arc
okay, so a thick arc is always hotter arc because it dissipation and valuable because of the
decrease in the surface to volume ratio decrease so the heat transfer cross the arc may not be or
from the arc into the environmental may not be so huge in compression to the heat addition to the
arc because of these ionization of effect Which come in the space for the same.
so therefore below 50 amperes you can consider that as the diameter of the arc increases and that
would happen this function of the voltage the conductivity of the arc which is also a function of
the temperature of the arc, is got to actually increase and because of this the resistance will
decrease and because of this you know the current value may decrease at a certain voltage so if
the voltage reduction Δv / ΔI if we consider if the resistance is decreasing a function of thickness
of the arc.
So obviously the Δ V / Δ I will also be sort of decreasing meaning there by that is this part of the
characteristic is showing that particular change so the is showing that particular change so the as
you see this portion up to 50 amp is basically dropped in the resistance because of which you
know even if the current increasing in voltage is not seeming to increasing. beyond 50 amps the
curve the cylindrical characteristics of the curve is not maintained anymore.
13
And there is a gradual bulging of the arc length so the total length that the electron has to travel
more increase because of such bulges so for of very significantly long time the both the effects of
the resistance going down because of the hot arc and the fact that the arc is bulging and there is
you know additional path length that the elections have to cover continues so that you can see
that up to quite a bit of current value any more you are not having any significant change in the
voltage they are kind of compensating for each other beyond that then what happens is that the
bulge part of the arc.
That means you know the arc getting stricken like this would increase more path length in
compassion to the heat transfer process the contribution of heat transfer process and there is a
slow increase you know of the voltage with respect to the current beyond that so that is why this
characteristics that in the first before 50 amps the increase of the cylinder size of the arc you
know and the reduction surface area would result in an hotter arc and beyond that there is some
kind of a balance between this heat retained vis a vis the path length increase because of bulging
of arc.
And then there is predominant of the path length increase of the bulging part so that the again the
V versus I becomes a linearly rising trend, so with this I would like to end this particular module
but in the next module we will try to look at that how you can have this arc characteristics of
voltage verse current as function of length to the inter spots with the voltage current
characteristics of the power source so that we can talk about operating point so the welding
system so with that I would like to close this particular module thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
14
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

