Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
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,, . HVAC
FUNDAMENTALS
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AND TESTING
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HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDmONING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDmONING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
u HYDRONIC SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . • . . . • . . • . . . • . . .
Low Water Temperature System (LTW) . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . • . . . . .
2-16
2-16
Medium Temperature Water System (MTW) ... . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . 2- 16
High Temperature Water System (HTW) .. .. . .. . .... . . . . .. .. . ... 2-17
Chilled Water System (CW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • ...• . . . . .. . .... 2-17
o Dual-Temperature Water System (DTW) . . . .... .. . . . . . . . . • . . . . .
Series Loop System ... ... .... . . . . . . . . . .• •. . .• . . •. . . ....
2-17
2-18
One-Pipe System (Diverting Fitting) . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . 2-19
U Two-Pipe Systems . . .... . . . . . . . . . . ..•. .. • .. .. . .. . .• . .. .
Combination Piping System . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . ...•..•.. . ..
2-20
2-22
Three-Pipe System . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . 2-22
II
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Four-Pipe System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . . . • . . • . . . . . . . .
Hydronic Piping ... . . . . . . .. .. . .. . .•• . ... . .•..• • .. . . .. .
2-24
2-26
Air Control and Venting .. . .•...•.. . .. .... . . . . . • . . . . . 2-26
Drains and Shutoffs . . . . . . . • • . . . . • . . • . . • • . . . . . • . . . . . 2-27
Balance Fittings . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . •. . ... . • .. . . . . . . 2-27
Pitch . ... . . . . . . . . .• • . .•. . .• •. . . . . . . . . •.. ... ... 2-27
Strainers . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . 2-27
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HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDmONING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 2-30
BOILERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . 3·7
Hot Water Boilers ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ... . ... . . . .. . .. . .. . 3·7
Steam Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . • • . . . • . . . • . . . . .. . . . . 3·7
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HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDmONING
TABLE OF CONTENfS
DUCTWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 3·59
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . .•...• . . . . . .• . . . . .. ... . 3·59
Duct System Accessories .. . • • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . .. 3·60
Turning Vanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . • • • . • . . .. 3·60
Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . .. 3·64
Louvers . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . •. .• .. . •. .. •... 3·66
Grilles. Registers and Diffusers . . . . . . . . • . . • . . • . . . . . . . .. 3·67
Silencers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . .. 3·71
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3·72
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HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDmONING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-\
.-
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDmONING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 5-1
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 5-53
INTRODUCTION 6-1
Sound .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • •... .. 6-3
Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Sound Pressure Level .. ...... . ... . .... . .. ... ... .. . . . . . . . 6-3
Loudness and Frequency .. . ... . .... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 6-5
NC Curves . . .... . .. .. .... . • . . . . . . . . .. . .. . • .. .•. . . . . . 6-6
Architectural Acoustics . . . . . . .•... • ... • ... • .. . .... . . . . . . . 6-7
Reverberation Time . .. . . ... .. .. . ... . .... ... . ..... . . 6-8
Sound Trap Selection . .. . ... • ...•... . ... .... • .... .. 6-10
Sound Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......•• .. • . . . . . . . • . . . . . 6-10
Sound Testing Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . 6-11
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HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDmONING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY 7-32
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CHAPTER ONE
5. Explain how the fan laws are used to determine the affect of
various fan speeds.
I .
6. Use the fan laws to determine fan speed.
INTRODUCTION
Tllese laws are the most commonly used 10 system design and
ba lanc in g and are listed in Figure 1- 1.
1- 1
FAN PERFORMANCE:
or CFM =
SP,
=
RPM2, or SP, = SP j x
RPM,
SP j RPM; RPM j
SP
or RPM, = RPM x - '
SP j
= RPMf3
or RPM, = RPM x
RPM,
BHp CFMf3
_-,-I = CFMf3
BHp; CFM j
1-2
e. CFM & RPM varies as the sq uare root of the pressure ratio.
or RPM -- RPM/ x
HP/ --
g. CFM varies as the square of the fa n size ratio (at given SP &
ra ting).
h. RPM va ries as the square of the fa n size ratio (at given SP &
rating).
RPM = RPM x
l·3
I. HP varies inversely as the fan size ratio (at given SP &
rating).
J. CFM varies as the size ratio cubed times the RPM ratio.
RPMf 2
x
RPMI
1. Hp varies as the size ratio raised to the 5th power times the
RPM ratio cubed.
1-4
DVCfED AIR FLOW: ), ~1v\.J
/
J~c.
'Y' " .- iii '1':1
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a. Total Pressure TP . \\\iJ ~~~,\
~\i fI' \
TP = SP (Static Pressure) + VP (Velocity Pressure)
FPM
= _----'-f or CFM =
FPMI f
[-5
e. C FM va ries as the square root of the static pressure ratio.
CFMf --
CFMf --
g. Duct FPM varies as the square root of the static pressure ratio.
FPMf --
1-6
h. The veloc ity indicated is fo r dry a ir at 70"F, 29.9" Barometric Press ure
and a resul ting density of .075#/cu. ft.
: .j
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Pv
Air Ve loc ity = 11096.2
D
mercury
1I
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[ ·7
The three ma in fan laws are identical to the three "pump laws".
PumQ Fan
V a N CFM a RPM
Hp a N' SP a RPM'
P a N' BHP a RPM'
TP = SP + VP
CFM = Duct Velocity (FPM) x Duct Area
1-8
Duc t ve loc ity in fee t per minute is determ ined us ing ve loc ity pressure
and a conversio n facto r to convert inches o f water gauge to feet per minu te
a nd will be d isc ussed in deta il unde r a ir fl ow measurement.
PULLEY LAWS
Dri ve sets for fans and blowers cons ist o f a dri ver pulley o n the motor
s haft , a dri ve n pu ll ey on the blower s haft, and a belt or set of matc hed be lts
to tra ns mit the powe r. Pulley fo rmu las are usually give n in pulley di ameters;
fo r acc uracy, they s hould be considered in actua l pitch diameters.
Fi gure 1-2 s hows an exa mple of a fully closed sheave. Fi gure 1-3
shows the sa me s heave in the full y open posi tion .
CORNERS
1-9
BREAK CORNERS
S e-
"~I~ -
1-10
Table I-I g ives dimensions for standard variable sheaves.
b, b, h, 20 2a. S. Open S
Closed 0"," Minimum M inimum Minimum
c,"" ( I nches) (Inches) (Inches) (Inches) ( Inches) ( Inches) ( Inches)
Section
14JOV 0.875 !. 0.005 1.582 !. 0.005 1.758 0.20 2.64 0 .882 1.765
1930V LlSB ! 0,005 2.142! Q,()()5 2.]4 1 0.25 3.56 1.163 2.325
2S30V 1.563 :!: 0.007 2.823 :!: 0.007 3.0:'18 0.30 4.74 1.501 l003
32JOV 2.000 ! 0.007 3.665 ! 0.007 3.855 0.35 6.21 [.954 3.908
4430V 2.750 ! 0.007 5.132 ! 0.007 5.258 0 .40 8.89 2.687 5.375
diaPm xrpm
rpm P,
dia Pr
dia P, X rpm
rpm Pm
dia Pm
dia Pm X rpm
dia P,
dia P, X rpm
dia Pm
where:
1-11
Pulley Speed-O-Graph for rapid calculations of the pulley laws is
shown in Figure 1-5. Using this nomograph, the speed or size of either
pulley can be determ ined when the other three factors are known.
1. Enter the chart from any given factor and follow the straight grid
line to the point where it intersects, on the diagonal, the other
given factor.
2. Follow the diagonal line to the point where it meets the third
given factor.
3. From this point of intersection, move along the straight grid line
to the fourth side of the margin for the solution.
EXAMPLES:
Example 1: Given:
Diameter of Drive = 3 in.
DIAMETER OF DRIVEN = 12 in.
rpm of Driver = 5000
FIND: RPM OF DRIVEN
1-12
RI'~1 or: TIll; driull" ( dl
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q QQ
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q QQ Q Q Q Q Q Q QQ
Q
-.
Q
N
Q
~
Q
~ ~
Q Q
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,
Q Q
~
QQ
0-.
Q
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Q
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Q
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Q
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Q
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Q QQ
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9000
8000
7000
'0 6000
SO SOOO
<0 4000
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25
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<
20 2000
..., " -.
<
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Q
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e-
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0 8
.. 0
800 ,•
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0
~ 7 700
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~
e- O 600 e-
~
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~ 5 SOD ~
0
c
, <00 '"
~
~
J JOO
2 ZOO
100
1-13
Example 2: Given:
Diameter of Drive = 30 in.
DIAMETER OF DRIVEN = 4 in.
RPM OF DRIVER = 3750
FIND: rpm of Driver
Example 3: Given:
rpm of Driver = 1000
RPM OF DRIVER = 5000
Diameter of Driver = 10 in.
FIND: DIAMETER OF DRIVEN
1-14
Example 4: Given:
rpm of Driver = 2500
RPM OF DRIVEN = 5000
FIND: Diameter of Driver
rpm23
( )
I.
I
Example:
A fan is turning 600 rpm and reading 20 amps. To deliver the proper
cfm it is necessary to increase the fan speed to 700 rpm. Find the new
amperage.
I-IS
Tab le 1-2 g ives calculated data fo r this equat ion. Us ing the above
example, the increase in speed is 100 rpm; th is is an increase of 100/600 or
16.66%. By interpolation the table shows that the original amps would have
to be mult ip lied by 1.588, or 20 x 1588 = 31.75 amps.
1 I
2 1.06 2 0.94
,
3 1.09 J 0.92
4 1.13 4 0.88
5 1.16 5 0.86
6 1.19 6 0.83
7 1.23 7 0.80
8 1.26 8 0.78
9 1.33 9 0.75
to 1.33 to 0.73
11 l.37 II 0.70
12 1.40 12 0.68
13 1.44 13 0.66
14 1.48 14 0.64
15 1.52 15 0.61
16 1.56 16 0.59
17 1.60 17 0.57
18 1.64 18 0.55
19 1.69 19 0.53
20 1.73 20 0.5 1
21 1.77 21 0.49
22 1.82 22 0.47
"24
_J 1.86
1.90
23
24
0.45
0.44
,-
- ) 1.95 25 0.42
30 2.20 30 0.34
35 2.46 35 0.28
40 2.75 40 0.22
45 3.05 45 O.t 7
50 3.38 50 0.12
1-16
FORMULAS FOR ADJUSTING SHEAYES
= ( Cfm2) d
X P 1
cfml
Example:
Determine the new pitch diameter for 4000 frm when a fan output is
3500 cfm at a 10 in . pitch d iameter.
10 = 11.43 In .
l-17
Example:
Determine the new brake horsepower required to increase the cfm from
5000 to 5500 w hen the bhp is 0.8 and the motor is rated at 1 hp.
= 1.06
3. G iven a maximum brake ho rse power, find the new pitch diameter
required to change from an ex isting pitch diameter.
Example:
where:
pd = pitch diameter
bhp = brake horsepower
cfm = a ir quantity at the fan
1-18
PERFECT GAS LAWS
Pascal's Principle.
Nei ther a liqu id nor a solid does this . A container fo r solids or liquids
can be partly filled, bu t a gas contai ner is always full.
Charles's Law
Pressure Var ies Directly with Absolute Temperature if Volume Stays the
Same
Because a gas adapts itself to its conta iner, regardless of conta iner size
or the amoun t of gas in the container, another factor is introduced -- pressure.
If the conta iner is already filled, then a rise in temperature cannot cause an
increase in volume, but it does result in an increase in the pressure of the gas
aga inst the inner wa lls of the cyl inder.
1- 19
This change in pressure with a change in temperature can be eas il y
calcu lated as long as the volume stays the same. The calcu lation is very
s impl e: Gas pressure goes up at the same rate as the temperature. If the
temperature rises 25 % or 1/4, the pressure goes up 1/4. [f the gas cools
down to 2/3 its temperature, the pressure does down to 2/3 of what it was.
Years ago, a sc ient ist named Charles discovered this princ ipl e, so it is called
"Char les' Law rl •
Cha rles' Law says that if the vo lume remains the sa me, the absol ute
pressure of a gas varies as the absolute tempe rature va ries. Fi gure 1-6
illustrates Cha rles' Law.
1 CU.FT. 1 CU.FT.
70'F gOT
1-20
Gay-Lussac 's Law
Now suppose that instead of hav ing the gas in a steel cylinde r that
keeps the gas from expanding, the gas is in a cylinder that has a loose bottom
that can slide up and dow n j ust like a piston in a compressor. If the gas in
the cyl inder is warmed, it can expand and push the piston downward, but the
pressure ins ide the cylinder rema ins the same, because the piston wo uld
mere ly slide downward if the pressure inside the cylinder tended to become
greater than that outside the cylinder and below the piston.
707.dF gOT
© ©
1-21
Boyle ' s Law
Press ure Varies Inverse ly with Volume if the Temperature Stays the Same
There is a thi rd cond ition: What happens to the pressure if the volume
changes but the temperature stays the same?
In the two prev ious conditions, the proportion was direct; that is, the
pressure and volume went up as the temperature went up and down as the
te mperat ure went dow n.
70 T
1 cu.FT. 70T
3 4.7 PSI A
2 cU.n.
17.35 P$lA
1-22
Effects of Changing Temperature, Pressure, and Volume at Same Time
[n Charles' Law, the volume remains constant and the pressure varies
with a change of temperature .
70 ·F
1 CU.FT. 40·F
, .014.7 PSIA
2 CU.FT.
478.6 PSIA
1-23
HEAT TRANSFER
Conservation Of E nergy
Chem ical e nergy in coal can be changed into heat energy in steam.
Heat energy in s team is changed into mechanica l energy in a tu rb ine a nd the n
into electrical energy in a generator. Electrical energy can then be changed
back into heat energy in a toaster, to mechanical energy in a motor, or to
chem ical energy in a storage battery. In this example, all of the e lectrica l
energy in the motor did not go into mechanica l energy. Some of it was
"lost" as heat. We say "lost" , beca use we did not get any use out of the heat
of the motor. Actually it was not "lost", for the heat was energy , transformed
from electrica l energy.
In a good boiler, over one-third of the heat energy in the coal burned
goes up the chimney or is rad iated from the boiler; about two- thirds goes into
hea t energy in the steam, so the effi ciency is about 60% to 65%. Effic iency
is the useful output energy fro m a mac hine, divided by the input energy to
the machine, and expressed as a percentage.
1-24
The speed with which heat transfers by means of conduction varies
with different substances or materials if the substances or materials are of the
same dimensions. The rate of heat transfer varies according to the ability of
the materials or substances to conduct heat. Solids, on the whole, are much
better conductors than liquids; liquids conduct heat better than gases or
vapors.
Most metals, such as silver, copper, steel, and iron, conduct heat fairly
rapidly, whereas other solids such as glass, wood, or other building materials
transfer heat at a much slower rate and, therefore, are used as insulators.
Heat transfer by conduction depends upon (1) the driving force, which
is caused by a temperature difference Il.T, and (2) the resistance to heat
transfer, which depends on the nature and dimensions of the heat transfer
medium. There are several ways to relate these parameters. One of the most
useful relates the rate of heat transfer Qto the cross-sectional area A, the
temperature difference Il.T and a quantity called the heat transfer coefficient
U.
Q =UMT
1-26
The rate of heat transfer Q divided by the cross-sectional area A is
commonly referred to as the heat flux. The heat transfer coefficient U is
equivalent to the reciprocal of resistance to heat transfer. The temperature
difference l>T is the driving force.
Q = l>T
A 1
U
1-27
Table 1-3 Thermal Conductivity of Common Materials
Aluminum 132 68
131 390
131 750
Water 0.343 32
0.393 200
0.4 300
0.356 600
1-28
Metals w ith a high conductiv ity are used in the refr igeration system
itself beca use it is des irab le that rapid transfer of heat occur in both
evaporator and condenser. The evaporator is whe re heat is removed fro m the
conditioned space or substance or from air that has been in d irect contact
with the substa nce; the condenser dissipates this heat to another medium or
space.
Convection
'!-<;..-- SURFACE
t
FLOW
1-29
The basic relationship for heat transfer by convection has the same
form as that for heat transfer by conduction.
Q = hN.T
1-30
Ai r in a refri ge rator and wa ter be in g hea ted in a pan are exa mples of
the resu lts of co nvection currents (see F igu re 1- 11). The air in contac t wi th
the cool ing coi l of a refri gerato r becomes coo l and mo re dense and beg ins to
fa ll to the botto m of the refri gerator. [n doing so, it absor bs hea t from the
food and the wa lls of the refri gerator, w hich thro ugh cond uc tio n, has picked
up heat fro m the roo m .
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1-3 1
After heat has been absorbed by the air, it expands, becoming lighter,
and rises until it again reaches the cooling coil where heat is removed from
it. The convection cycle repeats as long as there is a temperature difference
between the air and the coil. [n commercial-type units, baffles may be
constructed within the box so that the convection currents will be directed to
take the desired patterns of air flow around the coil.
1-32
Radiation
This principle is also carried over into the summer air-conditioning field
where, with light colored roofs and walls, less of the solar heat will penetrate
into the conditioned space, reducing the size of the overall cooling equipment
required. Radiant heat also readily penetrates clear glass in windows, but
will be absorbed by translucent or opaque glass.
1-33
substances. Every substance will radiate energy as long as its temperature
is above absolute zero and another substance within its proximity is at a
lower temperature.
If an automobile has been left out in the hot sun with the windows
closed for a lo ng period of time, the temperature inside the car will be much
greater than the ambient air temperature surrounding it. This demonstrates
that radiant energy absorbed by the materials of which the car is constructed
is converted to measurable sensible heat.
Insulation
Such substances as cork, glass fibers, wool, and polyurethane foams are
good examples of insulating materials; but numerous other substances are
used in insulating refrigerated s paces or buildings. The compressible
materials, such as fibrous substances, offer better insulation if installed
loosely packed or in blanket or batt form than if they are compressed .or
tightly packed.
1-34
Insulation should be fire and moisture resistant, and also vermin proof.
Large refrigeration boxes or walk-in types of coolers are usually insulated
with a rigid-type of insulation such as corkboard, fiber glass, foam blocks,
and the like, while smaller boxes or receptacles might be filled or insulated
with a foam that flows like a liquid and expands to fill up the available
cavity with foam.
Psychrometry deals with the specific heat of dry air and its volume .
It also deals with the heat of water, heat of vaporization or condensation, al)d
the specific heat of steam in reference to moisture mixed with dry air.
1-35
A standard pressure of 29.92 m. Hg. abs. IS used as the standard
atmospheric pressure.
Psychrometric Chart
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<:r:rTT ' ..... ,..,..., . , U ) .1 1="""",,, u: u:. ;U:IJ: 1::t,..~,.". t:.1...L1_iQWL
... - ., ... . . .__.-.-.
1 = 0. 1. C. I::J .• C1.' XO """""," C "':;:LL ... O .....C • •_ . I~. U .J40 I. • i • . .. .L )
._-_ .....__ .•.
