Earth

and Life Science 11

Second Quarter

Metamorphic rock
- come from preexisting rocks: parent rocks
- change in mineralogy, texture, chemical
composition (heat, pressure, chemical agents)
- as rocks go deeper, heat temperature increases
- heat results to recrystallization of existing minerals
and/or formation of new minerals
- pressure increases with depth; causing spaces
between mineral grains in buried rocks to close,
producing more compact rock with higher density
- have economic value

Rocks
- organic
- made of one or more minerals

Metals
1. Metamorphic rock - inorganic
2. Magma cools and solidifies through process of - crystalline structure
crystallization which may occur either beneath - chemical composition
surface of earth or through volcanic eruption - formula
3. Igneous rock
4. Igneous rock undergo weathering Two Types of Minerals
5. Eroded materials deposited as sediments 1. Metallic
6. Sediments undergo lithification (conversion to - aluminum, iron, copper, gold
rock)
7. Compacted and cemented to sedimentary rock 2. Nonmetallic
8. Head and pressure to metamorphic rocks - sand, gravel, limestone, phosphate salts
9. Metamorphic rocks melt under higher
temperature Mineral Use
10. Magma will solidify; repeat cycle
Advantages
Igneous rock - processes of mining and converting minerals into
- “ignis” Latin, fire useful products
- formed by volcanic activity - generates income, provides revenue for states and
employment
Extrusive igneous rock (volcanic)
- molten rock solidifies Disadvantages
- lava - energy intensive
- can disturb land
Intrusive igneous rock (plutonic) - erode soil
- formed at depth - produce solid waste and pollution
- magma
Rules of Minerals
Sedimentary rock 1. Naturally occurring
- resulted from uplifting and weathering 2. Inorganic
- process of lithification, through compaction 3. Solid
- fossils are only found in sedimentary rocks 4. Crystal structure
- crystal is solid in which atoms are arranged in
pattern that repeats
 Earth and Life Science 11
Second Quarter

5. Definite chemical composition 5. Cleavage

- minerals always contain elements in definite - orientation and number of planes of weakness
proportions within a mineral
- i.e. quartz always has one atom of Silica for every - directly reflects orientation of weak bonds within
two atoms of oxygen structure
- useful
*Pearls are not considered minerals as they are made - mineral’s resistance to being broken
from animals (oysters)
6. Fracture
*Naturally occurring glass is not a mineral as it does - how mineral breaks if not along well defined planes
not have a crystal structure
*Minerals with low symmetry and highly
Characteristics/Properties of Minerals interconnected atomic networks, irregular fracture is
1. Color common.
- often unreliable way to determine type of mineral
- useful for determining impurities 7. Crystal form/habit
- i.e. rose quartz has iron impurities; green quartz - overall shape of crystal
has chlorite impurities - shape of crystals reflects internal arrangement of
atoms in crystal lattice
*Mineral gems are rare; used in jewelries - can be altered if mineral crystallized in environment
i.e. diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby, opal, does not allow it to grow properly
aquamarine, turquoise, jade, peridot, topaz, garnet,
amethyst, sunstone, etc. Density and Specific Gravity

2. Streak 1. Specific gravity

- color of mineral in powdered form - describes mineral density in comparison to density
- obtained by rubbing mineral against unglazed of a standard (i.e. water)
porcelain plate - ratio of mass of substance to mass of an equal
- usually less variable than color volume of water
- can be very different from color - water is unitless

3. Luster i.e. quartz has an S.G. of 2.65 while galena has an S.G.
- describes appearance of reflected light from of 7.5; and gold has an S.G. of 19.3.
mineral’s surface
- metallic/nonmetallic Special Properties
1. Magnetism
*Nonmetallic minerals are described using the 2. Ductility
following terms: vitreous, pearly, silky, resinous, 3. Malleability
earthy 4. Radioactivity
5. Electrical properties (resistivity)
4. Hardness
- resistance of the mineral to abrasion or scratching Republic Act No. 7942
- does not vary greatly from sample to sample of - an act instituting a new system of mineral
same mineral resources exploration, development, utilization,
- highly diagnostic and conservation

*Value is obtained by comparing mineral to standard

scale devised by Moh; 10 minerals ranging in
hardness from talc (softest) to diamond (hardest)

1. Talc 6. Feldspar
2. Gypsum (i.e. fingernail) 7. Quartz
3. Calcite (i.e. Copper coin) 8. Topaz
4. Fluorite 9. Corundum
5. Apatite (i.e. Knife blade; glass) 10. Diamond
 Earth and Life Science 11
Second Quarter

Ways in Removing Minerals 4. Animals

- burrow and push apart rock
1. Open-pit Mining
- excavation or cut made on surface of the ground 5. Abrasion
for the purpose of extracting ore - sand and rock carried by wind, water, ice wears
away surface rock when rocks collide
2. Strip mining - common in windy areas
- removal of soil and rock (overburden) above a layer
or seam (particularly coal), followed by the removal Chemical weathering
of the exposed mineral. - process of breaking down rock through chemical
changes
3. Mountain top removal
- any method of surface coal mining that destroys a Factors that affect physical weathering
mountaintop or ridgeline
1. Water
4. Subsurface mining - dissolves rock chemically
- extraction of minerals and ores from underground.
It consist of digging shafts into the earth for ore. 2. Oxygen
- rocks that has iron mixes with oxygen, resulting to
Exogenic Processes rust
- processes that take place at/or near Earth’s surface
- makes surface wear away 3. Carbon dioxide
- very destructive - CO2 dissolves in rainwater
- responsible for degradation and sculpting Earth’s - weathers marble and limestone
surface
4. Living organisms
- acids from plants and roots chemically weather
rock