@copyright reserved
15
Course Title
Module- 48
by
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1 module 48 so we were
actually talking about arc welding process.
1
As in particularly describing the voltage drop across the arc so we sort as try to find out what is
the relationship between the arc space for example this is the cutter space this is the arc column
this is anode space and the respective voltage drops where we actually reason out why it takes
that the voltage drops produced steep in the areas of column space and anode space.
But it comes to the arc column cannot be that steep and one of the reasons is that basically have
shields off opposite irons crossed the electrons and the crystal which has to be penetrated and so
there is an energy loss it comes of the cathode or goes into the anode because of the surrounding
charges there is an arc column but it is more or less like an resistance component so there is not
much which can be done about this thing.
Actually we also talked about the various relationships between the voltage and the cathode for
the arcs and it took it out that as the reason doubt that for arc current has less than 50 ampere and
so on the arc is more or cylindrical because of which the surface to the volume ratios basically
the diameters so the increase in diameter there is a surface area and reduction and the volume
decreases.
And because of there is more heat transfer less heat transfers and the arc gets hotter and the
conductivity goes up but resist will goes back. where as after 50 amperes there is a amount of
current you know over 50 voltage does not change much because obviously the arc starts bulging
and there has more path resisted path which happens because of this divergence so there is a sort
of balance between the heat up the arc and the bulging because of resistance would increase.
2
And so one on become an conductivity increases on the other hand the pass alone increases
beyond the certain time close to about 200 ampere of current will see that now the dominant
factor is basically the bulging out arc and because of the resistivity again increase and there is a
beyond relationship which is soluble linear increases.
So that is how we reasoned out how this characteristics of voltage versus current forms so
obviously get an different arc lens it would actually have different voltage current characteristics
in this particular case for example these are two different characteristics for arc length L and
L+∆L so this is an additional ∆L that the arc for will be the voltage characteristics we can find
out the total difference.
For operating characteristics of the power source which is feeding the system is really dependent
on the intersection point of the you know relationship of the power source with respectively. arc
length characteristics and wherever there are intersection points at the found of operation of the
particular arc so as a first approximation we can assume that the conductivity of the arc column
is kind of independent of the arc length okay.
But we know that the bulging of the phenomena happens it is later on wherever the length comes
into the picture so we can say that V is equal to sum component which is electrode drop
component plus VL where this is the length based on drop when the weight age of the length
3
among increases the voltage and this release the electrode drop voltage which is added as the
dependent of the length of the arc column.
So the voltage current relationship of an arc determines the required characteristics of the power
source from the right we can consider two different characteristics for example this is the linear
characteristics as you conceive this is the sharply characteristics so power as you know is VI so
therefore everything and this sharply determines characteristics is basically the ER relationship
when the power source could be high.
So the arc in the figure so typical arc characteristics for two different arc lengths in term are also
indicated see the dashed lines here the intersection of the characteristics of this source and the arc
determine the optimum point but I would like to just point out to a very important situation
which is relevant to ability of system. Let us look at point B for example and the point B so there
are actually points formulating were the intersection for the power source characteristics takes
place with respect to the VI characteristics of the arc.
And let say we are moving to D to B oaky so therefore probably because the overall arc length is
bulging and we continue the more voltage you can see whether current is rising oaky so if I
consider the different volume here in this particular case I can find out this to be I 1 and I2 and I
4
can formulate this to be V2 and V1 so obviously you conceive that corresponding to V1 there is an
current I1 and it voltage in high ways in V2 the current diverges to I2 okay.
So therefore the overall power would absolute the V1 I1 and segregates the V2 I2 and it is power
of consumption the V2 I2 is the power of the consumption okay. so you can understand if there is
an increase in the voltage the power source which running a constant power, power is equal to VI
okay let ensure that the current produces so that would comes back you know to the normal point
of operation V.
Whether in this case if may not be the case somehow the characteristic intersecting ith the some
power characteristics of C. let say example there is a point C here and from point C here we
transmission to A for the voltage at Vc , current is I C and voltage at A is VA current is IA. so as
you can see here with the reduction in the voltage the current increases as still in the roadmap i.e.
its all in the characteristics curve. so therefore this situation may easily be arrived as power
source may the voltage current characteristics keeps on unstably going away until it reaches
particular region.
So therefore we call the points D or B more or less stable equilibrium that whenever there is a
increase in the voltage it ensures the power source ensures that the equilibrium points shifts back
whereas in case of A and C it may be consider as non-stable equilibrium. So please understand