"'--' -' -" '-
~ ~ ~
, "
1-36
To make this chart, all we do is start with the ordinary temperature
scale called the dry bulb temperature. Just extend the thermometer scale as
shown in Figure 1-13. Note on the actual chart that these lines are not truly
perpendicular. This is done so that other lines will come out straight instead
of curved .
'"
~
::J
'"a:>-
0
,
"-
8
-
.
C:==~=c=i?==2c0=i40==Wc=WI==I00CI='~20==~
1-37
o
z
- - - - - - - - - - - - - j 0.030 :::>
o
-0..
;:0:
W
00..0:
- -
>-W«
«0:)-
-------------40.015 CI:::J0:
)->-0
>-'C'
-o~
~:20
:2V1
:::>0
IZ
:::>
- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...-....J 0.002 2
From the ASHRAE Guide and Data Book we can find out exactly how
(
much moisture air can hold at saturated conditions. Following is a simple
table taken from this reference book:
1-38
~
- -- - - - - --- 0.02642 0
>-
--- - --- -- - 0.01882 ~
>-
---------- 0.01582 ~
a
~
::>
r
70 75 85
DRY BULB o f
,
HUMIQ IF Y
'A
COO l - - '
, ' -- HE AT 17.0
DEHUMIDIFY
81) FD8
1-39
If we were to add moisture (humidity) without changing the dry bulb
temperature, the point would move vertically up. If the moisture were
reduced (dehumidifying), it would move vertically down. If temperature and
moisture were added, the point would move up and to the right, and if the air
were cooled (without changing its moisture content), the point would move
horizontally to the left.
DEW POINT
TEMP .
,
B COOLED A
59. 7 so
~F DB
Now if the sample is further cooled, for example to 50"F dry bulb,
moisture will condense out and following along the saturation line to point
C (Figure 1-18), where it will have a dew point of 50"F and a humidity ratio
of only 53.2. Thus, the sample has lost 23.8 gr of moisture. It has been
cooled and dehumidified.
1-40
77,0
53 , 2
UNCONQITIONE O
DUCT ,-- AIR AROUNQ
TE. MP DUCT AT 9S·'F
~SF
ANO 99,4
'.
z
a
•• ~-.... -. - 99.4 ........
••• , <"
~0
• •• I
I
z ~
• •
CONOENSATION _ __ ..... - - - _ - _ 64.4 ~ a:
WILL OCCUR au
9S'F
1-41
The next element in our chart is the construction of relative humidity
lines for partly saturated conditions (Figure 1-20). We know the relative
humidity is 100% at the saturation line. Lines for 80%, 60%, 40%, etc., can
be plotted, since we know specific moisture contents in relation to
temperatures. As an example, one pound of air at 75°F dry bulb will hold
131.74 gr of moisture (point A) at saturation (100% relative humidity). Point
B (50% relative humidity) can be located at approximately 65.87 gr moisture
(1/2 of 131.74 gr). The same method can be used for each dry-bulb
temperature, and eventually a connecting line is drawn that represents a 50%
relative humidity for any chosen condition of a dry-bulb temperature. Similar
lines can be drawn for different relative humidity conditions. We already
know how useful it is to be able to express relative humidity, since it affects
human comfort.
7S' F DB
1-42
amount of moisture in the air. The rate of evaporation on the sling
psychrometer determined the wet bulb depression below the dry bulb
temperature or the wet bulb temperature and from Table 1-5, we can
determine the relative humidity.
For example, Table 1-5 showed that for an 800 dry bulb temperature
and an 110 wet bulb depression (69"F actual measured WB), the relative
humidity is 57%. Transferring this information to our psychrometric chart,
we can plot point A (Figure 1-21).
...., D',,,,,.. ~
D~ " ...,.
,,,, ,•,• , 10 II 11 !J ll~lHlJl6
"
'. .
11 11
~
""
11 11 6-11111
48
" "
<0" I
9J90111i 76 12 "
"" """ " " " .,.,"" """ """ """ """ ""
lJ JI H 4J l! II
....
~J91a6nJ11l 69 6J .9 4' J1 H
""
", " "" "" "" ""JO "" ".. " " "" "• "•
96 91 "U7~7. 70 67
•.• 4' " " " " "
!Z H ' Z II
.""" .. 9691U""
'6 9l
00
.
H 7'
96 91 U IS II 11 H 12 69
U7916l)70 U
I) 71 ... ..
ll49464141
H
.
" " . ao "H " " "" "" "" " " ." " " " "" "" "" "" "" "" " " "
47
<0
~
<0
<0
'4 I!
IJ lJ 11
"" " " " " "" "u "" "" "" "" " " ro "" " n" " "" " " "" "" "
".'"
91 9J 00
91 91 00
It 10 J7 H
"11 ~
., "
4) 4' J1 lJ )1
1-43
75
69° WB
60 -(
50
. , -',
/
-,
.'
, ,
" '-{
50 60 70 76 80
of DB
If we were to cool the dry bulb temperature to 76° and the wet bulb
temperature actually stayed at 69" on the sling psychrometer, we now have
a WB (wet bulb) depression of only 7"F, and, from Table 1-5, a relative
humidity of 70%. Point B can now be located. By connecting points A and
B, we create a constant wet bulb line. This process could be repeated over
and over until a complete grid of wet bulb lines fill the chart. Wet bulb
temperature is read at saturation temperature line, because at that point it can
hold no more moisture and becomes the same as the dry bulb and dew point
temperatures.
1-44
en HUMIDITY
>--'
CI::;)
Oen
SUMMARY
We looked at the Basic Air Laws which tells us about how fans
perform under varying conditions and how that effects the flow of air through
ductwork. We next discussed the Pulley Laws and their use in determining
air flow and power consumption. After learning about the Pulley Laws, we
went in to the discussion of the Gas Laws: Charles, Boyles, Gay-Lussac and
how that are put together to come up with the perfect gas law which is used
to understand how pressure, temperature and volume effect a gas . We briefly
discussed Pascal's Principle, which explains how a liquid acts under pressure.
1-45
We learned the first and second law of thermodynamics and how they
relate to heat transfer. The three methods of heat transfer are conduction,
convection and radiation. The last topic discussed was the psychrometric
·. properties of air and how those properties are used to make the psychrometric
chart, which we use for determining relative humidity and dewpoint. This
is used to give you the necessary background to understand the following
chapters.
1-46
CHAPTER TWO
HV AC SYSTEMS
CHAPTER TWO
HV AC SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES
i INTRODUCTION
Purpose of HV AC
Air Systems
Filtration Systems
Hydronic Systems
PURPOSE OF HVAC
r, The purpose of HV AC is the control of an enclosed environment. The three
main environmental characteristics that are controlled are:
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Suspended particulates (dust and gas)
{. Temperature
Humidity
2-1
draw water from existing sources. When cold air is heated, its ability to hold
additional water is increased. For this reason when providing a HV AC system for
personnel, a humidifier is typically provided in conjunction with heaters to control
the humidity in the designed range.
AIR SYSTEMS
There are many different types of air systems used to deliver the conditioned
air to the areas or spaces requiring it. The single and dual duct systems are the
two basic types of air duct systems that are used for distribution of conditioned air.
The single duct system supplies air to each area at a constant ·temperature.
Temperature control is obtained by adjusting the volume of the supply air
furnished. The dual duct system provides warm and cool air in separate ducts .
Individual room or area temperature control is obtained by adjusting the amount
or ratio of warm and cool air being mixed and introduced to the environment.
• Single Zone
Variable Air Volume
Terminal Reheat
Induction System
Dual Duct
• Low
• High
• Multizone
2-2
Single Zone System
-
EXHAUST LOU VERS \ texHAUST DAMPER
r-
-1
\
- , '""
-1- - ,I
,./
u.......
~
SPA CE LOAD
2-3
Variable Air Volume System
HEATING
I
COIL COOLING
SUPPLY
ouraOOA
AlA !NlAKE 7 (
CooUNG
SUPPl Y
FAN
COIL
[PAI~AAY AIR DUC T
- i==!=ll=;;=~={=
OUTDOOR
\ \ .... FIL TEAS
AIR DAMPEA
\ . BYPASS
SOXES
" - - RE TURN AIR
DAMPER
T T
EXHAUST
DAMPER
EXHAUS T
LOUVEA 7
1 POSSIBLE RETURN
l AIR FAN
rJ.
,
, , RETURN AIR
.-- REGISTER
2-4
Terminal Reheat System
OU TDOOR
AIR INTAKEj
POSSIBLE
[PREHEAT COIL
SUPPLY fAN
r COOLING COil
;i;1
_ 1==+i#=nr===&I=={== AEHEATCQll· 1
B::
"
~FILTERS
REHEAT COil 2-.
OU TDOOR I
AIR DAMPER ...J \
SUPPLY
~
AlA TERMI NAL
EXHAusr\
LOUVERS
~EXHAUST
DAMPER
~AETUANAIR
- \ POSSIBLE RETURN/EXHAUST REGISTER
AIR FAN
2-5
Induction System
Primary air is discharged from nozzles arranged to induce room air into the
induction unit approximately 4 times the volume of the primary air. The induced
air is cooled or heated by a secondary water coil. Induction type units are
generally located under the window to offset winter downdrafts. Figure 2-4 shows
a schematic of an induction system .
CooUNG
OUTDOOR
AlA IN TAKE 7 COIL
OU TDOOR
AIR DAM PER
J \ FILTERS
t
EXHAUST
DAMPER
t ' - RETURN AIR
OAMPER SECONDARY
WATERCQIL
11'l
eXHAU ST INDUCTION _ ~ . ~ : INOUCED I '==cf~
1j
LouvE AS POSSIBLE AETURN UNIT : .... AIR -
'\ AIR FAN
IF ==li=o!h==~\~~i==~"~~===~
,.... - - - j// SPACE LOAD
'-; I "
' ... -."..' ' - RETURN AlA
AEGISTER
2-6
Dual Duct System
The dual duct system comes in two types: low velocity and high velocity.
We will take a look at each.
The dual duct system conditions all the air in a central apparatus and
distributes it to conditioned spaces through two parallel mains or ducts. One duct
carries cold air and the other duct carries warm air, thus, providing air sources for
both heating and cooling at all times. In each conditioned space or zone, a mixing
valve controlled by a room thermostat mixes the warm and cold air in proper
proportions to satisfy the prevailing heat load of the space. Figure 2-5 shows a
schematic of a dual duct system (low velocity).
,,
HEAliNG COIL HQT DuC T -
...
POSSIBI.E SUPPLY T
1 \
ourooon
~IR INTAKE \ '..• PRE . HEAT COil \" FAN _
:1
~ ' ~==f=~=====i=
r
r--'-,
, ~- 1E!5F
' ., I
II
RETURN AlA
REGISTERS
2-7
Dual Duct System !High Velocity)
Dual duct high velocity systems operate in the same manner as the low
velocity systems except that the supply fan runs at a higher pressure and each zone
requires a mixing box with sound attenuation. Figure 2-6 shows a schematic of
a dual duct system (high velocity).
r\
,,"'v ,("\
::,.6 '
",If
:-".
'0
pF
;:o...
-{-' "
\ ::/,(cI' J/
1\0 "It'
'0.
DO
!\ HEATING CQ1l - ,
OUTDOOR" SUPPL Y T
-
POSSl8LE
AIR INTAKEl \ FAN
[PRE . HEAT COtl
\
,.
;' " ,T
OUTDOOR "-FILTERS
COO"NGWL-------~l' i I~M II [I I
tr ~ ~ ~(>
AIR DA M PER
t '-RETURN AIR
'--Y/
~ l~NE l~NE ~
I
EXHAUST DAMPER
DAMPER TO , TO 2
"HAUS<
LOUVERS
1f r POSSIBLE RETURN
AIR FAN ~ SPACE LOAD / .
~ Ik==k~==~r~-~-~
-,
~~.====~~~~====~~==~~
RE TURN AI R
nEGlsrERS
2-8
Multizone System
.', -.
The multizone system is applicable for serving a relatively small number of
zones from a single central air handling unit. The requirements of the different
zones are met by mixing cold and warm air through zone dampers at the central
air handler in response to zone thermostats. The mixed conditioned air IS
distributed throughout the building by a system of single-one ducts as shown In
Figure 2-7.
t:j::r~:;:~:~~:::
OUTDOOR
AIR INTAKE1 ~PAE HEAT COil i
POSSIBLE :
~ FAN
rSUPPlY
~
\
1 : _ ,
-OUTDOOA "...J
AlA DAMPEA
D.
F===~0~==~~~'~=
2
~LTERS:
" / ..J--l==='''~~
!2 ~ "
rs:
I 9. ,..
T
:~
-.'
I DAMPERS
TO INDIVIDUAL
ZONES
..J
~
:
t ____ __ __ ___ ______ .
~ COOLING COil
jCOLDDECKI
~~~~~~
f
I
EXHAUST
LOUVERS
EXHAUST
7
DAMPER 7t AlA '-MULTI ZONE
UNIT
POSSIBLE RETURN
COMMON
f_ AlA FAN RETUAN
r
\
..
I
/
2-9
FILTRATION SYSTEMS
2-10
Figure 2-8 Typical Fibrous Media Filters
2-11
Electronic Air Cleaners
~ ..
,.
,1- r~'i .·~~-·~~.>~,;~t~·
\-
I
I
~
I
I I
\
I
.
I
IjIL.,
~/~
I I
.
.'" -."
''-''-\-'''.
\ ;L---,
y---'
\ \
I \ \
, .. ' I \
2-12
Figure 2-11 Industrial Electronic Air Cleaner
The high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter is the most efficient air
cleaning system commercially available. Although it was developed for the
nuclear industry, it has been found to be extremely useful in the medical and
electrical fields.
HEPA filters are actually a specialized fibrou s material filter. Figure 2-12
shows a box HEPA filter (HEPA filter bank.)
2-13
Figure 2-12 Box HEPA Filter
2-14
Activated Carbon Filters
Activated carbon filters are commonly used to remove gases and vapors
from recirculated air. The process involVed is adsorption where the carbon
adsorbs the
activated paniculate
carbon filter. in a Sponge-like process. Figure 2-13 shows a typical
2-15
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
In terms of flow generation, hot water heating systems are of two types (I)
the gravity system, in which circulation of the water is due to the difference in
weight between the supply and the return water columns of any circuit or system;
and (2) the forced system in which a pump, usually driven by an electric motor,
maintains the necessary flow. Water systems can be either once-through or
recirculating systems .
A hot water heating system operating within the pressure and temperature
limits of the ASME boiler construction code for low pressure heating boilers. The
maximum allowable working pressure for low pressure heating boilers is 160 psi
with a maximum temperature limitation of 250"F. The usual maximum working
pressure for boilers for LTW systems is 30 psi, although boilers specifically
designed, tested and stamped for higher pressures may frequently be used with
working pressures to 160 psi. Steam-to-water or water-to-water heat exchangers
are also often used.
2-16
High Temperature Water System (JITW)
A hot water heating system operating at temperatures over 350"F and usual
pressures of about 300 psi. The maximum design supply water temperature is
400" to 450' F, with a pressure rating for boilers and equipment of about 300 psi.
It is necessary that the pressure-temperature rating of each component be checked
against the design characteristics of the particular system.
A combination hot water heating and chilled water cooling system which
circulates hot andlor chilled water to provide heating or cooling using common
piping and terminal heat transfer apparatus. They are operated within the pressure
and temperature limits. of L TW systems, with usual winter design supply of water
temperatures about 100' F to 150"F and summer supply water temperatures 40"F
to 55' F.
Generally, the most economical distribution system layout has mains that are
run by the shortest and most convenient route to the terminal equipment having the
largest flow rate requirements and branch or secondary circuits are then connected
to these mains.
2-17
Series Loop
One-pipe
Two-pipe reversed-return
Two-pipe direct-return
Two-pipe direct-return
Two-pipe reversed-return
Three-pipe
Four-pipe
We will discuss each type of system in the remainder of this chapter. Also
because of the unique nature of hydronic systems, we will also discuss hydronic
plpmg.
Figure 2-14 shows a system of two series loops on a supply alld return main
(split series loop). One or many series loops may be used in a complete system.
Loops may connect to mains or all loops may run directly to and from the boilers.
2-18
Pump
-Soiler
Adjusting Cock
~
1
A decrease in loop water flow rate increases temperature drop in each unit
and in the entire loop. Average water temperature shifts downward progressively
from first to last radiator in series. Unit output gradually lowers from first to last
on the loop. Consequently, comfort cannot be maintained in separate spaces
heated with a single series loop if water flow rate is varied. Control of output
from individual terminal units on a series loop is impractical except by control of
heated air flow. Manual dampers can be used on natural convection units;
automatic fan or face-and-bypass damper control can be used on forced air units.
One-pipe circuits use a single loop main (see Figure 2-15). For each
terminal unit, a supply and a return tee are installed on the same main. One of the
two tees is a special diverting tee which creates a pressure drop in main flow to
divert a portion of main flow to the unit. One (return) diverting tee is usually
sufficient for up feed (units above main) systems. Two special fittings (supply and
return tees) are usually required for down feed units to overcome thermal head.
Special tees are proprietary; consult manufacturer's literature for flow rates and
pressure drop data.
2-19
(
Ii
One Special Return Fitting
(
1
I'- - (Upfeed)
l
i Boiler
i'-~
~ ---.I
,~
l;) Pump
r-
: _J
Downfeed (Two Special Fittings)
Two-Pipe Systems
2-20
system, balancing valves are seldom adjusted. Operating (pumping) cost is likely
to be higher with direct return because of the added balancing fitting pressure
drops at the same flow rate.
. z
... y
.. X
t
Pump
Terminal/
Unrts
Boiler
or
,
I
!
'- / Chiller
... T
,. ... S
... R
- J Terminal , /
Units
Pump Boile,
or
'-_.I Chiller
2-21
Combination Piping System
The four basic arrangements exist only to describe function; one type can
grade into another; a piping system can contain from one to all four types and,
thus, cannot be described as a particular type. Figure 2-18 illustrates a primary
circuit and two secondary pumping circuits. As pipe lengths and number of units
vary and as circuit types are combined, basic names for piping circuits become
meaningless; flow, temperature and head must be determined for each circuit and
for the complete system.
Control
rermin a l /
t
i
Unit
t
J· Way control
\ Valve lor
secondary crfC1Jlt
Common t
..
Flow
Secondary~ Common Flow
~ ...
Pump Secondary
Pump
B C Balance Cock 0 E
Boiler
0'
Chiller
F ...
A ~Primllry ::>ump
Three-Pipe System
2-22
The unit contains a single secondary water coil. A three-way valve at the
inlet of the coil admits the water from either the hot or cold water supply, as
required. ne water leaving the coil is carried in a common pipe to either the
secondary cooling or heating equipment. The usual room control for three-pipe
systems is a special three-way modulating valve which modulates either the hot or
cold water in sequence, but does not mix the streams. The primary air is cold and
at the same temperatures year-round.
During the period between seasons, if both hot and cold secondary water is
available, any unit can be operated within a wide capacity range from maximum
cooling to maximum heating within the limits set by the temperature of the
secondary chilled or hot water. Any unit in the system can be operated through
its full range of capacity without regard to the operation of any other unit in the
system, recognizing the operating cost penalty that will result from simultaneous
heating and cooling loads. All units are selected on the basis of their peak
capacity requirements.