5. Acid rain
- air pollution reacts with clouds
- falls on rock as acid rain

*Physical weathering refers to disintegration/

disaggregation of rocks by physically breaking them
Types of Exogenic Processes
apart
1. Weathering
*Chemical weathering refers to decomposition of
- breaks down rock into smaller pieces
rocks and minerals as chemical reactions alter them
into new substances
Physical weathering
- rock is physically broken into smaller pieces
2. Erosion
Factors that affect physical weathering
- rock particles carried away by wind, water, ice and
gravity
1. Ice wedging
- water seeps in rock, expands, crack rocks into
Agents of Erosion
smaller pieces
1. Water
2. Release of pressure
- changes shape of coastlines
- surface rock erodes, rock flakes like onion layers
- waves constantly crash against shores
- pound rocks into pebbles
3. Growth of plants
- reduce pebbles to sand
- roots grow into cracks and push rocks apart
- takes sand away from beaches
- moves the coastline farther inland
 Earth and Life Science 11
Second Quarter

2. Ice 4. Mass wasting

- erode land in frigid areas and on mountaintops - movement of rock, soil and regolith downward
- glaciers move slowly downhill and across land - due to action of gravity
- pick up everything in path, from tiny grains to huge
boulders Factors of mass wasting

3. Wind 1. Over-steepened slope

- carries dust, sand and volcanic ash from one place - rapid movements found in steep slopes
to another - slow movements found on gentle slopes
- blow sand into towering dunes
2. Water
4. Gravity - rainwater adds weight
- pulls any loose bits down side of hill or mountain - acts as lubricant to weathered material
- better known as Mass Movement
Regolith 3. Earthquake
- weathered rock remains in place in pure state - vibration

Sediment 4. Vegetation removal

- weathered material removed from site of - lack of vegetation cover to hold loose particles
weathering
Type of material
Moving water 1. Debris, mud, or earth
- main agent of erosion - soil and regolith dominate

People 2. Rock
- causes of erosion - mass of bedrock break

Weathering and Erosion Types of motion of mass wasting

- weathered rock material will be removed from
original site 1. Fall
- transported away by natural agent - free fall of detached individual pieces of any size

2. Slide
- distinct zone of weakness
- separates slide material from more stable
underlying material

3. Flow
- occurs when material moves down slope as viscous
fluid

Classifications of mass wasting

3. Sedimentation
- natural process 1. Slump
- material is carried to bottom bodies of water - results in sliding of coherent rock materials
- forms to solid - along curved surface
Ocean basins 2. Solifluction
- areas found under sea - slow downhill flow of soil
- relatively inactive area deposits of sediment slowly
collective 3. Earthflow
- active areas where tectonic plates meet - downslope viscous flow of fine-grained materials
that have been saturated with water
- moves under pull of gravity
 Earth and Life Science 11
Second Quarter

4. Mudflow Main Endogenic Processes

- occurs when mud travels down slope very quickly - FOLDING & FAULTING/Tectonic movements
- take place mainly along plate boundaries; zones
5. Debris slide that are not stable
- characterized by chaotic movement of rocks, soil,
and debris mixed with water and/or ice 1. Folding
- two forces push towards each other from opposite
6. Debris flow sides
- moving mass of loose mud, sand, soil, rock, water - rock layers bend into folds
and air - folds are formed
- travels down slope under influence of gravity due to
compressional
7. Rock flow forces
- pieces of rock break loose from steep rock face or - large/small scale
cliff folds

8. Soil creep Large-scale folds

- slow, gradual movement of soil/regolith downhill - found mainly
over time along destructive
plate boundaries
Debris
- rubble, trash, random material 2. Faulting
- pieces of wood, metal, plastic - fracturing/displacement of more brittle rock strata
along fault plane
Slurry - caused by tension/compression
- river of flowing mud - break in rock along which a vertical/horizontal rock
movement occurred
Slope - process of forming
- incline - forms two major landforms: block mountains and
- i.e. slide or ramp rift valleys

Low-lying area Fault line

- land close to coast or near water or sea levels - line of fault
- appears on land surface
Endogenic processes - lines of weakness
- formed, located, or occurring beneath surface of - allow molten rock to rise up onto earth surface
earth when there is active volcanic activity nearby
- geological process that occur beneath surface of
earth Types of faulting
- associated with energy originating in interior of 1. Normal fault (convergence)
solid earth 2. Reverse fault (divergence)
- cause many major landform features 3. Tear fault (transform)

*Ground we live on is moving all the time

Endogenic forces
- forces within the earth that cause ground to move

1. When ground moves, rock layers at surface of

earth are broken, twisted and shaken
2. Land is destroyed in many places and created in
other places
3. Land shaped by endogenic forces, completing
endogenic process
 Earth and Life Science 11
Second Quarter

4. Other Endogenic Processes (Subsequent)

1. Volcanism (volcanic activity)

- magmatism/igneous activity

I. Magma beneath crust is under very great pressure

II. Folding/faulting occur, cracks/fractures are
created
III. When developed downward in crust and reach
magma, magma pressure is released
IV. Magma rises up along lines of weakness, intruding
into crust
V. Some magma reach earth’s surface, some don’t

A. Intrusive Volcanism
B. Extrusive Volcanism

2. Metamorphism
- pressure and heat applied to geologic structures
- leads to formation of metamorphic rocks

3. Earthquake (seismic activity)

- sudden shaking/vibration in earth’s crust
- plates suddenly move past each other, built-up
strain is released along fault and rock fractures
- earthquake can be triggered by molten rock
moving up into chamber of volcano before
eruption

*Endogenic processes have been responsible for

shaping earth’s geologic structures and formation of
many of most important mineral resources
@laguismaleine