this concept very well that A and C or normally you know would not be self-stabilizing or
supposing there is an drooping down on the voltage it will not never come back to point C okay.
Because the VI current is basically the voltage current is going down there is downwards power
overall power is consume for the sustaining the arc is lesser or lesser. but in this case the power
rises obviously the arc will have to come back you know unless you wanted it of course blow off
so if it prevent the arc from blow off obviously it has to come back to the point D from the point
B so having said that the other issue I would like to see here.
5
If you are considering both the flat as well as the drooping characteristics as you can see
probably here so this is the sharply drooping characteristics and this is the flat characteristics.
These are two different power sources I can easily find out what power source should be
appropriate for what operation. For example let say when we talk about manual welding and
manual arc length. There is not very high level of control okay which is their on the drop Inter
electrode gap because the electrode is going to move over the work piece upto a certain extend
and because of that the manual arc welding itis always much sure what it is going to be operative
length for the arc between the work piece and the electrode.
But if you look at the characteristics here supposing there is a change in the air column from L to
L+∆L already the characteristics are gone up if it is increasing twice ∆L, there is a possibility
that the power source characteristics may actually not at all have an operating point on this flat
curve right here okay. so if there is no control on the length particular by the operator, I think
the drooping characteristics would be more feasible here.
Because of the sudden drooping nature or sudden change in the current because of changing in
the voltage there still you know a scope of intersection for a greater amount of length change in
comparison that of a straight line power. you can see that the you cannot really accommodate
anymore increase in the length from L+∆L. Let say L+2∆L, but sharply drooping characteristics
which still be able to draw some operating point you know.
6
If you keep on increasing this relationship in the arc. so what is important then, sharply drooping
characteristics normally the way to go. We talked about manual welding process and you can say
that if the flat characteristics for a big change in the arc length there may not be any interception
between the arc and the source and the arc may be simply blown out and it may not be good
feeding characteristics for a manual arc welding process . But for efficient striking of the arc it
may also be the necessary that the open circuit voltage which is thee highest voltage probably
here okay.
Where the current is more or less 0. the source should be high above the voltage of the arc okay.
so more this voltage better it is. now when we talked about when the flat characteristics would
serve the better purpose obviously it drooping characteristics would have very quick response
you know in terms of VI variation because of the nature of the curve as you can see here. it is
suddenly drooping down because of the large change in voltage corresponding to small change
in current.
So the question of the flat characteristics coming out in picture when we talked about semi
automatic arc welding process where the arc maintain between the work piece and the wire
which is driven forward at the constants speed okay. so the idea is in a semi-automatic process
there is a wire feed in the mechanisms which sends out the wire and there is a work piece which
is there in the arc is stuck between those wires and the work piece.
And this normally is fed forward okay so the wire is fed forward the idea is at the wire is made
by the filler material which melts away as strikes forward and as the welding happens length
wise manner Let say the welding is going in this direction obviously the melting is going to be
deposited okay. and so there is going to be the volume continuity for doing large weld of the
length L. so increase in the air length, in this case there is increasing voltage oaky where you can
see probably here.
So voltage is increases from let say you know L to L+∆L and as a result the current should fall
down the melting rate becomes dependent on the current. you want to melting rate as uniform as
possible so increasing the arc length causes decrease in the melting rate. It is obviously the
current would fall down because of increasing the voltage. So you can see that arc length
changes from L+∆L. let say L some value there is a rise in the voltage here and there is a fall in
7
the current okay. so reduction of the current due to increases in arc length is significant as
melting rate decreases.
So the arc length is returns to its original value. So hence in the flat characteristics of the power
source will be more desirable. so that’s how you associate the flat characteristics with respect to
the drooping down characteristics and having said that now the important issue is that what is the
optimum power at which arc should be operated or at the optimum length for example at which
the optimum arc can do the power transfer so it plot the arc V-I of the you know the curve I had
shown earlier with respect to the various lengths of the arc. this is how it happens the curve
comes like the way and inverted curve like this then there is optimum power which is always
operate and there is an optimum length corresponding to this optimum power at which should
always operate.
And maximum power used effectively and dissipated in a least manner. so this procedure can be
repeated for the various values of arc lengths and it plotted of the arc power versus arc length can
be obtain because optimum arc length will optimum can be easily determine since the electrode
drop is utilize the higher efficiency than the column drop the actual optimum length is a bit
shorter than the optimum length obtained in the figure and this kind of optimization let us look
up a example how we like to optimize the arc power.