The return mix three-pipe room unit is provided with a singl,e coil which
receives either hot or cold water. A modulating three-way valve at the inlet to the
unit admits either hot water or cold water to the secondary coil (see Figure 2-19).
The three-way valves are a special design in which the hot port gradually moves
from open to fully closed and the cold port gradually moves from fully closed to
open. The valves are constructed so that at mid-range there is an interval in which
both ports are completely closed. Room control action is the same during all
seasons.
2-23
[!}
UNIT
r",(>I""OST.1.1
"OT
.: ... (e.o< ""ArE~~
I "- Ly E SU PPLY
\ C()t.lIolON
SECONDARY
"",TEfl C01L
~
"'COMMON VALvE
co..o
SuPPLy
'."ER
Four-Pipe System
The fou r-pipe terminal unit is usually provided with two completely
separated secondary water coils, one receiving hot water and the second receiving
cold water. The coils are operated in sequence by the same thermostat. The coils
are never operated simultaneously, and the unit receives either hot water or cold
water in varying amounts, or else no flow is present. This is shown in Figure
2-20. During peak cooling and heating, the four-pipe system performs in a
manner similar to the two-pipe system, with essentially the same operating
characteristics. During the period between seasons, any unit can be operated at
any capacity level from maximum heating, if both cold water and warm water are
being circulated. Any unit can be operated at or between these extremes without
rega rd to the operation of any other unit.
2-24
..!.,
UNI r
THERMO STAT
L';)" _or
w A TER
"or SUPPLY
WATER
AET URN
I"IOT COIL
CONT ROL "
VAl.vE
,
COLO COIL
COLO
WAT(Q COLI:
RETURN wATER
0 SUPPl Y
A- SEPAR ATE COILS
- T
UNI T T"ERMOSTA T
(R
Hor _OT
WATER wATER
RETURN SUPPl Y
COMMON
SECOND ARY
;;
SE~UENCE)
WATfR COIL
\ 2 - POSI TlON
COL O D IVERT I NG v AL V E
COLO
wATER WATER
RETUR N VAL VE SUP P LY
2-25
Since the primary air is supplied at a constant cool temperature at all times,
it is sometimes feasible for fan-coil or radiant panel systems to extend the interior
system supply to the perimeter spaces, eliminating the need for a separate primary
air system.
Figure 2-20 shows another unit and control configuration which is sometimes
used. A single secondary water coil is provided at the unit, and three-way valves
located at the inlet and leaving side of the coil admits the water from either the hot
or cold water supply, as required, and divert it to the appropriate return pipe.
This arrangement requires a special three-way modulating valve, originally
developed for one form of the three-pipe system, which controls the hot or cold
water selectively and proportionally but does not mix the streams. The valve at
the coil outlet is a two-position valve open to either the hot or cold water return,
as required.
Hydronic Piping
If air and other gases are not eliminated from the flow circuit, they may
cause air binding in the terminal heat transfer elements and noise in the piping
circuit. High points in piping systems and terminal units should be vented with
manual or automatic air vents. As automatic air vents may malfunction, valves
should be provided at each vent to permit service without draining the system.
The discharge of each vent should be piped to a point where water can be wasted
into a drain or container. If a plain expansion tank is used, free air contained in
the circulating water should be removed from the piping circuit and trapped in the
expansion tank by a boiler dip tube or other air separation devices . If a diaphragm-
type tank is used, all air should be vented from the system.
2-26
Drains and Shutoffs
All low points should be equipped with drains. Provisions should be made
for separate shutoff and drain of individual equipment and circuits so that the
entire system does not have to be drained for service of a particular item.
Balance Fittings
Piping need not pitch but can be run level, providing flow velocities 10
excess of 1.5 feet per second are maintained.
Strainers
Thermometers
2-27
Flexible Connectors
Pump Location
Pump location varies with the size and type of system. A pump in the boiler ,
return is acceptable for small systems when pump head is low (12 foot head or
less), the compression tank is on the boiler (or a nearby main), and the highest
piping and radiation is maintained at a static pressure greater than full pump head.
@ese conditions apply to most residential systems.
When pump head is equal to or greater than the difference between boiler
fill and relief valve discharge pressures, or when highest piping or radiation can
be at a static pressure less than total pump head, the pump must be located on the
supply side of the boiler, with the compression tank at the pump inlet, as shown
in Figure 2-21. This assures that pump cycling will not cause a vacuum at the
topmost system points to allow air to be introduced into the system. Pump
cavitation is prevented by locating a properly sized compression tank near the
pump inlet that supplies a positive pressure to the pump suction.
2-28
(
STM!lOb$
GU( .... L Y (
40JI,IS""O Cotl<
GLOI( " 'LY[
lUTO ."., ... , v aLV!
*
I
I
I
~
I
~
...
5(P OA ·o.TO"
, ___________ L ____ _
2-29
SUMMARY
2-30
CHAPTER THREE
HVAC EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER THREE
HVAC EQUIPMENT
OBJECTIVES
1. List the eight requirements that are looked at for the selection of
equipment and/or HVAC system.
a. Steam jet
b. Heat sink
c. Absorption
d. Compressed gas
• Piping
• Pumps
• Fans
In this chapter, we will cover the criteria used for equipment selection
along with the following topics:
• Heating
• Cooling
• Air Handling
The criteria for the selection of equipment and/or HVAC systems are
basically the same. It requires that these eight requirements be looked at:
5. Space limitations.
6. Maintainability.
3-1
7. Central plant versus distributed systems.
Energy Conservation
This is usually a code requirement and not an option. State the local
building codes almost invariably include requirements limiting the use of
new, nonrenewable energy. Nonrenewable refers primarily to fossil fuel
sources. Renewable sources include solar, wind, water, waste processing,
heat reclaim, and the like. The strictest codes prohibit any form of reheat
(except from reclaimed or renewable sources) unless humidity control is
essential. Most HVAC systems for process environments have opportunities
for heat reclaim and other ingenious ways of conserving energy. Off-peak
storage systems are becoming popular for energy cost savings through these
systems may actually consume more energy than conventional systems.
3-2
First Cost/Life Cost
First cost considers only the initial price, installed and ready to operate.
It ignores such factors as expected life, ease of maintenance and even, to
some extent, efficiency, though most energy codes require some minimum
efficiency rating. Life-cycle cost includes all cost factors including first cost,
operation, maintenance, replacement, and estimated energy use, and evaluates
the total cost of the system over a period of years. The usual method of
comparing the life cycle costs of two or more systems to convert all costs to
"present worth" values. Typically, first cost governs in buildings being built
for speculation or short-term investment. Life-cycle costs are most often
used by institutional builders - schools, hospitals, government - and owners
who expect to occupy the building for an indefinite period.
Space Limitations
The architect can influence the HVAC system selection by the space
he makes available in a new building. In retrofit situations, the designer
must work with existing space. Sometimes in existing buildings it is
necessary to take additional space in order to provide a suitable HVAC
system. For example, in adding air conditioning to a school it is often
necessary to convert a classroom to an equipment room. Roof-top systems
are another alternative where space is limited, if the building structure will
support such systems. In new buildings, if space is too restricted, it will be
desirable to discuss with the architect the implications of the space limitations
3-3
in terms of equipment efficiency and maintainability. There are ways of
providing a functioning HVAC system in very little space, such as individual
room units and roof-top units, but these systems often have a high life-cycle
cost.
Maintainability
Central plants may include only a chilled water source, both heating
and chilled water, an intermediate temperature water supply for individual
room heat pumps, or even a large, central air-handling system. Many
buildings have no central plant. This decision, in part, influenced by
previously cited criteria and is itself a factor in the life-cycle cost analysis.
In general, central plant equipment has a longer life than packaged equipment
and can be operated more efficiently. The disadvantages include the cost of
pumping and piping, or, for the central AHU, longer duct systems and more
fan horsepower. There is no simple answer to this choice. Each building
must be evaluated separately.
Though listed last, this is the most important criterion in terms of how
the system will really work. There is an accepted truism that "The operator
will soon reduce the HVAC system and controls to his level of
3-4
understanding." This not to criticize the operator, who may have had little
or no instruction about the system. It is simply a fact of life. The designer
who wants or needs to use a complex system must provide for adequate
training - and retraining - for the operators. The best rule is: never add an
unnecessary complication to the systein or its controls.
HEATING
2. Furnaces, unit heaters, duct heaters, and outside air heaters which
provide hot air for direct circulation to the conditioned space.
3. Waste heat furnaces and boilers which utilize the waste energy
from some other source such as an incinerator or refrigeration
equipment.
4. Solar energy collectors, both passive and active, which heat either
water or air, and in some cases, solid materials.
3-5
5. Heat pumps, either liquid or air.
The topics that will be covered in this section of the chapter are:
• Boilers
• Heat Pumps
3-6
BOILERS
Low-temperature water boilers (to 250"F) are the most widely used type
for residential, apartment, and commercial construction. Medium temperature
water boilers (250 to 310°F) are generally applied to industrial and campus-
type facilities. High-temperature water (310 to 400"F) is used for extended
campus-type facilities and industrial process facilities. It is often used where
there are significant end-user steam requirements at pressures of 100 psi or
more. Thermal liquid heaters are primarily found in industrial applications
where both space and process heating are significant loads.
Steam Boilers
ELECTRIC HEATERS
3-7
Figure 3-1 Horizontal Unit Heater
3-8
The heating element may be a steam or water coil, or may be direct-
fired using fuel gas or electric resistance. Gas heaters require proper venting
and safety controls. Unit heaters are normally controlled by means of a room
thermostat which starts the fan and energizes the heating element
simultaneously.
A duct heater (or duct furnace) is a unit heater with out a fan and is
installed in a duct or plenum. The duct heater depends on an AHU fan for
air circulation. It may be the primary heating element - in the main duct or
AHU plenum - or may be used for zone reheat control in branch ducts.
Many package air-handling systems use duct heaters.
An outside air heater is a unit heater or duct heater used for preheating
outside air, as required for exhaust make-up or combustion. To prevent
freeze-up gas or electric heating is used, with gas preferred on an energy cost
basis. In some installations, codes allow the use of unvented heaters - all the
heat and products of combustion are in the air stream, but so diluted as to
pose no danger. This situation requires that all of the supply air be
exhausted.
Radiant unit heaters have no fans and utilize radiant heating rather than
convective heating. For this purpose they are installed overhead and
equipped with special high-temperature surfaces which radiate primarily in
the infra-red spectrum. They are used mostly for "spot-heating" at work
stations in otherwise unheated or poorly heated buildings. Another use is for
heating of outdoor areas where people need to wait or stand in line, such as
under theater marquees or in amusement parks. Radiant heating is a very
efficient and economical method of achieving a level of comfort in an area
which would be difficult or impossible to heat satisfactorily in any other way.
3-9
some heat pumps can also be included in this category. In many cases, the
terminal equipment is used for both heating and cooling.
3-10
5. Steam heat may be controlled by means of vacuum system. This
requires a closed system in which the absolute pressure may be
varied by means of a vacuum pump in the condensate return.
The steam system may then be operated at sub-atmospheric
pressures with a consequent reduction in steam temperature.
Flecess ____
_ Fin-tube heating
L,---- element
~
/ Floor line
3-11
Finned-tube, or finned-pipe, radiation uses larger tubing or pipe - 1-1/4"
to 2" size - with fins bonded to the pipe. The fins are typically 3-1/2" to 4-
1/2" square. The system is used mostly for perimeter heating, particularly at
glass areas. Heat transfer is by convection and a variety of enclosure types
are available; some examples are shown in Figure 3-4. Special enclosures
are often made to suit an architectural decor.
• W<Jllline
- Cover
ml~rat
~Ih
grille
Fin,plpEt healing
r
- - - -,
E.. p .. n.ded
mel a! cover
0 elemlnl ~ Fin.p,pe
/ Floor~ 0'
All of these heating elements may use either low pressure steam or hot
water as the heating source. Either one-pipe or two-pipe distribution systems
are used, though two-pipe is more common in modem practice. Zoning by
exposure, using solar compensated sensors, is a frequent practice. Electric
baseboard radiation is also available. It is sometimes more economical, for
example, in an all-electric situation or where steam or hot water is not
available.
Radiant Panels
3-12
floor panels, convective transfer may be predominant. Panels may be located
in the floor, wall, or ceiling and may occupy part or all of the available area.
Panel surface temperatures are limited by the physiological response of the
building occupants. That is, too high a temperature may result in an
uncomfortably warm feeling. Typical limitations are 80" to 85°F for floor
panels, about 100"F for wall panels, and 120" to 13O"F for ceiling panels.
The heating source is hot water or electrical resistance heating cable. Hot-
water supply temperatures should be consistent with the panel temperature
limitations; for floor panels, for example, supply water temperature should be
no more than 100°F.
HEAT PUMPS
3-13
valve. In the cooling position, refrigerant flow is directed first to the outdoor
coil, which becomes the condenser. The liquid refrigerant then bypasses
metering device no. 1 and flows through metering device no. 2 to the indoor
coil. The metering device is a thermal expansion valve, throttling tube, or
some other method of reducing the pressure. The indoor coil then becomes
the evaporator and cooling is provided. With the reversing valve in the
heating position, refrigerant flow is reversed, the indoor coil becomes the
condenser and provides heating; heat is extracted from the outdoor air.
Changeover from heating to cooling may be automatic but is usually manual.
Most packaged heat pumps are air-to-air. Heating capacity decreases as
outdoor air temperature decreases.
3-14
..
R8'<~",jng
." ~ .....
Reversing
~
I
•
\2 e/ I I ,,-·'r.;~~---'I
,,",-
,,. ,,",-
,.,
In(lOO'
CO,I
Complusor Comp'.nOt
'\--.--1
~ 1.4.'81"'9 (I".,...;"
A
-, ,r
t
Check val".
,,
L
Figure 3-5 Packaged Heat Pump Cycles
,r
" 3-15
During the 1950s and 1960s, several large office buildings were
constructed using water-to-water heat pumps, with capacities up to several
hundred tons. These systems typically use well water. Two wells are used,
one for supply and one for disposal. One possible arrangement is shown in
Figure 3-8. The supply and disposal wells are manually selected. Well
water and return water are mixed, for both evaporator and condenser, on a
temperature basis. Under some conditions, this system can become an
internal source heat pump - that is, when the exterior zone heating and
interior zone cooling loads are in balance, or nearly so, little or no well water
is needed. Internal source heat pumps without wells are used where there is
sufficient internal cooling load to supply the net heating requirements under
all conditions. Excess heat is disposed of through cooling towers.
HR CHO
C>lS HS
,
.... --- --,
-
,
,,
,. . -----t.:...J
- -r;;;-t - - To C_n$Ol'
To s~,~
..... """'''
Figure 3-8 Large Building Heat Pump, with Water Well Source
3-17
COOLING
• Refrigeration
• Chiller
• Cooling Towers
• Cooling Coils
• Piping
• Pumps
Refrigeration
• Steam Jet
• Heat Sink
• Adsorption (Chiller)
;,.. .
• Compressed Gas (Chillers)
3-18
Steam Jet
~)~~ ~p~y
~
NO ZZLE
Tl' r~i 1-1 f\ 1'£ r.
I ~ ~ FLASII
co ~:;~'lro~'JI l?~G ~ -I I ) TAN K
(1)1: I PMEt~T
Go Or /~Ii:~
0.1 TOC . 2?SI:'
~~ AAEUP
....... ~
l~ATE R
~
40 o -S0o f
COOL WATf.? TO
•
lI IP- CONn I TIO.,II NG
EQutPttEN T
4s o r
3-19
Heat Sink
i '
The heat sink method of providing air conditioning requires a large
,.
body of cool water, usually subterranean or drawn from dee I lakes. The
equipment that is used in this system is a pump, piping and hydronic coils.
The cool water is circulated through hydronic coils and subsequently provides
cooling to the controlled environment.
Absorption
The absorption systems utilizes a liquid with a low boiling point such
as ammonia on water under a low vacuum. The equipment that is used in
this system is a chiller, which is divided into four sections: the evaporator,
absorber, generator and condenser, heat exchanger and three pumps. We will
discuss the function of each piece of equipment.
Chiller
As noted from the above paragraph, the chiller is divided into four
sections. The function of each section is:
3-20
Heat Exchanger - The function of the heat exchanger is to make
the absorption cycle more efficient. It does this
by bringing the warm, concentrated absorbent
solution coming from the generator in contact
with the relative cool dilute absorbent from the
absorber. This lowers the heat input needed for
input to the generator and increases the
efficiency of the system.
Pumps
Refer to Figure 3-10 as you go through the cycle. It will help you
understand what is happening in each area of the absorption chiller.
3-21
'"
"
C"'ll( O
LIOUIO
'"
'"
.~.
HlAT VCCHAHGIIt
3-22
Compressed Gas
• Compressor
• CondenserslReceivers
• Metering Device
• Evaporators
Compressor
Condenser/Receiver
3-23
Receivers are installed to collect the liquid refrigerant as it leaves the
condenser. In some models, the lower section of the condenser is used as the
receiver. A receiver serves as a stowage for refrigerant, maintains a liquid
seal on the liquid line, and vents any air or non-condensable gases back to
the condenser.
Metering Device
3-24
Evaporators
• Plate
• Bare Tube
• Finned Tube
• Fixed Convection
• Dry
• Flooded
Figure 3-11 shows the basic compressed gas cycle and use with the
following cycle description will help you see and understand how the cycle
works.
Liquid refrigerant enters the metering device which separates the high
pressure side of the system from the low pressure side. This valve regulates
the amount of refrigerant which enters the cooling coils of the evaporator.
Because of the pressure differential, as the refrigerant passes through the
metering device, some of it flashes to a vapor.
3-25
LOH PRESS URE S I DE ~~ ft! GI! PRESSURE S I DE:
SATUR.I\TED GAS I SUPE RHEATED V/I.POR
~ t
EVAPORATOP CONDEN SE [l
IlEAT
CO MP r..ESSOR
fnOM
CONTROlU:O IIEAT
EIlV l OO NKENT
From the metering device, the refrigerant passes into the evaporator,
The boiling point of the refrigerant under the low pressure in the evaporator
is lower than the temperature of the space in which the cooling coil is
installed, This causes the liquid to boil and vaporize, picking up latent heat
of vaporization from the space being cooled. The refrigerant continues to
absorb latent heat of vaporization until all the liquid has been vaporized. By
the time the refrigerant leaves the cooling coil, it has not only absorbed this
latent heat of vaporization but has also picked up some additional heat - that
is, the vapor has become superheated.
3-26
system. In the compressor, the refrigerant is compressed from a low-
pressure, low-temperature vapor to a high-pressure, high temperature vapor.
Referring to Figure 3-12, the evaporator state is the point at which the
boiling liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator and absorbs sensible heat form
the chill water return. As heat is absorbed, the liquid becomes completely
vaporized and rises above its saturation temperature. At this point, the vapor
is said to be "superheated".
3-27
f
Superheated
"0 state vapor - - - -•.,
'"
"" ..,.'0"
.