8
80
(
V = 80 −
1000 )
I volts
V =( 20+ 40 l ) volts
80
⟹ 80− I =20+40 l
1000
1000
⟹ I = ( 60− 40 l ) Amp
80
1000
⟹ P=VI =( 20+40 l ) ∗ ( 60 − 40 l ) volt − amp .
80
dP
⟹ =0
dl
⟹ 40 ( 60 −40 l ) − 40 ( 20+ 40 l )=0
⟹1600=3200 l
⟹l=0.5 cm
1000
⟹ P max= (20+ 40 ∗0.5 ) ∗ ( 60 −40 ∗ 0.5 ) volt −amp=20 kVA
80
So in this particular example we have given a voltage length characteristics has 20+40 volts and
L is a length of an arc is cm which is to be recorded the power source characteristics approximate
by a straight line when the open circuit voltage 80V and the short circuit current of 1000
amperes so it determines the optimum arc length and corresponding arc power. so let us first of
all analytically write down the V-I relationship. so as been recorded here that there are two
statements that is been open circuit voltage corresponds to about 80V and short circuit current
corresponds to about 1000 A and so let us so as the V-I relationship is linear in this particular
case we can write V to be equal to A+ BI where A and B are constants.
9
This is like a straight line equation between V and I so linear characteristics . so having said that
in if I wanted to apply the first boundary condition here which corresponds to the open circuit
voltage so obviously I0 at open circuit and so if we put I0 value here A becomes equal to V and
V is 80 v. so therefore A comes 84 . similarly if I can solve this for the short circuit current so
add to the short circuit basically voltage 0 because it is like a short circuited situation the it is a
true current through pass no resistance.
So therefore I becomes = - A / B okay and A has already been found to be 80 v earlier and I the
short circuit current is about 1000 amp meaning there by the B becomes – 80/ 1000 okay. so that
is how we can recorded B so V now can be written down as 80 – 80/ 1000i and this is the linear
voltage characteristics from the boundary condition that has been mentioned we also know that v
is written as 20 + 40 l volts where l is in cm. it has been given in the question itself so obviously
then 20+40 l becomes = 80 – 80/ 1000i.
And I can be found out in this particular case as 40l with the minus sign + 60 / 80 * 1000amp. so
that is how you can make I happen so you know that the power P is written as VI so in this case
everything is determined in terms of L so already we have voltage to be written as 20 + 40 L and
and the current written as 60 – 40 L times of 1000/ 80 .so that is how the power is determined
and this case if we apply the maximum power condition corresponding to the length l.
The first derivative of p with respective L should be = 0 sew do that here we have 40 times of so
40 times of 60 – 40 L 1000/ 80 – (20+ 40 L) times of – 40 / 1000 * 1000/ 80 should be = 0. in
other words we can say 40 times of 60 – 40 L = 20 + 40- L times of 40 with the – sign or that
gives us the value of L = 0 .5 cm okay. so the optimum length than in this case L opt is found out
to be 0.5 cm and the corresponding arc power can be now be determined so V becomes = 20+ 40
times of 0. 5 is about 40 volts similarly the current I can be rerecorded as the relationship that
you have between current and length here.
dP
⟹ =0
dl
⟹ 40 ( 60 −40 l ) − 40 ( 20+ 40 l )=0
⟹1600=3200 l
⟹l=0.5 cm
So I becomes = 40 times of 1000 / 80 this is about 500 amps and the total optimum power that
comes into here is the Vopt Iopt which is actually equal to 500 times of 40 v which is nothing but
10
about 20 kVa. so this is how the optimum power will be and this is optimum length of the source
would be. so I would like to just illustrate here that whenever such design problems come
through you should be able to engage by first converting the current into length terms and then
multiplying with the voltage already present in length term.
1000
⟹ P max= (20+ 40 ∗0.5 ) ∗ ( 60 −40 ∗ 0.5 ) volt −amp=20 kVA
80
So that you can have a power and the optimize the power with respect to the length to find out
what is the operating point and from the operating point you can always get the operating power
okay at which you should actually operate and this is the operating power which is drawn in
order to ensure that earlier dissipation happen and all the power is more or less a absorbed power
and there is hardly any reflected power from the system.
So with that I think I would like to just sort of you know round of the arc design problem there
are many other sources of heat which are utilized from time to time for again you know doing
the.
11
Melting of the material in the welding process. so in our discuss so far so in our discussion so far
we have mostly talked about DC arc but there is a also an existence of something called an AC
arc where there is an alternating current of 50 Hz frequency and basically it takes about 0.01 s to
reach the equilibrium state. so this a sort of quick response system and although the equation is
actually determined by the same manner.
A+ BL equally applicable but it is true for every half cycle because the polarity would change
after every half cycle and then the arc may as well need to get reignited for every half cycle. so
therefore it is important for the designer to ensure that the coating that is there on the electrodes
are of materials which is a lower ionization potential so in this AC arc welding case most the
coating is you know potassium silicate binders makes sort of a very good stable AC arc.
But in the coating is tend to DC arc then something like sodium silicate also would result in you
know stable arc or sticking an arc because we do not need really a low ionization potential in this
case. AC arc however the reignition factor comes into picture, so therefore always the arc
becomes stable if the ions which are present are easily ignitable that easily you know they can
easily ionize and they have a overall lower ionization potential.
In fact potassium silicate binders when they evaporate they do produce very easily ionizable
constituents which should be in gaseous atmosphere where there is this election the secondary
electron which would get produced okay. the free electron which should get produced because
the presence of such binders. There are many other sources as I had discussed like the chemical
12
heat source where you can use as acetylene and oxygen to produce gas flame so acetylene and
oxygen burns out you know in different conditions.
So in the presence of excess oxygen for example it burns according to this reaction right here
C2H2+ 5/2 O2 = 2 CO2+ H20 + heat ΔH1. this is highly exothermic process again. the amount
6
of heat liberated ΔH1 is about 1.275 times 10 kg/ kJ-mole of acetylene. If the oxygen is
premixed with acetylene in 1 to 1 mole ratio then the combustion reaction comes equal to C2H2
+ O2 is 2 CO + H2. so you can see that it is a starved of the oxygen. here it goes abundance of
the oxygen supply. so one kind of premixed cases, the H 2 that is liberated here is comparatively
lower in you know as in case of excess oxygen.
And the carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced later burn out again at a second step or
additional step to produce about 8.27 x 106 kJ/kg of acetylene.
C2 H 2+ 2.5O2 =2C O 2+ H 2 O+heat ( ∆ H 1)
C2 H 2+ O2=2 C O+ H 2+ heat ( ∆ H 2 )
6 kJ
( ∆ H 1 ) − ( ∆ H 2 )=0.827 ∗ 10 kg − mole
So this heat however is generated over a large volume and at a low temperature does not add
much to the welling process once the amount of heat liberated ΔH is known. you can roughly
estimate the maximum flame temperature with the assumption of an adiabatic flame with an
assumption of an adiabatic flame which means really that the entire enthalpy change which
13
happens is because of whatever heat transfer takes place out of the flame through only the
heating of the reaction products okay.
And nothing else actually so care must be taken to subtract the latent heat if supposing there is a
phase change associated with some you know property or some of the gas may be and therefore
may be there is some water vapor or something which is present and then there is some kind of
an absorption from this particular enthalpy change in terms of heat of latent heat so that has to be
taken out of this ΔH.
θf
∆´H=∆ H − latent heat=∑ ∫ n C p ( θ ) dθ