90 ~,
°
"-
84 90
70
eo
.,
----------------- - -~~ -------~
,,0 -~. 1'1 state
(84°F. 153.2 psig)
-
~
a• '" Subco ol ed
-
~
Co '"
state liquid
E
~
f-
"<0 Ev'ror,tor,tat.
0 (50 F. 84 p,lg)
-<0 Liquid zone
."
.JO
Chillers
Liquid chillers are of two general types: flooded and direct expansion.
There are several different configurations including shell-and-tube, double
tube, shell-and-coil, Baudelot (surface), and tank-with-raceway. For HVAC
applications, the shell-and-tube configuration is most common.
3-28
Flooded Chillers
Package Chillers
3-29
Tube Aelflgeranl
sheel SUChon
_ LIQUId
" '"'
_ liqUId
.'"'
'"
LiqUId oul
Tub e
sheet Rehig e rant
Aelrogerant
II tiquld In
Liquid In
3-30
Chillers with reciprocating compressors are found mostly in the 5-to-
100 ton range. Though larger units are made, economics usually favor
centrifugal compressor chillers in sizes of 100 tons or more. Screw
compressor systems are made in a limited range of sizes, as contrasted with
centrifugal compressors. Motor starters are usually separate from the
centrifugal or screw packages may be turbine-driven but more often use
electric motors. The typical system is direct-driven at 36500 rpm. Wye-
Delta motors are used for reduced voltage starting. In larger units or 1000
tons or more, it is not unusual to use high-voltage motors; the lower current
requirements allow smaller wire sizes and across-the-line starting. An
unusual drive system is that used on one of the 8500-ton chillers at the
Dallas-Ft. Worth airport. The utility plant manager replaced the original
steam turbine driver with 5000-hp, 4160-volt, variable-speed, variable-
frequency electric drive. The chiller capacity was reduced to 5500 tons,
more in line with the actual load.
Cooling Towers
The two main types of cooling towers are open circuit and closed
circuit, described below. There are also two basic configurations: cross-flow
and counter-flow. In either arrangement, the water enters at the top of the
tower and flows downward through it. In the counter-flow arrangement, the
air enters at the bottom and flows upward. In the cross-flow arrangement,
the air enters at one side, flows across the tower and out the other side.
3-31
,,,
Wiuer
-
sprays
I
.... ir
'"
Wat er
----J out
Air
i out
Water
sprays
3-32
Towers are spray-filled, with the water distributed through spray
nozzles, or splash-filled, where the water flows by gravity and splashes off
the tower fill material. In either case, the idea is to maximize the
evaporation efficiency. The most important factors in this effort are 1) the
effectiveness of spray or splash in atomizing the water, 2) the internal tower
volume in which air and water corne into contact, 3) the air flow rate through
the tower, and 4) the water flow rate. Tower fill material used to be
redwood. Now most fill material is made of PVC or some similar plastic.
The two terms relating to tower efficiency are range and approach. The
range is the difference between entering and leaving cooling water
temperatures. For HVAC practice, this is usually 1000F, although gOF to 15°F
are used. Approach is the difference between the leaving cooling water
temperature and the ambient wet-bulb temperature. This is usually between
6 and 1000F, with gOF being typical.
L
Open-Circuit Cooling Towers
r
"
ij
In Figure 3-17, it can be seen that there is only one water circuit, with i
a portion of the cooling water being evaporated to cool the remainder.
Because the water is exposed to air, with all of its contaminants, and absorbs
oxygen, which is corrosive to most piping, the water must be carefully
I
treated. To avoid increasing the concentration of solids as water is
evaporated, blowdown must be provided: a portion of the water is wasted to
the sewer either continuously or intermittently. A blowdown rate equal to the
evaporation rate is considered normal. Ideally, treatment additives and
,!
blowdown rate should be controlled automatically by a system which
measures water quality and solids concentration. i
3-33
Water
'0
1 1
---I I--
Air A"
'0 '"
--, Water
I--
'"'
Closed-Circuit Towers
3-34
'I' 'I' /1\ /1\
cs
(
C CR
~
Bare pipe coil
Air in ~
J'o
<6Pump
~ Wale, sump wil h automatic
make-up and blowdown
3-35
Cooling Coils
Piping
Piping systems are the means by which thermal energy fluids are
transported from one place to another. The type of fluid and its temperature
and pressure influence and limit the choice of piping materials. Most
systems are closed - that is, the fluid is continually recirculated and no
makeup is required except to replace that lost due to leaks. Steam systems
are partly to completely open - as when the steam is used for a process or
humidification - and require continuous makeup. Cooling-tower systems are
open and need makeup to replace the water evaporated in the tower.
Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are used in HVAC for circulation of chilled, hot and
condensing water, and brine. They are also used for pumping steam
condensate and for boiler feed .
3-36
l.
pump size and rotational speed. For higher pressures, multistage pumps are
used.
Most pumps are direct driven at standard motor speeds such as 3500
rpm, 1750 rpm, and 1150 rpm. Typical arrangements include combinations
of alternatives such as end-or double-suction, in-line or base mounted,
horizontal or vertical, and close-coupled or base mounted. Vertical turbine
pumps are used in sumps, Le., in cooling-tower installations.
----
Rolation
Number 01 vanes
may va ry
3-37
In general, in-line pumps are used in small systems or secondary
systems, such as freeze-prevention loops. Base-mounted pumps are used for
most applications. Double-suction pumps are preferred for larger water
volumes over 300 to 400 gpm, because the purpose of the double-suction
design is to minimize the end thrust due to water entering the impeller.
Performance Curves
,•
•
,
6
./
<
,
.,'"
,
, ,
" .~
~ c.6
, '" ..,
""".~y"
.
60
9'" '----<:.. , ~
...
, ,\11
'"
~ ~'
I I
I I -
r 19"" "--
~ 0., ~..,
--.l
\ I -r....,
/'\~
'----
"K
Impcn~ ,
,,\ ;;OI-lP
. di"m~Ii"
" 'lit 01 m"",.,um
;BHP
" l BltP
,, <00
1
JOO
""
Figure 3·20 Pump Performance Curve
3-38
The point at which a pump curve intersects the zero flow line is the
shutoff head. At this or a higher head, the pump will not generate any flow.
If the pump continues to run under no-flow conditions, the work energy input
will heat the water. The resulting temperature/pressure rise has been known
to break the pump casing.
If the speed of the pump is varied, the result will be a family of curves
similar to Figure 3-21. These data are needed to evalua!e a variable-speed
pumping design.
60
L- ",,"'" 1d""''''Y j."
50
~
I~flnl
-
";
0
"
•<•
• ,.
"
~
20
--- ~pm
'0
t--850 rpm
o
o '00 '00 ,00 500 600
C;>(I:tC,ly ,n GPM
3-39
Pump Selection
Two or more identical pumps in series provide twice the head at any
given flow rate. The flow with one pump will be about 75 percent of design
flow. However, unless a bypass is provided around the second pump, the
system curve will change somewhat with only one pump running, due to the
pressure loss through the second pump. A bypass should be provided around
both pumps to allow one to operate while the other is being repaired or
replaced.
AIR-HANDLING
3-40
view of HV AC. In this section of the chapter, we will be studying about the
equipment used in air handling. The topics that will be covered are:
• Fans
• Ductwork
FANS
Large central station boilers, regardless of fuel and method of firing use
mechanical draft fans. Forced-draft fans supply large amounts of fresh air
for combustion. Induced-draft fans remove combustion products. These are
a few types and uses of mechanical draft fans in a power plant.
• Classifications of Fans
• Fan Control
• Fan Drives
• Fan Laws
• Fan Characteristics Curves
3-41
Classifications of Fans
There are two basic types of fans; centrifugal and axial flow. The axial
flow fan (Figure 3-22) moves the gas in a path parallel to the fan rotor.
These fans operate most efficiently with a low resistance to flow and so
provide a high volume of air at low head pressures. Axial fans are normally
used as forced-draft fans in a balanced-draft system.
INLE T BOX
MOTOA
ROTOR ASSEM SL '(
D I FFU SER
DR I V E SHAF T
SUPPORT BLADES
BLADE PIT CH CONTROL MECHANISM
The centrifugal or radial fan (Figure 3-23) moves the gas perpendicular
to the fan rotor and operates most efficiently in a high head situation. The
centrifugal is suitable for a forced-draft or pressurized system where induced
draft fa ns are not .
3-42
Figure 3-23 Centrifugal (radial) Fan
3-43
The centrifugal (radial) fan has several advantages over the axial fan.
It is cheaper and lighter and, therefore, requires less power. This can be seen
on Figure 3-24. Also, because of its size and weight it is more easily
controlled.
J
4
100 /
~7 /
-
90 ,,~ V
80 AXIAL FLOW FAN
-
~
70
~ /
I-
oJ'
.".. /
:J 60
a.. ~ V
Z •• ~
a:
50
V' ..,. 7
40
IJJ
~ ./ '"
--
0 30
a..
20
V
RADIAL FLOW FAN
10 I I I I
o 10 20 30 . 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
3-44
The blades of an axial fan are generally smaller than those of a
centrifugal fan and the construction is such that a variable pitch control
system can be easily installed. This type of control allows for a rapid change
of output and increased efficiency over the centrifugal fan as shown in Figure
3-25.
90 I
80
~ ~
-""-
~ .;
- 70
V ." ~
->-
"*- 60
/
u 50 AXIAL FLOW FAN
z V'
40 ,...
u- 30
UJ
u..
u.. 20
UJ
10
- r-
l.. ......
RADIAL FLOW FAN
o
a 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT UNIT LOAD
3-45
The main disadvantage of an axial fan is that it requires high rotational
speeds to generate the required air flow. This can result in noise pollution.
However, the primary problem with high speeds is that the fan must be a
precision machine which means that it can fail quickly and catastrophically
with little or no warning.
There are three basic blade shapes used in a fan: a forward curve, a
straight blade and a backward curve. These shapes and the effects on the
velocity are shown in Figure 3-26.
The straight bladed fan is generally used for industrial, dust-laden gas
flow . This type of fan operates at an efficiency of 50% or less. The forward
blade curve is a general purpose fan best used for medium pressure
applications. The fan is fairly quiet during operation because of the low tip
speed.
The backward curve blade fan can produce higher discharge pressures
than the straight blade fan or the forward curved blade fan. Horsepower
requirements are maximum at 60% airflow. Above or below 60% airflow the
horsepower requirements are less than maximum.
3-46
v vr
r---= v
(al FORWARD·CURVED
BLADES (bl STRAIGHT
BLADES
v,.,
3-47
Fan Control
3-48
A hydraulic coupling varies slip by varying the hydraulic pressure as
the speed of the driver changes. The variable pitch V-belt and the variable
speed planetary transmission are examples of special mechanical drives.
Inlet vane control (see Figure 3-27) regulates air flow entering the fan
and requires less horsepower at fractional loads than outlet damper control.
The inlet vanes give the air a varying degree of spin in the direction of wheel
rotation enabling the fan to produce the required head at proportionately
lower power and, therefore, greater efficiency. Although vane control offers
considerable savings in efficiency over damper control at any reduced load
it is most effective for moderate load changes close to full-load operation.
Inlet vane control is often used for full load operation, and efficiency
adj ustments.
Inlet vane leakage often makes it difficult to reduce fan air flow at low
loads when using a single speed fan drive. Therefore, a supplementary
damper is used to increase the control range of the vanes. Th is is especially
applicable to forced-draft fans where a wide load range is required.
IN LET V ANES
AIR FLO W
3-49
Fan Drives
Electric motors are normally used for fan drives because they are less
expensive and more efficient than any other type of drive. For fans of more
than a few horsepower, squirrel-cage induction motors are most common.
This type of motor is relatively inexpensive, reliable and highly efficient over
a wide load range. It is frequently used in large sizes with a magnetic or
hydraulic coupling for variable speed installations. For some variable speed
installations, particularly in the smaller sizes, wound rotor (slip rings)
induction motors are used. If a DC motor is required the compound type is
usually selected. The steam turbine drive costs more than a squirrel-cage
motor but is less expensive than any of the variable speed electric motor
arrangements in sizes over 50 horsepower.
Fan Laws
Fan laws were introduced at the beginning of this course and can be
stated as follows:
To help you in understanding how the fan laws are applied, the
following problem is provided.
3-50
Using the first fan law, speed is proportional to capacity, the new speed
can be fo und as follows: CFM a RPM
Using the second fan law, speed square is proportional to pressure, the
new pressure can be found as follows: SP a RPM 2
RPM)
= 2 in.
600 rpm 2
so: SP, = SP, --::-:c---'--' rpm
RPM, 400
= 4.5 in. of water
= 13.5 BHP
Fans are tested by their manufacturers and the results of the fans
operations are presented in characteristic curves. The curves may include the
variation in head, capacity, power and efficiency for a constant speed or can
be a family of curves for a series of constant speeds . By careful review of
3-51
the various types of fans and their characteristics curves the most correct fan
for a given system can be selected.
3-52
The characteristics of a radial-tip centrifugal fan are shown in Figure
3-29. the power increases with a decrease in pressure and an increase in
capacity, but the increase is not sharp enough to overload the motor if proper
selection of the motor is made. Generally, the characteristics of the radial-tip
centrifugal fan will be a compromise of the backward-curve-blade and
forward-curved-blade fans.
3-53
140
1'0
~ ~l.4
W 130
ec Sr
:J
til
120
110 ~ ~C ,0 ~~Ss.
:!w
til
100 V " ~(C'.s- ~-'9~ .-
:Jg: ~(I, "-
:Eo 90 ~(C' ,""- r-... .
xZ 80 N\E.OIANIC.M-
<1:~
70 ~:'\. toI:1:1 '\"
:Eec
s::::
~~~/
u. W 60 S l': ,t"-.:.£ItoI\'CY
oS 50 ~I: "1lfc 1\ ~
... 0
za. 40
/ q..,S'c.'?Y I:IC/~~ \.
""~
WW
u tll C)-I'-. '
ecec 30
wo
a.J: 20
/ .,/
'r'f' " I\.
10
0
(lJZ)'\J
,.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT CAPACITY
3-54
PERCENT CAPACITY
3-55
I
i~~S\\'j
\\,,~ \~_r--
I-SOUNO LEVEL-\l.~\.A
'"
a:
::J 1 10
(/)
(/)
100 rO r 4t
,A
~~
::Ja..
~o
xZ
90
80 " /"
""
MECHANICA&C
......... ..!:..RfSSUR
...... S,. f /'
./
~~
~a:
O~
'"
70
60
~
J' S,. ·"
...... ~/C
V
/'
50 L ~ C,," EFFICIENCY-
.... 0 40 'l'l~~ ./ ....... ""Ie "'
s~~o ~ ~C"'~ .
Za..
wW ~
30 'rIO~';"""-- ......;:. f'ss
u(/)
a: a: 20
/
~
",0
a..l: 10 ,
I
0
Ol~
It -
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT CAPACITY
3-56
UJ
rorA,
a: 110 L PR
::J
100 l/'"" -f~sURf
Vl
Vl "'" S ~ rX'"
:2 UJ 90 MECHANICAL lie .....
::Jg: EFFICIENCY I ~ /'"
-
80
:20
xZ 70 ,.... V l'\.""-s> -- )-...
««
~ ~O~~~
60 Sr ~.s
:2 a: V
u. UJ 50 f~~ ..q ric .sv
1Clfl\tc» ~
0::: 40
>-0
zo.. ) ,<,,-o~~,....
UJUJ
UVl
a: a:
wO
30
20
10 'rl
/ .."....,.. """
....
~
0.. I
0 "-
0:~. ~
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I no
PERCENT CAPACITY
3-57
UJ
a: 1 10
TOTAL p .
1
?O\f'J t ?
::::> 100
(f)
(f)
STATIC PR -;: RfSSURE: 'r\O?St
90 E:SS ..... _ 11. .
~~ URf
::::> a. . 80
~ ~ ~~C,y
~o 70 ..........:.~Ic. ~1'/.
:i!:
xz
<1:<1: 60 SiAiICEFFICIENCY...... ~ C~(
~
~ ~, C).-
~a: 50 .... ~,
-' ~ .'\...
u.. UJ
O~ 40
1- 0 30
V If ~ I'\.'\
.."a. R\'\
- UJ
~(f) 20 /
~
u a:
10
/
~O ~
a.I
~~
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT CAPACITY
3-58
DUcrwORK
Air duct is an enclosed conduit through which air is moved from one
place to another. In this section of the chapter, we are going to discuss the
equipment that is used. The following topics will be covered:
• Classification
Classification
Air duct design is broken into high and low pressure classifications by
the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA). Most of the low pressure standards also apply to high pressure
work. High pressure standards are intended for heavier industrial systems
that require additional structural consideration.
3-59
The use of the velocity to classify duct construction and design is not
common. Velocity classifications are used to describe the system or
individual duct run. Traditionally 2000 feet per minute is used to separate
high and low velocity classifications.
Turning Vanes
To overcome this situation vanes can be installed to direct the air flow
around the elbow (Figure 3-35). The vanes create a series of smaller elbows
which reduce the amount of turbulence. In some rare instances, splitters can
be used to actually establish smaller elbows (Figure 3-36). Splitters and
vanes are also used to maintain a laminar flow with uniform pressure
distribution when a tee or other fitting is near the downstream side of an
elbow. This process is shown in Figure 3-37.
3-60
Figure 3-34 Turbulent Air Flow in Elbow
3-61
I~--;- RADIUS
/'
WID/TH /'
I DEPTH
tV
3-62
~
I
~ ~~! ••
~!
~~ . •
•
---..
•
3-63
Dampers
Dampers are used to limit the amount of air low through a duct ·or
piece of equipment. Three basic types are found in HVAC distribution
systems: parallel blade, opposed blade and pivot blade. Figure 3-38 shows
a schematic representation of each basic type.
\/ - \- ,
\/'.
,
,;
\/ - \
,
- ,
i': ~
,
,
/\:
,
\/- \
,
- ,
\/\
, /
I
--
,
, -,
-,
\/\
,
\/\
,
""RALLE L OPPOSED
3D,DE Br..;"OE
/uv' /.1IIIf1'V
r O\v
~ \
3-64
Parallel blade dampers normally are used when only full-open or full-
shut conditions are required. When parallel blade dampers are in a partially
open position they tend to direct the air flow to one side of the duct, thus
causing uneven pressure distribution.
Opposed blade dampers are best suited for situation where the air flow
(volume) is to be regulated. They do not create the uneven air flow that a
partially open parallel blade damper does. Instead a mixing or turbulent
condition exists.
Pivot (or splitter) dampers generally are used to direct desired air
volume flows at a duct branch (Figure 3-39). Pivot dampers are not
commonly used due to the force required to move the damper. Parallel and
opposed blades have approximately equal forces acting on each side of the
rotating axis (Figure 3-40).