m θR
So supposing ΔH is the total amount heat which is transferred adiabatically through the flame
because of the heating of the reaction products. and latent heat is let us say take off from ΔL so
that is actually the total amount of enthalpy change produced and it can be put together as
integral of n Cp θ dθ, θ baring between θ r to θt, θ r is the room temperature and you can assume
that the summation is taken over n moles of the each of the m reactions reaction products which
represent. and θp or Cp θ is basically the molar specific heat capacity of these products.
Which vary with the temperature okay so from this you can really calculate the room
temperature θt once the so the flame temperature θ t was the room temperature etc and other
values like Cp θ etc are plugged into this equation. ΔH’ is basically the total amount of heat
generated by the reaction products, so typically for the acetylene reaction mentioned earlier.
The flame temperatures which obtained around 35600 C which is good enough for melting of
metals particularly iron based metals. where as the measured temperature of the flame vary
between 12800 minimum at the tip of the flame to 3250 0 maximum at the core of the flame. so
another chemical source which are normally used or for you know in this case is probably
thermites which are any transition metal size like iron oxide, copper oxide so on so forth and
aluminum and these are also again very effective in generating heat to an extent.
Where the adiabatic you know temperatures is calculated to be about close to 3000 0C in such
sources. so therefore we studied about acetylene source we also studied about this thermites
reaction based source.
14
So now we will try to look at another aspect of a you know the heat source which is basically the
contact resistance heat source which happens in most of the industrial application related to
automotive etc the spot holding is a very important phenomena .so as we know that the electrical
resistance heating is also responsible for doing joining it can also be used as local heat source
and intensely high temperature heat source.
And this may be done either by utilizing contact resistance of the interfaces okay as a in various
resistance welding process or by utilizing the resistance of molten flux and slag as in the
electoslag welding process, so both are contact resistance based heating and we have already
noted in the earlier section that when two metallic surfaces are brought into contacts so small
fraction of the apparent area. The actually metal to metal contact so supposing there are these
tiny metallic bridges.
15
ρ ( r 2 −r 1 )
R=
S
√
⟹ S= ( 2 π r 22 )( 2 π r 12 )=2 π r 2 r 1
ρ ( r2 − r1 ) ρ
⟹ R= ≈
2 π r2 r1 2 π r1
2 ρ ρ
⟹ R c= =
n 2 π r 1 nπ r 1
0.85∗ ρ
⟹ R c=
nπ r 1
Which would happen between two such materials you know you can see these bridges getting
formulated here because of whatever deformation etc, and so if I assume the radios of such a
bridge to r1. so this is r1 and we also assume that between the two bridge is a gab of about 2r2
okay so we can easily calculate the contact resistance and this A comes from the electrical
engineering theory of contact resistance between surfaces which are not going to go into but for.
Such spherical constrictions let us say there n such constrictions per selling this square you have
a resistance ½ resistance done by this you know half bridge which actually connects between
both potential points across the two different members is given by ρ(r2 – r1) / s where s is the
geometric mean between the two times the circular area πr22 and πr1 2 .so I do not want to really
get into the group of this because this is actually available from contact theory okay.
Or contact resistance theory and just in the interest of time I would go ahead and apply these in
order to calculate some of the resistances and some of the heating refracts which lead to a
temperature rise in the situation. so the resistance between now these two plates with n parallel
16
bridges across each other would be actually each bridge would have a resistance of ρ(r2 – r1)/ √
2 π r22 times of 2 π r1 2 which actually becomes ρ times r2- r1/ 2 π taken common r1 r2.
√
⟹ S= ( 2 π r 22 )( 2 π r 12 )=2 π r 2 r 1
ρ ( r2 − r1 ) ρ
⟹ R= ≈
2 π r2 r1 2 π r1
If I assume that r2 the resistance between the bridges out of the area of the pressures is much
larger in compression to r1 then this resistance between of each bridge comes out to be = ρ /2 π
r1 and we can assume that half bridge contributes this so therefore both the half bridges here and
near are in series, so the total resistance should be 2 ρ / 2 π r1 and there are n such bridges per
unit area.
2 ρ ρ
⟹ R c= =
n 2 π r 1 nπ r 1
In siding those square so these are n bridges or more or less parallel resistance you can assume
them to be you know electrically distributed like parallel resistances okay. and so you can
convert this whole expression here as 1/r+ 1/r + 1 up to n is the total effective resistance of the
bridge which becomes equal to r effectives becomes equal to r/ n okay so in this particular case I
would have the r effective of these over all resistance between the n bridges per cm 2 as n ρ / 2 π
r1 so typically this is how the contact resistance between the hits are calculated.
17
And being illustrate in this formula right here ρn π r1 and if you look at the experimental values
really the error rate is not more than about 15% so that is why we actually take little lower value
of the resistance as 0.85 and π r1 where this 0.5 is really an experimental error you can say and
we know it is not like I mean it is not incomplete agreement with the theoretical approach to
contact resistance so it is already infinite percent of this theoretical predicted radiance which
happens.
0.85∗ ρ
⟹ R c=
nπ r 1
So the rate of heat generated by this contact resistance with an applied voltage of V is basically
square of V/Rc and that is the resistance you know just because the resistance is that permit area
therefore this you would also be per unit area and after a very short time the contact resistance
kind of drops to about 1/ 10 of the original value of the resistance is due to the softening of the
material and may be you know the plastic deformation of each and every individual bridges.
And as the temperature increases also there is a change in the resistance to be of a material so as
a material soft since the value of the quantity r1 use the equation increases and this effect is
predominant and things of the bulk resistivity ρ with the temperature.
So let us actually solve a numerical problem so in a resistance welding process the applied
voltages 5V and you have to determine the rate of heat generated per unit area with about n = 25
bridges/ cm2. , so each bridge having a radios of 0.1mm so the resistivity of the material is about
18
20 10-5 ohm – cm. we need to first establish what is the contact to the resistance rc which is given
by 85% of the ρ value that is 20* 10-5 ohm – cm even right here of the material divided by π
times of n which is in this case 25 bridges / cm2 times of r1 and r1 in this case is the bridge radios
which is about 0.1.
So 0.1 times of 10-1 ρ everything is in cm this is ohms – cm so this should also be recorded in cm
okay. so this becomes equal to about 0.00022 ohms cm 2 and the rate of heat generated per unit
area would actually be given by the voltage which is about 5 volts about v 2/ rc and rc is already
taken as 0.00022 so this becomes = 1.136* 10 5 W / m2 so that is how the power density would be
per unit area of the work surface. so that is how you can do these contact resistance problems
when we talk about bridge resistance between two different sheets. so in fact as a summary in
this particular lecture we try to look at very closely the arc characteristics talk about DC and AC
arc. various other chemical beam source like as acetylene and oxygen mixed together, thermite
reactions.
And then also established sort of working relationship between the contact resistance between
two sheets which would be responsible for providing this value of heat Q which would raise the
temperature of the sheets between and in-between and that would actually lead to local melting
and welding because of again recrystallization and formula of solid phase between the two
sheets. so having said that I come to the end of this particular module but in the next module we
will learn a little more about how the metal gets transferred once.
For example all this and is it really dependent on electrical fields which are set up or been the
magnetic fields which are set and how you can utilize that meal transfer process you advantage
where you can actually do welding in different orientation including over head welding or for
example top down welding so on so forth. we will probably also like into a few aspects of other
mechanisms of joining for example at region base joining and solid liquid welding like brazing
and soldering in the next lecture till and until then thank you so much for listening bye.
Acknowledgement
Prof. Satyaki Roy

19
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia

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Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

Manufacturing Process Technology -Part-1

Hello and welcome to this lecture on manufacturing process technology module 1.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

This is part-1 module-1 and I am Shantanu Bhattacharya, I am an associate professor at the

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Ministry of Human Resources & Development

Prof. Satyaki Roy

an IIT Kanpur Production

National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

Manufacturing Process Technology -Part-1

Welcome to this manufacturing process technology part -1 module-2.

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Ministry of Human Resources & Development

Prof. Satyaki Roy

an IIT Kanpur Production

National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

Manufacturing Process Technology -Part-1

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Ministry of Human Resources & Development

Prof. Satyaki Roy

an IIT Kanpur Production

National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

Hello and welcome to manufacturing process technology Part -1 Module -4.

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Ministry of Human Resources & Development

Prof. Satyaki Roy

an IIT Kanpur Production

National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology on module 5.

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