------=:::,,""-£)~ - - 1
\
\
'--""-..__ -1 ././ ______
3-65
INDIVIDUAL
PARALLE L
O R OPPOSED
AIR FLOW = PIVOT BLADE
BLADE
STABILIZIlIG
FORCE
( NO EXTERNAL STABILIZING - - - - - -
'. FORCE REQ UIRED )
Louvers
3-66
fRN1E
.~======I
4"T YP
~l=====l
t
LOUVC:? BLADE
SCREEN OR ME SH
At the tenninal ends of an air duct system (where the conditioned air
is withdrawn from or introduced to the controlled environment) vents are
installed to control the distribution and collection of conditioned air. The
term "vent" is a general expression for any apparatus which permits transfer
of air due to pressure gradient.
3-67
I '
I
I
l,
; ,
i:
[
3-68
. ~
~ ~
IEEEEEEEEEEB
Figure 3-43 Typical Register
3-69
When the blades of a grille are arranged so the air flow is spread out
and distributed into the controlled environment, it is known as a diffuser.
Diffusers may be fixed or adjustable blade variety. Diffusers are only used
on the supply side. Figure 3-44 shows a typical ceiling supply vent with a
diffuser and damper.
, .\ l
(- I~
/ "
.... ~ ....... "-
/ '\
/ \
I \
I / \\
/ ~
3-70
Silencers
Fans and air flow can create unwanted noise which is carried by the
HVAC duct system. To eliminate this noise, devices are installed to baffle
and adsorb the sound. The most basic of the silencers is an expansion box
with the entrance and exit ports skewed as shown in Figure 3-45. Other
silencing methods include encasing noisy equipment in insulated boxes and
lining the inside of the duct with insulation. Noise generators produce sound
waves at a reduced pressure variance and, therefore, impede the movement
of discernable noise.
AIR ~ WI TH r N SULAT I O~
3-71
SUMMARY
This chapter has discussed the equipment used in heating, cooling and
air-handling in HVAC systems.
Along with this discussion, we also looked at the criteria used to select
this equipment. It is important that you understand how this equipment is
used and how they basically operate. This information will be of value to
you in understanding how a HVAC system operates when all this equipment
is used together in a system.
,,
,-
I "
,
I,,,
3-72
.,
CHAPTER FOUR
FIELD INSTRUMENTATION OVERVIEW
,,
' ..
CHAPTER FOUR
FIELD INSTRUMENTATION OVERVIEW
OBJECTIVES
a. Manometers
b. Pitot tubes
c. Pressure gauges (magnahelic)
d. Anemometer
e. Smoke devices
f. Venturi tube and orifice plate
5. Given two known variables, find all other air properties from the
psychometric chart.
INTRODUCTION
The instrumentation necessary for HVAC work varies with the extent
to which you get involved with the maintenance and testing of HVAC
systems. Instruments for the measurement of air flow, water flow, rotational
speed, temperature and electricity are tools of the trade for those who install,
test and balance HVAC equipment. Those tasked with long term
maintenance may also employ vibration measurement equipment in predictive
maintenance or noise testing equipment to ensure that the noise from fans,
blowers, etc. does not exceed legal limits for noise in the work place.
U-Tube Manometer
4-1
denotes the pressure differential. U-tube manometers are recommended for
measuring pressure drops above 1 in. w.g. across filters, coils, fans, terminal
devices, and sections of ductwork. They are not recommended for readings
of less than 1.0 in. w.g. because of poor resolution in that range.
OVER-PRESSURE
TRAPS. WITH
~ SHUT·OFF COCKS
Inclined/Vertical Manometer
4-2
All air pressures are given in "inches of water", which means that the
air pressure on one end of a U-shaped tube is enough to force the water
higher in the other leg of the tube. Instead of water, this instrument uses
colored oil which is lighter than water. This means that although the scale
reads in inches of water, it is longei than a standard rule. Whenever a
manometer is used, the oil must be at room temperature or the reading will
not be correct. The manometer must be set level and mounted so it does not
vibrate.
The manometer (or inclined draft gauge) is the standard in the industry.
It can be read accurately down to approximately 0.002 in w.g. and contains
no mechanical linkage. It is simple to adjust by setting the piston at the
bottom until the meniscus of the oil is on the zero line. This instrument is
used with a pitot tube or static probe to determine pressure or air velocity in
a duct.
Micro-Manometer
Pitot Tube
Construction
4-3
outer "static" tube has 8 equally spaced holes around the circumference of the
outer tube.
A~
~+ I -
• 8D---~~
....
i
:
I:
c-kL
OOA
@
/
IS"
I
,.R"'-t ", a HOLES-O 04" CIA.
I '~
W.' " EOUALlY SPACED
FREE FROM BURRS
J2 RAO
NOSE SHALL BE FREE
FROM NICKS ANO BURAS
/
SECTION A-A
other-Sizes 01 Pltot lubeS when reqUIred. may be !xlIII uSing the same geometriC
proporuons WI!h the e~cep"on thaI the SialiC onhces on sizes larger Ihan
standard may not exceed .04 " '" diameter. The ITIInllnUm Pll01lube stem (llameler
recogrllZeo unoer IhlS coae shall be . 10" , In no case snail me stem diameter
INNER TUBING-APPROX. exceed ' ;30 c llhe lest duCI diameter
1:8"00, 21 sa. SGA.
Both tubes have a 90 degree radius bend in them located near the
measuring end to allow the open ended inner" impact" tube to be positioned
so that it faces directly into the airstream when the main shaft of the Pitot
tube is perpendicular to the duct and the side outlet static pressure tube outlet
connector is pointed in a parallel direction with airflow facing upstream,
4-4
The pitot tube is actually a head-type flow element which measures
fluid flow by creating a differential pressure. Figure 4-4 is an exaggerated
view of a pitot tube, showing how it functions inside of the duct. The inner
tube is·sometimes called the impact tube, or the total pressure tube, while the
outer tube is the static tube. As we began to explain, the pitot tube creates
a difference of pressure to measure flow (or, more directly, fluid velocity).
Per Bernoulli's equation, the square root of the difference in pressure is
proportional to flow. From Figure 4-4 we can see that the difference
between the total pressure (fp) and the static pressure (Sp) is the velocity
pressure (Vp). The relationship between the pressures is expressed by the
equation Tp = Sp + Vp.
s, "I
--AIRFLOW , Tp-,
c= ____ , _ _ _ _ "\ ... .
,
t II
s, I I
" " I I .
I· T,
.. ·1 I I
s,
s, ·1 v, • I I
I I
I !
How Preu uf' is lIIIerled on a Pilot Tube .
The Pitot tube is used for the measurement of airstream "total pressure"
by connecting the inner tube outlet connector to one side of a manometer; for
measurement of airstream "static pressure" by connecting the outer tube side
outlet connector to one side of a manometer; and from measurement of
airstream "velocity pressure" by connectors to opposite sides of a manometer
or draft gauge. This instrument is commonly used with a draft gauge,
manometer or micro-manometer. The pitot tube is a most reliable and rugged
4-5
instrument and is preferred over any method for the field measurement of air
velocity system total air, minimum outdoor air and maximum return air
quantities, fan static pressure, fan total pressure, and fan outlet velocity
pressures.
Several shapes and sizes of Pitot tubes are available for different
applications. A reasonably large space is required adjacent to the duct
penetration for maneuvering the instrument. Care must be taken to avoid
pinching the instrument tubing.
•
..... "....
"'0' - -
'U., f'~'----_../
,.
' - - - - -Lf
~.
y •
• .. ·IOW
(: / ~~
..
",'0 ", -
/.-
~
/).
,.
"-.
.. -............
B) Pitot Tube Connections if Airstream is
Exhausted from Duct & TP is Positive
4-6
'''''.
~
MOl'lOW )
,-
• / " -._ .._.- UI
('
".,
."
'"
"
~. .... ... ,
flOW __
4-7
DISCIIARGE
INTAKE
,, ,,,
,
+
\ ,
FAN
-------
mPACT
CONNF.CTION
IMPACT +
CONNECTION
MANOMETER
DISCHARGE
.
INTAKE
,
- :,
.,
FAN
. - - .- ~-. ' STATIC
. '. CON NECTI ON
IMPACT I ..... -- .. ' i. 1. +
CONNEC TI ON - I::::] =
[ibx::J
MANOMETER
4-8
r,
i In conducting tests, it frequently is sufficient to measure only two of
these three pressures, since the third one can be obtained by simple addition
or subtraction. Care must be taken, however, so that the signs of the various
pressures are correct; supply duct pressures are positive, return and exhaust
duct pressures are negative.
The various connections between the Pitot tube and the draft gauges are
frequently made with rubber hose . Caution must be used to ensure that all
passages and connections are dry, clean and free of leaks, sharp bends and
other obstructions. The branch ing out of the rubber hose can be
accomplished by the use of a T-tube or by the use of a 4-stem nipple adapter
which can be purchased as an accessory to the draft gauge.
Use of Readings
v = 4005 .;v;,
Where:
Duct velocity (fpm)
Velocity pressure (in. w.g.) at standard air
conditions
Example No.1
What is the duct velocity when the measured velocity pressure is 0.25
. ? .
In. w.g ..
4-9
Solution
To save time, a table like Table 4-1 which lists the "velocity vs.
velocity pressure" equivalents is often used.
" . .,
Ptt'uur. Velocity P'ftsure Velocity PrHsure Pr.SSUl'e Ve-Ioc.ly
on. wg. ",m ,no "'9.
V"loeity
on, wg. m.,
P'enur l
."
<5,
0.01
0.01
'"
0.01 ".
20..
""
'"
0.27
'29
'"
'"''
""
,goo
""
' .90
'92
0 ,95
0.9]
!OSSO
58"
58"
""
1.512
1.95
.."
202
""
"
""
H50
. 3.32
3.37
'"
2'"
.." '"
500
'600
SO
0.02
002
22"
".
2300
0.32
'03
,.,."" . ""
"
.... ..02 ""
58"
2."
2. 10
""
""
3.51
'55
".
002 U).
,,, ,OJ "" 56" 2"
"" '50
'SO
,,, '03
,0-
""
2500
0.37
0.]9
. .'"
"
1.07
1.10
1.13
,goo
59"
'000
'"
2.21
".
""
))00
))" '"'"
'"
..
,'"..
...,..
"" ,0- 25" '300
" '" 6OSO 2.28 , .",
,'"
...
."
900 ''05
05
' 06
2600
28"
2>00
0 .42
0.45
"00
"
'"
1.21
'"
""
""
6200
2.32
".
'"
'"SO
'900
7950
.'"
'89
".
...
'000 '06 2> .. 0 ..C7 '500 1.26 625' 2.43 ] .99
..''''"
6350 2.SI
8050
"00
'"
".
....
0 .08 2900 1.35
' .52
,." 2.55
""
.'" .,.
'''' 0.09 29 ..
""
"
"JO 2.S11
I
4 . Ig
>2"
"""
"00 ..
0. 10
'"
'"0. 13
0, 12
''''
""
" . ,.
JO ..
' .56
0.51
'50
0.62
"
.,,'
.'"
1.41
,"..,
.."
..53
'500
"
'600
""
. '"
2.67
2»
'"
82"
..."".'"'" .......
.JOO
.... '",
'",
"" ''''
J2"
49S0
"" 28'
' .66 sooo '.56
"" .. ...",
' 500 0. 1' 28'
)5" 0. 15
"" ' .68 S050
5>"
1.59
''''' 2,88
" '56
,."
..)8"
0. 16 0.10 1.62
'''' ')) "" 68" 2.112 .600
.....
0.72 2.97
>6..
))" 0. 18
'<5' D.H ""
5200 '"
'"U2
'900
69"
,'" '"
,>0,
86"
" '"
))
)8"
0. 19
02'
0.21 '"
""
.
35" 0.76
0.79
,."
0.81
525'
...'''''.
"'''
,"'
,.,. '"
1.78 ')),.
05"
.
3.05
3. 10
'"
"
'"
<8,
.,.
."
"00 0.22
"". ,..
3. 19
"2 )) 89"
""
2000
0.24
'25 ""
"
0.85 1.85
1.89
>200
>2.. '"
3.28
8950
9000
."
,OS
.~
Veloetty • 4005 V v . (Of) V, - ("""')'
4005
4-10
To calculate t e actual air flow (cfm) in the duct, a series of velocity
pressure readings are made, changed into velocity readings, and averaged for
an average duct velocity. The cfm is calculated by the following equation:
Where:
A Area of duct cross-section (sq. ft.)
V Average Velocity (fpm)
Example No.2
A 30 " X 24" duct has an average velocity of 1825 fpm. What is the
airflow rate?
Solution
Airflow A x V = 30 x 24 x 1825
144
4-11
1. Ensure that a large enough space adjacent to the duct is available
for maneuvering the pitot tube.
2. Drill the holes for the pitot tube in a clear, straight duct section
providing at least 8 duct diameters upstream and 2 diameters
down stream of the pitot tube free of elbows, transitions or
reductions.
3. Drill probe holes 9/16 inch diameter (assuming standard 5/16 in.
pitot tube) to accommodate tube movement without chafing.
4. Plug holes when finished with snap buttons and square of duct
tape. (#5 bottle corks are often used in lined ducts.)
4-12
Round Duct Traverses
For round ducts, the tangential method is the most common traverse.
,.
The duct is divided into N zones of equal area by concentric circles of radii,
R R2> R" etc., as shown in Figure 4-6. A series of ten readings is then
" along the horizontal axis, and ten readings are taken along the vertical
taken
axis. One practical aspect to be considered is how do you know where the
pitot tube is inside the duct? As Figure 4-6 shows, reading positions are
calculated from the center of the duct, as some position multiplier times the
radius of the duct. This is fairly common practice in the industry. Table 4-2
shows the calculated distance from the inside wall to the pitot tube reading
point for several duct sizes. Figure 4-7 shows a pitot tube marked for a 20"
diameter duct traverse, as per Table 4-2. The pitot tube should be marked
carefully with a China marking pencil or small strips of duct tape to facilitate
accurate placement of the tube for traverse readings.
R[CTANGUlAR DUCT
ROUND OUCI
4-13
Table 4-2 Calculated Ten Point Pitot Tube Traverses
for Round Ducts 12 to 40 in.
15*
17
18\\
18~
2011
20V.
22
2B',
23%
26
•0 % 2V. 311 51,1. av. 17'/. 20V, 22';' 23V. 2S1I
~
28 z 1I 21f. 4" 611 ,Yo 1811 21'1. 23'1. 25* 27V,
30 •
0
II 2\\ 411 611 IOV, 19* 23V. 2S1I 27V, 29V.
32 •
~ II 211 4\1 7~ II 20V. 24* 27~ 29l. 31 v.
34 ••x V. 2V, 5 7\1 11\1 22 26Y. 29 3 1'1. 331,<,
36 u V. 3 SYO 8V. 12v.. 23'1. 27'4 3m'. 33 3S
z
38 I 3\\ SV, 811 13 24 II 2911 32\', 34 V, 37
40 I 3;, 51,1, 9 131\ 25',', 31 34\. 36~'. 39
• IlIC~c c~kulat~t.1 in(h( .~ fm markin~ the I'ito l Tube' for 3 tcn ~tation IIner.<r arr wO lked 10 Ihe ncarC1l cil!hrh •.
for .... ucts ollit! thi n li<l cd . u~c the muhil'l iu . All figure, show" are in in(hn di ~t ~'Ke 1(1 Ihe illsidc w~1I
I - -\
.:-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
MARKINGS I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,
I
i"'''.~
i
-!"--
I
,... -1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,
I
I
"...
.~
I I I I
C ,,~
, I I ,
I II.. ·
, "..- ,
I I
I
I. "",. ,
4-14
. ~ ., SquarelRectangular Duct Traverses
For square or rectangular ducts, traverse holes are drilled in one wall
of the duct in such a manner as to establish equal areas as shown in Figure
4-8 for a 48 in. by 36 in. rectangular duct. Note that no reading location is
more than six inches from another. The 48" x 36" duct in Figure 4-8 would
be measured at 48 equally spaced stations, and the pitot tube would be
marked accordingly to facilitate those readings. As with circular ducts, tables
are available for square/rectangular ducts which eliminate the need to
calculate the reading position. All velocity pressure readings would be
recorded and transferred into velocity values, added together and averaged.
J6
• +,
over
~
•
, '7"
frvVV' " ~
0
,.;0
01°
Example No.3
4-15
l
Vp (in. W.G.) Vp (in. W.G.)
0.46 0.45
0.50 0.51
0.52 0.51
0.50 0.55
0.49 0.60
Solution
The following velocities were obtained from Table 4-1 and Equation
4-1.
Airflow AxV= r xV
144
3.14 (1OZ) x 2855
144
4-16
.075
" . v
d
Table 4-3 lists the Temperature-Density Corrections for Dry Air (at
29.92 in. Hg) for various temperatures. To correct for non-standard air the
correction factor in Column 6 is multiplied by the measured velocity.
2 , 4 5 _ 6.
DEGREOS ~CREC:S DENSIT Y VO,UI1 E ~HSITY CORREC1'IOH
FAREHIIEIT CELSIUS LBS/FTJ F'T Ill) R"Tto FACTOR'
)2 0 .00°7 12.)8 1.08 0·96
40 4.4 .0794 12·.59 1. 06 0 . .,
21.1 .0149 l).~ 1.00 1.00
'"
100
150
)7·8
66.0
.0109
.0651
14.10 ·95 1.0)
15·)6 .81 1.0,
200 9' .0602 16.62 .80 l.IZ
250
)00
121
1'9
.0559
.052)
17·88
19.1)
."
."
1.15
1.20
500
550
260
288
.04 14
.0)92
24 . 1?
25·48
."·52 1.)5
1.)9
J1. 7J
.44
.42
1. 51
1.54
850 460 .0)0) )2.99 .40 1.!8
482 .0292 J4 . 24 ·'9 1. 60
"'"
950
1000
, ,6
5)8
.0282
.0212
)5·,51
)8.,.
.J?
.)4
1.&1
1.71
' Tn <.."et. f.. r "0""'''.1 .. <,1 ' ''. m~l"rly 'ho CO" • • I;on (", M (,om «.Iu"." 6 ~1 ,he 1',11., ,wI><
n"'•• ~ ••d ~tl<>C"1.
4-17
Table 4-4 lists the Altitude-Density Corrections for Dry Air at 70"F for
readings taken at other than sea level. The correction factor from Column
6 is multiplied by the measured velocity.
"To co ,n:C1 for non·,la"d .. d I i, . mult ipl y 11M: corn:Cllon faa o. (rom col umn
b~ I". Pilol lllbc ,....ull •• d YdOP1~.
(,
4-18
Finally, changes in barometric pressure due to weather conditions, an
,..,
unknown height above sea level, etc. will effect the density of the air being
tested, and must be corrected for. Table 4-5, Barometric Pressure-Density
Correction for Dry Air lists the density of air at 25 different temperatures and
four different barometric pressures. The applicable correction factor can be
obtained from corresponding densities on Tables 4-3 and/or 4-4. If the
barometric pressure at test conditions is not shown on Table 4-5, then actual
air density can be calculated as follows:
.075
v VmX
d
..
0. 019 0.011 0.011 0.016
'"
'" ,
0.011 0.011 0.015 0.01'
0.01 6 0.015 0.0 14 O.OH
O.OH 0.014 o.on 0.011
."'" 0.01'
o.on
O.OH
0.011
0.011
0.010
0.070
0.069
''''"",
1I0 F
0.01 1
0.01 0
1I.Ql0
0.069
0.069
,...
0.06 '
0.06 1
0.06 5
nO F 0.1l" n.on 0.06 5
IlO F
1'0 F
11.061
0.066
0.066
11.06 5 ,...
O.II6S 11.\164
O.OU
4-19
When correcting for non-standard temperature and barometric pressure
conditions, the individual correction factofs are multiplied to obtain a total
correction factor.
Example No. 4
.; - " .:r" ~r
An exhaust system's average velocity as read by traverse is 3000 fpm .
The system is being tested at an altitude of 4000 ft and the air
temperature measures 250°F.
Solution
b. From Table 4-4, column 6, the altitude correction factor for 4000
ft above sea level is 1.08.
d. V = Vm x correction factor
v = 3000 x 1.242 = 3726 fpm, actual velocity
4-20
5. Multiply the average velocity by the necessary correction factors
to find the actual corrected velocity for the variance in air
density.
The magnehelic gauge (Figure 4-9) is an easy to use pressure gauge for
air system work which has many different pressure ranges from 0 to 0.25 in.
w.g. up to 0 to 150 in. w.g. Two different ranges (0 to 0.5 in. w.g., 0 to 1.0
in. w.g.) are the most commonly used. Readings should always be made in
the mid-range of the scale and the instrument should be held in the same
position as when "zeroed."
4-21
Figure 4-9 Magnehelic Gauge
4-22
(
It has been found that a two minute timed traverse gives better
averaging accuracy across the coil face or return air grille than the one
minute pass recommended by some industry groups. It is recommended that
two or more traverses be made across the air stream and then averaged. The
formula for air flow is:
cfm =
Where:
Ftm - measured anemometer reading in feet
A = free face area of grill in ft2
F = instrument correction factor (provided by
manufacturer)
2 two minute timed interval
4-23
In practice it is quite difficult to end the pattern at precisely the proper
time. The SMACNA recommends that the area be traversed horizontally,
then vertically, and then end with an "x-type" pattern, so that if time runs out
and only one bar of the "x" has been completed, it will still be a satisfactory
ending point.
The Florite anemometer shown in Figure 4-11 is direct reading; that is,
it does not depend on a time interval. It measures velocity pressure and
displays velocity (fpm) on the gauge. The Florite anemometer may be used
in the same manner as the rotating vane anemometer except that discreet
velocity points are best, such as 8" x 9" grids over a particular area, reading
the velocities at each point. This will be very much like a velocity profile
reading obtained by a Pitot traverse. To take an approximate reading for a
rough balance, a traverse is made in a given time period for the area by
moving the anemometer around and visually averaging the velocities present.
This is an inaccurate method, but it is fast and it will put you in the "ball
park."
4-24
r
The model 6000AP set is an all purpose set which adequately meets the
needs of TAB work. Most major air distribution device manufacturers have
set up area factors based on its use. The velometer consists basically of the
meter, measuring probes, range selectors, and connecting hoses. The meter
is scaled through the following velocity ranges: 0-300; 0-1250; 0-2500; 0-
5000; 0-10,000 fpm.
4-25
Figure 4.12 Velometer Set
4-26
Three velocity probes are provided - the low flow probe, the diffuser
probe, and the Pitot tube. The low flow probe is used in conjunction with
the 0-300 fpm scale for measuring terminal air velocities in rooms or open
spaces, and to measure face velocities at ventilating hoods, spray booths,
fume hoods, and the like. The low flow probe is directly mounted to the
meter without the use of hoses. The diffuser probe is designed to measure
the velocity at diffusers, registers and grilles. The volume of air being
supplied or exhausted can be determined using the following formula:
Ai distribll,tiQ.l!a.de:6f.~s
·s!!.eh.a.as diffusers, grilles et cannot be_
meas~d withQl:l~ a· Ks,factor~omfioW.tfactor, .becauseJ,the. manufacturer-mtEt
test-eac4 outle~ along~it_h .a.P..~Iticular£instrument and designate the--precise
. poiJljs on the diffuser where the instrument probe must be placed. The
technician must select the K factor for each diffuser type and size from the
manufacturer's specification sheet. The Pitot tube is used 'to measure
r velocities in ducts and at return air or exhaust air grilles. The low flow and
diffuser probes are shown in Figure 4-13 .
4-27
A) DIFFUSER PROBE
(A ,
Ve loci ty
Sensing The velocity directional sensing port (A)
Po, 1
senses the velocity at the diffuse, register,
,B, or grille.
Snap 0 11
Fins
The snap-off fins (B) allow you to
accurately position the probe vertically,
horizontally or radially.
B) LO·FLOW PROBE
4-28
Figure 4-14 Hot-Wire Anemometer
The probe is quite directional when used for air velocity measurement.
It is therefore necessary to hold the probe at right angles to the air flow and,
when used with grilles and diffusers, to place the probe exactly as indicated
i by the manufacturer of the grille or diffuser.
i.
The instrument gives instantaneous spot readings and, as with other
instruments, a number of readings across the airstream are required in order
to determine an average velocity.
A device that covers the terminal device to facilitate taking air velocity
or airflow readings is called a "flow measuring hood".
The conical or pyramid shaped hood can be used to collect all of the
aIr discharged from an air terminal and guide it over flow measuring
4-29
instrumentation. Hoods generally are constructed so that the outlet tapers
down to an area of 1 square foot. An anemometer (velometer) tip is installed
in the neck to read cfm directly, regardless of the airflow quantity measured.
The balancing cone should be tailored for the particular job. To keep
weight to a minimum, aluminum is normally used. The large end of the cone
should be sized to fit over the complete diffuser and should have a sponge
rubber seal to eliminate leakage and to avoid ceiling marks. When balancing
a large number of ceiling diffusers of common size, a hood may permit
reading from the floor and eliminate the need for a ladder as does the
commercially made hood shown in Figure 4-15.
4-30
3. Some of the larger hoods "get heavy" which could lead to
inaccurate readings because of leakage due to carelessness and
fatigue.
Smoke Devices
These are devices generally used for the study of air-flows and for the
detection of leaks.
When testing for leaks sufficient smoke should be used to fill a volume
15-to-20 times "larger than the duct or enclosure volume to be tested.
Smoke sticks and candles are convenient in that they corne in different
sizes and they provide an indicating stream of smoke. Some are like the puff
from a cigarette and others smoke continuously for a few minutes to a
maximum of 10 minutes.
4-31
Table 4-6 Hydronic Measuring Instruments
Accuracy of
Instrument Recommended Uses Calibration Required Field
Measurement
Pressure The same use as the U-Tube By an approved tesl agency 1/2 of 1% or
Gauge Manometer but for higher every 24 months depending 1/2 of scate
pressures. on usage. division.
U-Tube Manometer
4-32
3·Valvt By pn :! luptn valvu Q)ifldCDwllh
Valve(DOp tn, etO te V ~lv t0SIDW I Y )
Aside from the delay and expense of replacing the mercury, it is very
objectionable for mercury to enter the water system because it can cause
rapid deterioration of any copper (including copper alloys) that it contacts in
the system.
Pressure Gauge
The calibrated "test gauge" normally has a bourdon tube assembly made
of stainless steel, alloy steel, monel or bronze, and a non-reflecting white face
4-33
with black letter graduations. Test gauges are usually 3-1/2" to 6" diameter
with bottom or back connections. Many dials are available with pressure,
vacuum or compound ranges. The test instrument minimum accuracy must
be within 1% of full scale.
Dial gauges are used primarily for checking pump pressures; coil,
chiller, and condenser pressure drops; and pressure drops across orifice
plates, venturis, and other flow calibrated devices.
The gauge should not ·be exposed to pressures greater than the
maximum dial reading. Sfmilarly, a compound gauge should be
used where exposed to vacuum.
4-34
(
Co nn ecting
li nk.
2:- 00
Ca l ib rat ed
Sc ale
Moveme nt
Se ct or
4-35
opening the valve to the high pressure side, and the gauge glass is then
rotated so that its "zero" is even with the gauge pointer. Next, the high
pressure valve is closed and the valve to the low pressure side is opened.
The gauge pointer will now indicate a pressure that is directly equal to the
pressure differential in ft. w.g. If the gauge is of large diameter, such as
8 inches, differential pressures can be read accurately to the order of 0.25 ft.
w.g.
,.,
You would expect that it would take more pressure upstream to force
the fluid through the restricted opening. The faster the fluid is flowing, the
more upstream pressure is required. In this way, the pressure differential
(that is, the upstream pressure minus the downstream pressure) is related to
the velocity of the fluid. But the pressure differential must be equated to
4-36
gpm through the use of the orifice plate in order for the measurement device
to be useful. However, pressure drop is not equal to velocity (differential
pressure is not velocity pressure). By accurate measurement of the pressure
drop with a manometer at flow rates from zero fluid velocity to a maximum
fluid velocity established by a maximum practical pressure drop, a calibrated
flow range may be established. The flow range may then be plotted on a
graph which reads pressure drop versus flow rate (gpm, steam pounds per
hour, etc.) or the manometer scale may be graduated directly in the flow rate
values.
4-37
MOOIFIED TUBE
,
b'~
~ TVRBUlENCE
, .
..:...--~
'<ow '<ow
F'1'"~:==--=-I
" I
VENACQH I RAC'A
",.,
ENTRANCE RECOVERY
~,
4·38
to a reversed impact tube, and senses a pressure equal to static pressure
minus velocity pressure at this point; this pressure is also transmitted to a
gauge. The difference between the two pressures, when referred to
appropriate calibration data, will indicate flow in gpm. A differential
pressure gauge is used to directly read the pressure differential.
4-39
,
Flow measuring devices including the orifice, venturi, and other types
described above, and give accurate and reliable readings only when fluid flow
in the line is quite uniform and free from turbulence. Various texts provide
charts for standard piping configurations such as that in Figure 4-23.
4-40
f .
I
~A -+-1
T10
B.J...S. ruBE nJRHS OR
LONG RADIUS BENDS
01 '"
1 r
/' :n ~-=tB.j
l
JQ
2OIAM~'
STRAlGHT[NING
2 Dl AM . LONG
V~ E
,/
w
a.
ElBOWS OR TUBE lURNS II 20 a:
~
A :z:
LONe RADIUS BENDS
"
;;:
, i"
10
'"~
W
~ ~
cs
c
c Q2Q c..,. 0.110 0.80
DIAMETER RAnD, !3
(C) FOR ORIFlCES AND FLOW NOZZLES
FITTINGS IN OIFFEREN T PLANES
~ f
\rJ
c.~,
r,t
. ~
~','
\ G\.
....
..- 'I
C
el)
Figure 4·23 Flow Meter Location 0~ V I(
~. ","
4-41
Pipe fittings such as elbows, valves, etc., create turbulence and non-
uniformity of flow. Therefore, an essential rule is that flow measuring
elements must be installed far enough away from elbows, valves and other
sources of flow disturbance to permit turbulence to subside and for flow to
regain uniformity . This applies particularly to conditions upstream of the
measuring element, and it also applies downstream except to a lesser extent.
The manufacturers of flow measuring devices usually specify the lengths of
straight pipe required upstream and downstream of the measuring element.
Lengths are specified in numbers of pipe diameters, so that the actual
required lengths will depend on the size of the pipe. Requirements will vary
with the type of element and the types of fittings at the ends of the straight
pipe runs, ranging from about 5 to 25 pipe diameters upstream and 2 to 5
pipe diameters downstream.
Psychrometers Used to measure both weI bulb and Non. 1/2 of 1% or 1/2 of
dry bulb temperatures to delennine scale division.
wet bulb depression and relati ve
humidity.
4-42
The complete stem immersion calibrated thermometers, as the name
implies, must be used with the stem completely immersed in the airstream in
which the temperature is to be measured. If complete immersion of the
thermometer stem is not possible or practical, then a correction must be made
for the amount of emergent liquid column. Thermometers calibrated for
partial stem immersion are more commonly used in conjunction with
thermometer test wells designed to receive them or by inserting them through
small holes drilled in the ducts. No emergent stem correction is required for
the partial stem immersion type.
---
--"
--"--
...
I
l
4-43
Dial Thermometers
4-44
!
; '
,
f •
, .
Figure 4-26 Flexible Capillary Type Dial Thermometer
Pyrometers
,
!. Pyrom~ters normally used in measurements of surface temperatures in
heating and air conditioning applications, use a thermocouple as a sensing
device and a milli-voltmeter (or potentiometer) with a scale calibrated for
reading temperatures directly. A variety of types, shapes and scale ranges are
available.
4-45
type thermometers have advantages of remote-reading, good precision, and
flexibility as to temperature range. Additionally, some electric type
thermometers have multiple connection points on the instrument case, and a
selector switch, enabling the use of a number of temperature sensors which
can be placed in different locations, and read one at a time by use of the
selector switch.
Human comfort and health depend a great deal on the air temperature.
In air-conditioning, the air temperature indicated usually is Dry Bulb (DB)
temperature taken with the sensitive element of the thermometer in a dry
condition. It is the temperature measured by thermometers in the home.
When the air is saturated with moisture, no water will evaporate from
the cloth wick and the temperature on the wet bulb thermometer will be the
same as the reading on a dry bulb thermometer near it.
4-46
01''1' 8Ul8
ORV
BULB
WET
BULB
TEMPERATURE
WICI(
However, if the air is not saturated, water will evapbrate from the wick.
In doing so, it will lower the wick temperature. Then, heat will flow from
the mercury to the wet wick and the reading will be lower.
The accuracy of the wet bulb reading depends on how fast the air
passes over the bulb. Speeds up to 5000 ft./min.or 60 mph are best but
dangerous if the thermometer is moved at this speed. Also, the wet bulb
should be protected from heat radiation surfaces (radiator, sun, electric heater,
etc.). Errors as high as 15 percent may be made if the air movement is too
slow, or if too much radiant heat is present.
Psychrometer
4-47
weT BULB
j
i ..
c;;;;a..
t
DRyaULB
--~
Because evaporation is taking place from the surface of the wick, there
is likely to be deposit of lime substances on the wick. Therefore, to get
accurate measurements, a clean wick should be used. Also, use distilled
water on the wick. Sling psychrometers come in a variety of sizes.
4-48
Figure 4·29 Aspirating PSYChrometer
Wick-Type Dewcells
4-50
A wick-type dewcell is shown in Figure 4-31. The typical element is
a thin-walled metal socket (to fit over an RID) covered with a woven glass
tape, and impregnated with lithium chloride. A low voltage (25 VAC)
alternating current is supplied to a pair of gold wires wrapped over the tape.
An RID is mounted inside the dewcell over which the socket, tape and gold
wires are mounted.
GOlD HEAnNG • •
BOBBIN ELEJ.AENT WIRES FlBERGlASS WICK
,r - - -- - - - -------------- - --~
FOR RID LEADS
,, ANO +2SV TO HEATER
RID BODY
t
, .
4-51
..i
Capacitance Probe Dewcell
4-52
The number of water molecules absorbed on the oxide structure
determines the conductivity of the porous wall . Each value of the porous
wall resistance provides a distinct value of electrical impedance which is a
direct measure of the water vapor pressure.
(OUlPUT BIASED
TO CHili MIRROR
'llttEN a..£AR)
r-t--lJ..,--=~=--,'t-.r--j---j CONTROL
AJ,IPUFlER
-~~~~rrr~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SAJ,l~GAS
••••••
•••••
•••••• ••••••••
•••••
••••• • •••••
•••••
lfD THERl.lOEl.£ClR1C
REGULATlON HEAT PUMP ORI\I{R
4-53
In a chilled mirror type dewcell, a light emlttmg diode (LED)
illuminates the mirror surface. A photo transistor is located to observe the
reflection. A second LED/photo transistor optical circuit completes the
bridge circuit, and tracks the first opto-electronic pair over sensor (ambient)
temperature.
Volt-Ammeter
Voltage - volts
Current - amperes
4-54
The clamp-on type volt-ammeter is the type usually used for taking
field measurements. The clamp-on type volt-ammeter shown has trigger
operated, clamp-on transformer jaws which permit current readings without
interrupting electrical service. Most normally have several scale ranges in
amperes and volts. Two voltage test leads are furnished which may be quick
connected into the bottom of the volt-ammeter. Some of the volt-ammeter
models are also furnished with a built-in ohmmeter. The instrument should
be calibrated by an approved test agency every 6 months, and it should be
checked against a recently calibrated on each project.
4-55
When using the volt-ammeter, the proper range must be selected.
When in doubt, begin with the highest range for both voltage and amperage
scales.
Readings may be taken at the motor leads or from the load terminals
of the starter. To determine the current of single phase motors, place the
clamp about one wire. When involved with three phase current, take
readings on each of three wires and average the results.
To measure voltage with portable test instruments, set the meter to the
most suitable range, and connect the test lead probes firmly against the
terminals or other surfaces of the line under test, and read the meter, making
certain to read the correct scale if the meter has more than one scale. When
reading single phase voltage the leads should be applied to the two load
terminals. The resulting single reading is the voltage of the current being
applied to the motor.
4-56
each of which will likely be a little different, but which should be close to
each other. For practical purposes they may be averaged.
If the average voltage delivered to the motor varies by more than a few
volts from the nameplate rating of the motor, several things can occur. A
rise in voltage may damage the motor and will cause a drop in the current
reading. A drop in the voltage will cause a rise in the current and can cause
the overload protectors on the starter to "kick out". In either case, it is
advisable to promptly report high or low voltage situations.
4-57
damaging the insulation and furnishes a highly useful guide for determining
the general condition of insulation, but is, by itself, not entirely conclusive.
Measurements have shown that insulation resistance measurements at
moderate voltages may actually increase after the insulation has been broken
down by a high potential. Clean, dry insulation having cracks or other faults
may show a high value of insulation resistance but obviously is not suitable
for use. These limitations of insulation resistance values must be fully
realized when the condition of insulation is appraised by such values.
Surface conditions
Moisture
Temperature
Magnitude of test direct potential
Duration of application of test direct potential
Residual charge in the winding
4-58
100
80
~
"
:I:
0
Cl
w
60
"z
ui
u
,,"
«-<, ~ POLARIZA TlON
INDEX
"... ~.., ,
I 2.0 OR MORE
~
~
~ 40 <t"
w
a:
z
"
0
;::
"
-'
:J
~
20
Z
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
TIME. HOURS
The ten minute test is used with the one minute test to compute the
polarization index, which is the ratio of the ten minute to the one minute test.
The ten minute test, taken annually, also provides a highly reliable evaluation
of the motor insulation condition and can be charted, compared, and
interpreted to determine maintenance action and frequency of inspection. The
technique for the ten minute test is essentially the same as the one minute
test except that the test is performed for a longer period of time.
4-59
The insulation surface must be clean and dry if the measurement
is to provide the information on the condition within the
insulation as distinguished from surface condition.
When data is being trended, every effort should be made to conduct the
test under the same conditions. This permits easier and more accurate
comparison. However, it is not always possible to duplicate conditions, but
if major deviations are recorded with the data, they can be factored into the
review. Along with the test results, the following information should be
recorded:
4-60
Motor nameplate data
Winding temperature
Ambient temperature
Relative humidity
Condition in the area
Whether the motor was in service prior to the inspection
Maintenance actions taken
Instruments
Testing Guidelines
Generally two electricians carry out the one minute or the ten minute
tests. Before performing the test, the motor data and past history can be
reviewed to give an idea of what to expect and warn of past problems.
4-61
L
460 V ~
r- - - -t- -,
I
I i 600A CB
L_
-1---- _J FLOOR-MOUNTED
~ MOTOR
r- __ _ ...L, CONTROLLER
I -- - ---t~._-l-I_
I I - DISCONNECT
I I SWITCH
I I (UN FUSED)
I
I -- - - ----O+-110VC01L
I I
I I
I
L_
200 HP 500 V
MOTOR MEGOHMMETER
4-62
At this point, a voltage tester should be used to test for live circuits and
residual voltage. Any residual voltage should be discharged to ground before
continuing the test. When using the tester, leads should be attached to the
appropriate terminal or ground using an ·alligator clip, so only one hand is
required in the proximity of possible energized equipment.
.. ,
The insulation resistance reading can be ·taken at a point closest to the
motor itself. The testers' reading with the leads shorted together should read
zero. This serves as a check on the tester's accuracy.
When testing individual phases, the neutral end of each phase winding
should be disconnected and the phases not under test should be grounded.
Another method of testing each phase separately is to use guard circuits on
the phases not under test.
Tests may be made on the entire winding at one time, under certain
conditions, such as when time is limited. However, this procedure is not
preferred. One objection to testing all phases at a time is that only ground
insulation is tested and no test is made of the phase-to-phase insulation. The
phase-to-phase insulation is tested when one phase is tested at a time with
other phases grounded.
4-63
The insulation resistance readings obtained are adjusted for the test
method and then for temperature, to 40°C, so they can be compared with the
insulation resistance recommended minimum value of the complete winding.
kV + 1
where:
recommended minimum insulation resistance in
megohms at 40°C of the entire machine
winding.
4-64
Note that the IEEE recommended value is always a value larger than
one and increases for machines with higher terminal to terminal potentials.
The actual complete winding insulation resistance to be used when comparing
to the calculated value must be corrected to 40"C.
In addition, special motors may have winding resistances lower than the
recommended since special materials may be used in the insulation. The
minimum insulation resistance value may be established by the manufacturer.
This information should be requested at the time of purchase.
Frequency of Inspection
,. The current industrial practice is to test motors annually using both the
;
one minute and ten minute tests. The results are recorded for trending and
the polarization index is computed. Also, motors are tested using the one
,
l
minute test anytime the insulation resistances value is in question. Causes
for question may be operating in adverse conditions or standing idle for long
periods of time.
Interpretation of Results
L
Insulation resistance history of a given machine, made and kept under
,. uniform conditions, is recognized as a useful way of monitoring the
insulation condition (see Figure 4-38).
.. 4-65
L
When the insulation resistance history is not available,
recommended minimum values of the polarization index or of the
one minute insulation resistance may be used to estimate the
suitability of the winding for an over potential test or for
operation. The one minute insulation resistance (corrected to
40°C) should be at least · that · of .the recommended minimum
insulation resistance value obtained from RM = kV + 1.
"L-_'-_'-_-:---:
"
nUl IYIA"S)
.
Figure 4·38 Insulation Resistance History
4-66
The insulation resistance of one phase of a three-phase armature
winding with the other two phases grounded is approximately
twice that of the entire winding. Therefore, when the three
phases are tested separately, the observed resistance of each
phase should be divided by two to obtain a value which, after
correction for temperature, may be compared 'with the
recommended minimum value of insulation resistance for the
complete winding.
4-67
Table 4-8 Tachometer Types
Many revolution counters cannot be used on shafts with flat ends. (Slip
and inaccurate readings are inev itable.) Some types feature a clutch
engagement in which a certain amount of force is required to activate the
recording mechanism. All must be used and coordinated with an accurate
timepiece.
Tachometers, Centrifugal
4-68
rotating shaft, which then rotates the tachometer mechanism and moves the
pointer to give instantaneous indication on the dial, directly in rpm. This type
of tachometer will indicate properly regardless of the rotation of the shaft,
and a stop watch or other time device is not required.
Tachometer, Chronometric
4-69
-.,
Figure 4·40 Chronometric Tachometer
Tachometer, Electronic
The stroboscope does not need to make contact with the machine being
checked, but need only be pointed toward the machine so that a moving part
will be illuminated by the stroboscope light and can be viewed by the
operator. The light flashes are of extremely short duration, and their
frequency is adjustable by turning a knob on the stroboscope. When the
frequency of the light flashes is exactly the same as the speed of the moving
part being viewed, the part will be seen distinctly only once each cycle, and
the moving part will appear to stand still. The corresponding frequency, or
rpm, can be read from a scale on the instrument.
4-70
Figure 4-41 Stroboscope
Tachometer, Photo
4-71
Figure 4-42 Photo Tachometer
The photo tachometer does not have to be in contact with the rotating
device. It indicates instantaneous speeds, not average speed - whether
constant or changing - thereby reading the speed as it is. It is easy to use,
and easy to read. One need only place a contrasting mark on the rotating
device by using chalk or colored tape. It is good instrument to use on in-line
fans and other such equipment where shaft ends are not accessible. It also
has good application for use on equipment rotating at a high rate of speed.
VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Vibration Probe
4-72
,. Unbalance of rotating parts
Misalignment of couplings and bearings
Bent shafts
Worn, eccentric or damaged gears
r Bad drive belts and drive chains
Bad bearings - anti-friction type
Torque variations
Electromagnetic forces
Hydraulic forces
Looseness
Rubbing
Resonance
Dirty Blades
The vibration probe and meter cannot determine the problem but does
provide the data which indicates changes since the last reading. Once a
problem is detected, analysis is performed using more sophisticated equip-
ment. Typical meters for vibration probe analysis are shown in Figure 4-43.
r.::;:;71
~
i
I
•
,
Figure 4-43 Vibration Meters
4-73
I-
The key item of a vibration pickup probe is the crystal. The crystal,
when subjected to pressure caused by vibration, deforms which causes an
electrical potential proportional to the applied force or pressure. This action
of generating a voltage from the force or pressure is the principle used in the
piezoelectric crystal. Piezoelectricity is a property of nonconducting solids
which have a crystal lattice structure that does not have a center of symmetry
to produce voltage. The crystal is a dynamic responding sensor and is not
suitable for steady-state conditions, therefore, it only responds on a vibration
pulse or change. A magnet may be used to attach the probe to the rotating
equipment. Other probes are permanently attached and provide constant
readings that are monitored.
VELOCITY
PICKUP CONNECTOR PINS
--------
-------~
__ .. --- -- /"
,"..,>NVoN
CONNECTOR'INI
ACCiLIEAOMITlR
.......
CRYSTAL
MAGNET..,"l
4-74
Typically the output from the crystal goes to an amplifier which then
transmits a usable signal for indication or control. A vibration probe using
this principle may be found on large forced-draft fan bearings.
Measuring Vibration
Methods for applying the pickup are listed below. Factors which may
affect the accuracy (or desired ability) of these methods are given
immediately after the list, and should be studied carefully.
4-75
1. Hand-held, with pickup directly against vibrating part.
Methods of pickup will vary with machine RPM and pickup device.
The following is an example of speed limits (due to "resonance" limits of the
pickup accessories).
4-76
Measuring Displacement
Vibration can be measured in terms of how far the part moves back and
forth. This is called the peak-to-peak displacement or simply the
displacement. This measurement of displacement is normally expressed in
mils.
Measuring Velocity
The vibrometer can also measure the vibration in terms of how fast the
part moves. This is called the peak velocity and is measured in inches per
second. Because the velocity is a function of both displacement and
frequency, it provides an added sensitivity to high frequency vibrations.
GAUGE MANIFOLD
4-77
All maintenance performed will include some of these steps. The
primary tool used in diagnosing the problems in a refrigerant system is the
gauge manifold.
Some do not have any service valves but do have a process tube.
See 4-47C.
4-78
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'I.U5111111: '1.1.110
4-79
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System A with two service valves is the easiest for attaching gauges.
It also permits one to check both the low side pressure and the high side
pressure.
Referring to Figure 4-48 the most popular way to purge the service
lines is to loosen the line fitting on the system service valve at C, open valve
B and then open cylinder line valve E just a little. Repeat the same
procedure for valve D. The cylinder refrigerant will free or purge all the
lines and the manifold of air and moisture.
4·80
r- - - - - -- -. - - ------ -- - - -- --- - --- -. --,
((
))
((
))
4-81
After installing the gauge manifold (if the unit will run), operate the
system through at least three operating cycles. Carefully record the suction
pressures, condensing pressures, evaporator temperature and the condenser
temperature. Many times this information is provided on packaged units .
1~
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4-82
SUMMARY
4-83
(
CHAPTER FIVE
,.
!
L
CHAPTER FIVE
SYSTEM TEST AND BALANCE PROCEDURES
OBJECTIVES
• Ducts
• Diffusers
• Supply grilles and registers
3. List the four critical factors that are checked in balancing plenum
systems.
l.
9. Describe the two tests used to test HEPA filters .
The cross section of the duct should be marked off in square areas of
equal proportions and the pitot tube inserted so as to be in the center of each
square progressively and the gauge reading noted for each square. Readings
of 700 FPM or below should not be made with this type of instrument as
these readings will not be accurate . For readings of 700 FPM or below, the
5-1
micromanometer should be used in lieu of the inclined or magnehelic gauge .
A maximum of six inch squares should be used.
Air flows from diffusers should be measured with one of the following
type instruments:
• Alnor Velometer
• Bacharach FloRite Scoop
• Hoods when applicable as noted herein
5-2
The average anemometer reading should be made by marking off the
grille in sections taking a reading in front of each section and averaging the
results. Readings taken by moving the instrument back and forth across the
face should not be used.
The vane type Bacharach Velocity meter can also be used in the same
manner with the corrected factor.
The Alnor Velometer should be used with the correct tip and read at
the vena contract of the blades using the manufacturer's published velometer
factor of effective area.
Use of Hoods
5-3
of 1.25 is applied to the actual free area of the discharge end of the hood
increasing it from 1.00 sq. ft. to 1.25 sq. ft.
It has been determined that when a hood is applied to any given outlet,
the backpressure created by the hood causes the air to back up slightly
forcing more air to be discharged from some other outlet either in the same
zone or at the point of least resistance. This can be proven by testing two
outlets individually on the same branch duct and comparing the added total
against a traverse reading of the branch duct upstream from both outlets.
Without applying the correction factor as outlined above, the reading of the
traverse will be greater than the total of the two outlet readings.
24 x 24 12 x 12 1.00 1.25
20 x 20 lOx 10 .69 .83
16 x 16 8x8 .44 .50
12 x 12 6x6 .25 .28
24 x 12 12 x 12 1.00 1.25
When these factors are applied to the free area of the bottom end of the
hoods, the most accurate readings may be taken.
5-4
Testing of Motor Amperage
To test motor amperage the test technician should use the clamp-on
ammeter. Whenever possible readings should be made at the motor
terminals. If the motor terminals are not accessible, readings should be made
at the motor starter box or controller. Before the final reading is taken, fan
drive or vanes should be set in position of final operation. No readings
should be taken until the motor has come up to maximum speed after start
up. Readings should be taken on all three legs of three phase motors.
Each system that uses hot and cold mixing should be subject to the test
so that a leakage factor can be determined. A temperature sampling should
, be made in the cold supply duct and in the main hot supply duct. With the
room thermostat calling for full cooling, air temperature should be read at the
outlet and compared to the temperature of the cold duct air. The same
procedure should be followed for testing of the hot supply duct but with the
'~
use of full heating. !ii9rmal leakagetfactor, should,,oot. exceed 5%.
During the balancing of the system, the cold static dampers should be
held at a maximum open position of 90% with the system calling for full
5-5
l.
cooling and with the hot dampers in the closed position. For the balancing
of the hot side the same positioning should be made with the hot damper on
call for full heating. The final settings of dampers should be made by
reading the static pressure required at the sensing tip when the air column at
all terminals is as specified on a call for full cooling. This procedure should
be reversed for the heating side. Arbitrary settings at gauges should be
avoided. This may involve a great deal of checking as the point of least
static is generally, but most certainly not always, at the end of the system.
A. Determine the total amount of air required to flow across the cooling
coil and heating coil during maximum load conditions. If the cooling
coil is designed to handle the total CFM during maximum load
conditions, the system should be balanced with full air flow across the
cooling coil. If the design calls for a percentage of cooled air and
warm air across respective coils at maximum load conditions, the
systems should be balanced under these conditions. The above applies
to double duct systems.
C. All tests should be run with supply, return and exhaust systems
operating and all doors, windows, etc., closed or under projected
operating conditions.
5-6
D. Whenever possible, final readings and settings should be made with
cooling coils operating (wet) in order that static pressure conditions
should be a maximum.
,.
E. Allowances should be made for air filter resistance at the time of the
tests. The main air system should be at design air quantities and at an
air resistance across the filter bank midway between the design
specifications for clean and dirty filter conditions.
5-7
Testing of Ceiling Plenum Systems (See Figure 5-1)
Pattern of
air distribution
through
plenum ceilinq
O'"llrolion
5-8
There are various types of ceilings on the market, but the principle of
air supply is essentially the same in all of them. Typical design of such a
system consists of a standard air handling unit or supply fan with a supply
air duct running to the various sealed plenum areas or boxes over the space
to be conditioned. Supply ducts terminate at the plenums, discharging the air
into these sealed areas above the ceilings.
5-9
.IU ' f .. O(.ItOll'l",u. ,U f e:
... t ... . • ..... . ~~ Cfl'(O
5-14
Fume Hood Testing
"
I A balanced hood and enclosure requires that the air flow through the
opening and enclosure itself be such that full protection is maintained without
interfering with the experiment or the personnel carrying on the experiment.
Minimum air flow conditions which will furnish this protection, yet not waste
conditioned or heated air, are also a requirement of good balanced conditions.
Two types of hoods are now generally in use. Type one introduces a
source of make-up air and uses a very minimum amount, if any, of the
surrounding conditioned air. The second type uses all surrounding air. In
either case the air that flows through the enclosure must utilize an exhaust
fa n system to move this contaminated air to the out-of-doors.
To achieve good balance in either type of system, the exhaust fan and
supply air must be adjusted to accurate and correct amounts.
5-15
. _. .
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.
gj Roof Line
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~ A. Pitot traverse pasHia n.
B. Static pressure readi ng.
C. Exhaust air reading a t hood.
,
l
..
Roo! line
5-18
When hood enclosures are banked together in a given area, particular
attention must be given to the placement of air conditioning outlets. Placing
these outlets close to the hoods will cause excessive draft conditions and in
some cases, short circuiting of conditioned air. Optimum application is to
place air outlets on oppcsite ends of room areas allowing hoods to draw this
air across the room area. When hoods have a self-contained air supply,
attention to the above details may not be needed. Because of the possible
health hazards possible due to improper hood operations, hood operating tests
should be performed at least once a year. Inspection and test results
certificate should be placed in a conspicuous location by the testing agency.
In most cases it is not practicable for the test and balance agency to
perform these tests as it would require having a test technician continuously
on the job as the ductwork is installed. From the standpoint of economy, it
is more practicable to have the contractor conduct tests in accordance with
AABC Test Standards, and have the agency verify the results obtained and
issue a certificate. "The degree of air tightness in high velocity ductwork
should not be compared with a water distribution system or gas system.
Some degree of leakage will exist regardless of all the precautions taken
during fabrication and installation, however, this leakage should be
minimized to a degree that will not cause excessive problems.
5-19
Test Equipment
1. Magnehelic Gauge
2. U-Tube Manometer
3. Inclined Gauge
5-20
A"
~Tr';'Ic."lrnlflt.
7. Maintain this pressure for ten minutes which will indicate audible
leaks.
8. Repair all visual and audible leaks. Shut down the blower and
release the pressure when making repairs.
5-21
9. Upon completion of repairs, build up pressure to test pressure and
read leakage pressure on the instrument connected across the test
apparatus orifice plate. (See Figure 5-4)
.. ••
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.. o• •• •, •• • • .,. ,. '... .. " .. j, o , . I e .... . . . . ..
"
"
.,
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o. •• .•• -0,"' ....... .,. l' .. . . . ~. ... ... " ,. ... . .. ... ...... I •
Figure 5-5 Variation of Air Flow Rate with Orifice Differential Pressure
5-22
Test Verification
3. Check all air vents at the coils and at the high points of the
system.
5-23
d. When systems have multiple coil sections, where possible,
"
balance the water flow by establishing the design water pressure
drop across each col. An alternate method of balancing multiple
sections involves reading the water temperatures at each coil
section with insertion thermometers or contact pyrometer probes,
and adjusting the balancing cocks until uniform temperatures are
obtained.
a. With the system off, confirm that the water level in the tower
basin is at the correct level. On towers with variable pitch fan
blades, verify that the setting of the blades is correct.
b. With pump(s) off, observe and record the system static pressure
at the pump(s).
c. Place the system into operation and allow the flow conditions to
stabilize.
d. Record the operating voltage and amperage of all fan and pump
motors and compare these with nameplate ratings and thermal
overload heater ratings.
5-28
differential pressure. It is important that gauge readings be
corrected to center line elevation of the pump.
g. Establish uniform water distribution over the tower and check for
clogged outlets or spray nozzles.
J. Start the tower fan and check rotation, gear box belts, sheaves
and water makeup valve. Check for vortex conditions at the
tower suction connection. Check and record fan motor amperes,
voltage, phase and speed.
5-29
m. When electric or steam coils are used in the tower basic with low
water cutoff controls to prevent freeze-up, verify that they will
function properly.
o. Make a final check of all pump and equipment data, and record.
p. After all balancing work has been completed and the system is
operating within plus or minus 10% of design flow, mark or
score all balancing cocks, gauges, and thermometers at final set
points and/or range of operation.
q. Verify the action of all water flow safety and shutdown controls.
a. Verify that the boiler(s) has been cleaned, flushed, and started;
that all safety and operating controls have been tested, adjusted
and set; and that the bumer(s) is operating properly.
5-30
• Steam boiler water level proper and steady.
h. Follow the basic procedures for hot water or steam system work
for items not mentioned above.
Heat Exchangers/Converters
c. Check and record the steam pressure; check the setting and/or
operation of automatic temperature control valves, self-contained
control valves, or pressure reducing valves where used. Record
data.
5-31
l.
d. Verify safety valve settings and operation.
h. Follow the basic procedures for hot water or steam system work
for items not mentioned above.
5-32
c. From Tests
It is considered good practice to use this cross check on all main coils
regardless of whether or not flow station or pressure taps are provided.
5-33
Water Balance with Coil, Control Valve and Measuring Station
B. Place the valve in the position for full flow through the coil.
Check to be sure that the valve has seated against the bypass
port. Connect the differential pressure gauge or manometer
across gauge cocks "C" and "0". (See Figure 5-6.)
C. Adjust the balancing valve "A" until the differential matches the
drop required with design flow and the control valve Cv. (See
Figure 5-6.)
O. Place the differential gauge between "C" and "E". Read and
record the coil pressure drop. (See Figure 5-6.)
E. Place the differential gauge between "0" and "E" and read this
differential with full flow through the coil. (See Figure 5-6.)
F. Change the control valve to full flow through the bypass and
adjust balancing valve "B" until the differential across "0" and
"E" is the same as it was with full flow through the coil. (See
Figure 5-6.)
G. Place the differential gauge across "0" and "F", read the
differential and calculate flow using Cv of the valve on bypass.
(See Figure 5-6.)
5-34
A " B - Balancing ":tlves
C, D, E, F, G & [I - ", auge Cock!
I " J - The rmomete r Wells
This example illustrates the various possible ways a coil may be tested
for flow. It is a good practice to check by as many methods as are available .
5-35
FIELD TEST & SET
1. By Coil Drop
GPM 80 x 11.0
2.3 Test 11 ft.
80 x 2.21
= 176 GPM
5-36
3. By Flow Station - Rinco 4" B
= 181 GPM
Cabinet Unit Heaters
,
;
L
,;
5-37
1. Check rotation of the fan.
2. Read and record the pressure drop across the coil and adjust if
necessary.
1. Set unit on high fan speed. Set outside air and thermostat on full
cooling for fan coil units and full recirculated air for unit
ventilators.
5-38
Note: A flow mounted unit is defined as an "under-the-window"
type. A ceiling mounted unit is defined as a "horizontal
ceiling-hung unit" to accept a duct system or free blow.
Unit Heaters
--
..
- .-- .
2. Read and record the pressure drop across the coil and adjust if
necessary.
I
5-39
L
Pumps
5-40
Chiller
5-41
Cooling Tower
1. Read and record all nameplate data on the tower and pumps.
2. Read and record the current and voltage on the pump motors and
tower fan motors.
3. Read and record the pump pressures and flows and adjust
accordingly.
5. Read and record the wet and dry bulb temperatures of the inlet
and outlet flows.
5-42
HEPA FILTERS
5-43
During plowing in dry weather, it could plug up from large
particles and fibers in hours, if not minutes, depending on wind
conditions .
r NO GREATF.R
mAN <5 C~·) /
/ /
20 ")( 50" ACCESS
~OOR (TYP.)
AIR FLOW
~
V P
R
E
F
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E
--!
CHARCOAL
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E
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L p P
~ E
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T
L- A L-
- AI/(
/
INLE T 5' -0' 5'-0' 5' -0 '
\
OUTL ET
PLENU M PLENU M
5-44
In the area of operation and maintenance, the common problems are
lack of understanding of the relative costs and importance of the prefilters vs.
the HEPA filters. First, the prefilters have no regulatory significance as far
as removal credit or requirements for testing. By Plant License requirements,
most HEPA banks must be subjected to rigorous, aerosol leak tests whenever
changed. It is, therefore, not simply the cost of the filters themselves to
compare on a cost/benefit analysis of when to replace filters, but the
regulatory (i.e., Plant License) significance of the HEPA bank and the cost
to test it . At times this is not fully grasped by the maintenance staff.
Pressure drop readings are the most common basis for prefilter changeout.
The frequency of the readings and the basis for the schedules vary greatly.
There has not been a formal program to check prefilter pressure drops after
an event that would reasonably be expected to cause excess prefilter load
and, therefore, reduced life. There have been cases where the pre filters were
so loaded with dirt and debris that they had failed, and the HEP A filters were
grossly loaded. Where the prefilters have not failed but are loaded in excess
of system design, the system flow is often below design standards.
There are many events or situations that can change the normal
particulate concentration in the airstream. In addition to the obvious ones of
grinding, sanding, cutting, etc., such things as working on pipe insulation
(fiberglass or "wool") or changing environmental conditions around the plant
will have a direct effect on the prefilter life. The example of pipe insulation
is quite real. A power plant had initially installed a HEPA filter system
without prefiltration to exhaust air from a "clean" area. During construction,
a great deal of pipe insulation was added in the area ventilated. This was
bare insulation with the fibers exposed, as there was to be no normal traffic
or access to this area. Fortunately, this potential problem was discovered by
a consultant and prefiltration stages were added. Operating experience has
shown most prefilters require at least annual changeout, which is very cost
effective compared to changing the HEPA filters annually.
5-45
HEPA Filter Testing
5-46
bank and an adsorbent bank? The nearly universal provision provided by
filter system vendors and accepted by both NE and utility engineers is an
access hole in the door or housing. The N509 standards and NRC
regulations 1.52 and 1.140 have clearly called for permanent test manifolds
or other provisions to allow the mandated leak tests, but such provision has
never been provided by the original vendor to date. Where they exist, they
have been added by the plant after startup has proven their need.
The in-place test is a leak test of the installed system and should not
be confused with the efficiency test of individual filters. This test is used
during acceptance testing of the air cleaning system, after any filter
replacement, or after any maintenance activity in the filter housing to verify
(1) that the filters have not been damaged, (2) that they have been installed
properly, (3) that there are no leaks in the mounting frame or ·between the
mounting frame and the housing, and (4) that the system contains no
bypassing (e.g., through defective or inefficient bypass dampers, through
adjacent plenums, or through penetrations, such as electrical conduits, which
penetrate the mounting frame) which would compromise the function of the
filters. The test is also made periodically in both operating and standby
systems to check on possible degradation of the filters or the filter installation
(e.g., development of cracks in the mounting frame or mounting-frame-to-
housing seal). This covers only the gross test but can be used as a basis for
the development of procedures for a shrouded test. The shrouded test is
sometimes used when extensive scanning of the bank (and therefore extended
release of challenge aerosol or gas) is expected. The shrouded test is valid
ONLY if a satisfactory pressure-leak test of the mounting frame has
previously been completed.
Summary of Method
5-47
value specified in the test procedure, the test is stopped and the system re-
inspected for leaks or bypasses. If leaks or bypasses cannot be located
visually, the fan and DOP generator are turned on again and the downstream
face of the mounting-frame-to-housing seal, the peripheries of the individual
filters, and finally the faces of the filters, in that recommended order, are
scanned. After location and correction of leaks and bypasses or, if necessary,
replacement of defective filters, the in-place test is repeated for record. The
test should be performed at the airflow required for each individual system .
Apparatus
5-48
1. Threshold sensitivity to permit detection of test aerosol in
concentrations of at least as low as 10-3 g per liter of air and
having a minimum reading at this concentration of 1.0% when set
on the most sensitive scale.
Adsorber/Adsorbent Requirements
Pleated bed and tray-type adsorbers cells shall meet the requirements
for Type I or Type II cells, respectively, of AACC CS-8; and for ESF
systems they shall be filled with an adsorbent, each batch of which meets the
requirements of Table 5-1.
,I. 2. The adsorbent bed shall be so arranged that no air can bypass the
adsorbent and the minimum residence time of air in the adsorbent
is 0.25 seconds per 2 inches bed depth. There shall be no
l
internal structures within the adsorbent bed, such as through-
bolts, where air bypass can occur.
5-49
3. Screens shall be supported by stiffeners which are external to the
adsorbent bed to assure uniformity and integrity of the bed.
4. Means shall be provided for filling the unit with adsorbent and
compacting it to uniform ' packing density throughout all cross
sections of the bed. In a vertical direction, this density shall vary
only to the extent that the lower portion of the bed supports the
weight of the adsorbent placed above it.
t(A - b)
c
28.8T
Where:
C - nominal capacity (cfm)
t = thickness of adsorbent bed (in.), normally > 2
m.
A - gross inlet or outlet screen area. The lesser of
the two shall be used (in.')
b - total area of baffles, blanks, and margins of all
screens (in.2)
T - residence time, seconds, in the stage required to
achieve the specified iodine DF, using the
adsorbent specified in the technical
specification normally 0.25 seconds per 2 in.
thickness
28.8 = conversion factor
For ESF units, the adsorbent shall meet the requirements of Table 5-1.
5-50
Table 5-1 Performance Requirements and Physical Properties
of (unused) Activated Carbon
Performance Requirements
Physical Properties
NOTES:
5-51
Charcoal Adsorber Test Procedures
Factory tests of full size cells and in-place field tests · of installed
systems, using a refrigerant-gas, are leak tests only. The tests are designed
to determine only the amount of leakage through or around the adsorbent in
the cell (factory test) or through or around the installed bank of cells (field
tests). Poor-performance adsorbent is not detected by these tests.
The efficiency of the individual cells and of the installed system can be
assumed to have a given value only on the basis of the tests made on
representative samples of the adsorbent used in those cells and systems. An
installed system can be assumed to have an efficiency equivalent to that of
the sample only if:
5-52
1. The sample is actually representative of all of the adsorbent in all
of the cells in the system.
Purpose
This test is used for both acceptance and surveillance leak-testing of the
installed adsorber stage. If samples of adsorbent are to be taken for
laboratory testing, remove such samples prior to this test, and restore stage
to operating condition.
Summary of Method
A refrigerant tracer gas is injected into the air stream upstream of the
adsorber bank, tracer concentrations are determined downstream and upstream
of the bank, and penetration (percent leakage) is determined from the ratio
of downstream to upstream concentration at time zero.
j
, 5-53
t.
Apparatus
Tracer Gas Generator. The tracer gas output shall be at least 4 times
the Minimum Workable Threshold Sensitivity (MWTS) of the tracer gas
detector divided by the maximum acceptable leak rate, expressed as a fraction
of total system airflow. The MWTS is the concentration of tracer gas which
will produce response on the readout of the tracer gas detector. The
generator output shall be held within +20% of the pre-set value.
SUMMARY
[n this chapter, we have discussed some of the tests that are done to
ensure that an HVAC is operating properly. It is important to remember that
the results from a test is only as good as the data collected and the
experience of the tester.
5-54
Along with balancing of air systems, we looked at the test we do to
I make sure that the quality of air is also right. The checks/tests we covered
were the tests on HEP A filters and charcoal filters.
!t _
5-55
L
(
(
,, .
CHAPTER SIX
SOUND AND VIBRATION TESTING
CHAPTER SIX
SOUND AND VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
OBJECTIVES
,,
CHAPTER SIX
, , SOUND AND VIBRATION TESTING
INTRODUCTION
Sound Testing, in accordance with the Noise Criteria Curve using the
Sound Pressure reference of .0002 microbars, is the preferred testing method
because we can truly measure "Sound Pressure."
AMCA Standard 300-67 Test Code for Sound Rating states" A person
hears and judges sound on the basis of a Sound Pressure Level at the point
of observation, and this is also what the Sound Meter detects, For a given
source, however, the Sound Pressure Level varies with the environment. For
example, a unit heater will sound louder in a hard walled room than in a
room which is carpeted, has drapes and upholstered furniture. This is despite
the fact that its Sound Power output is the same. That is the reason why this
,., code is based on Sound Power Level rather than Sound Pressure Level."
6-1
prove that the rating is reduced, often by as much as 50%. As Testing
Engineers and Technicians, we must be alert and aware of these facts, and
ensure the Design Engineer is also aware of them so he can design a
predictable system.
The Sound Level in the space to be tested can be measured with a good
Sound Meter and the Sound Level established. The problem is identifying
the equipment that creates the noise. The fan manufacturer says, "You
cannot be sure it's his equipment as there are other components that could
cause the noise, such as mixing boxes, diffusers, and ducts. Also, the room
acoustics are a factor." The diffuser manufacturer is more realistic and
relates his equipment to velocity and pressure drop which can be easily
measured. If properly selected, these can be removed as a noise source.
Also, a reading at one diffuser compared with other diffusers will indicate it's
relationship to the noise source. The same applies for most of the other
system components. Thus, by the process of elimination, noise can be traced
to its source.
In order for a person to get the whole picture of HVAC, they cannot
neglect the consideration of the sound and noise generated by HVAC
equipment. In this chapter, we will cover the following topics:
• Sound
Architectural acoustics
Sound testing
• Vibration
Vibration testing
6-2
( Sound
• Sound power
Sound Power
r1 'decibel - A unit used to express relative difference in power, equal 10 lOx the
common log of the ratio of the two levels.
i
( 6-3
inversely as the square of the distance from the source. The intensity and the
sound pressure level are nearly identical numerically if proper units are used.
A".. I .r_o.p
...... n~
U-
nO>
EQal.llIal
.,,,....
DldlMlm
I,-Il . .a.
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TUrbo;et~~
J"aircnlll' takeoUt.
I' takeoff
100,000
10,000
'.010 ,"," ,,.
,.,
1\Irbopn)p
Prop airaaft I: takcorr'
Larp pipe Oq&n ''''10, ,"
10' ".
SmaU aira'afl maine
Blariq radio
Aulomobile.tllilh .... Ylpeed
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10- 1
10- 2
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II.
Voice, .$houlinl
0.01
0.001 10- )
,.~
''''.,go
OarbllJe disposailUlit 0.0001
Voioee, o:onva'S.Itioa lrood
El«lronic equip.
_til,Lionf.n
om« air dirrusu
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
,... .,,.."
10-'
10- 7
Slnall decuic ck.ct 0.00000001 10- '
'",.
Voioee, $Of' whisper O.OOXlOOOOI :0'"10 10
RU$lUn,leava O.OOJOOOOOOI 10-
Human breath 0 .0000000000. 10- 11
Tbrallold of hellrin.
'With .rterbumcr.
0.00000000000. 10- 11
bFour jei en,ines. <Few: prOpdkr!"lina.
•
6-4
Loudness and Frequency
-
Wavelength
•
I
i
Figure 6-1 Wavelength and Amplitude of Sound
6-5
NC Curves
Noise criteria curves were the standard for many years and define
acceptable limits for sound pressure level in each octave band. Figure 6-2
shows the standard NC curves. The actual environment must not exceed the
specified curve at any point, but can be at any level below the curve. The
resulting sound may be too quiet in some frequencies. A higher sound power
level is acceptable at lower frequencies. These curves emphasize the fact that
high frequencies sound "louder" than low frequencies when sound power
levels are equal.
•
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6-6
Architectural Acoustics
Sound waves emitted from a sound source, vocal cords, etc., cause a
deviation in atmospheric pressure above or below the static value. This is
called Sound Pressure. Sound waves cause pressure and have frequency.
Frequency is the number of times per second that the sound pressure
alternates above and below the ambient atmospheric pressure. The higher the
frequency, the higher the pitch. Sound waves travel at the speed of 1,125
feet per second at 77" F at sea level. Sound travels in all directions from the
source. When it strikes a surface its direction of travel is changed by
reflection. The reflection follows the law that the angle of incidence equals
the angle of reflection. A person hears not only the direct and reflected
sounds, but background sounds also, resulting in a total sound which is
always louder than the direct sound alone. How much louder depends on the
size of the room, the distance from the source and the sound absorbing
properties of the room surface.
6-7
The following example shows a typical sound absorption calculation.
Note in the table of sound absorption coefficients that the coefficients vary
with frequency.
Reverberation Time
Reverberation time depends only on the cubic volume of the room and
on its total absorption in Sabins.
Formula
T = .05V/a
V = volume of room in cubic feet
a = room absorption in Sabins
Reverberation Time
below 1 second - good for speech, probably too dead for music
1 to 1.5 seconds - good for speech, fair for music
over 2 seconds - poor for speech, fair to poor for music
6-8
Using the room in the previous example:
.05 x 40,000
312
6.4 seconds is a live room and any audible noise source would probably
be objectionable.
a (Sabins) = .05V
T
a = 2,000 =
1.5
a = 1,333 Sabins
A rug could be put on the floor. This now becomes 4,000 x .39 =
1,560 Sabins. This alone is more than enough to reduce the
reverberation time.
(
A new calculation:
6-9
Sound Trap Selection
Catalog data will give what attenuation can be expected from a specific
Sound Trap at a specific air velocity. Therefore, your sound test will give
you the level before the sound trap. Calculate what you need to bring the
sound level to the specified NC level and select a sound trap that will do the
job.
The two main sources of noise are the fan and turbulence in the duct
system. Mixing boxes, diffusers and dampers also create noise, but to a
lesser extent. High frequency noise levels are easier to attenuate than low
frequency noise.
A sound trap will produce noise; therefore, self-noise power levels are
given and determine the trap's acoustical characteristics. Note - this
rating is given in Sound Power rather than Sound Pressure, so a
conversion calculation has to be made.
Sound Testing
6-10
,
Instrument
6-11
As vibration is a source of sound waves or noise, the source of noise
or noise level can be reduced by solving the vibration problem. Components
causing vibration in HVAC equipment. are as follows:
If the vibration test exceeds recommended limits, isolate the motor from
the equipment fan by disconnecting or removing belts of the coupling. Then
test the motor separately; if vibration is normal, then trouble is in the HVAC
equipment. Measurement of vibration in mils of deflection is sufficient to
determine the severity of vibration. Other measurements, for instance
velocity, frequency test, and stroboscopic light, may be used to locate the
exact point of vibration.
The balancing agency should make vibration tests on all rotating units
of equipment and other items. Tests shall be taken in general, on top and on
the side of each bearing, on two points on the equipment housing and base
90° apart, and on duct or pipe after the flexible connection. Each point shall
be read in mils of deflection, then compared with the allowable tolerance for
the respective unit of equipment and recorded on the proper form. Where
vibration readings deviate from normal, a separate report should be forwarded
to the architect and engineer with a recommended action to be taken.
6-14
Vibration Testing Procedure
Balance the unit for proper air or water flow in accordance with design
requirements. Make certain that the equipment is working at or within the
rated capacity. If not, then partial loading of curve conditions could cause
excessive vibration.
2. Clean the test area so as to be free from grease or dirt that could
cause slippage and false readings.
a. BHP
b. operating pressure across the unit
c. operating flow across the unit
d. check belts for cracks if applicable
e. visually check and note any condition that could be a
contributing factor such as vibration isolators not set up
correctly, debris under unit grounding it to the structure.
f. give manufacturer 's vibration tolerance if there is any and
where measured if poss ible
6-15
8. If vibration exceeds recommended limits per manufacturer's
requirements or severity chart, disconnect the motor and test
separately.
9. Shut off the unit and take a reading on the casing to determine
if there are external forces of vibration.
10. Evaluate readings and data. Write the report on what you think
the problems are and make your recommendations.
6-16
VIBRATION TEST
CENTRIFUGAL FAN _ _
10
Ii.
-.
---· 12
POINT
1&2 Fan bearing drive end top _ _ side
3&4 Fan bearing opposite end top _ _ side--
5&6 Motor bearing drive end top _ _ side
7&8 Motor bearing opposite end top _ _ side--
9 & 10 Casing top _ _ side _ _
11 & 12 Duct or casing after flexible
connection discharge _ _ suction _ _
Remarks
6·17
VIBRATION TEST
IN·LINE FAN _ _
--- ......
9 / /" 1' 2 \
-( Gl -, - -1+
\ . I
....... ----'/
POINT
1&2 Fan bearing drive end top side - -
3&4 Fan bearing opposite end top side _ _
5&6 Motor drive end top side _ _
7&8 Motor opposite end top s ide_~
9 & 10 Casing bottom & top _ _ side _ _
11 & 12 Duct after flexible connection discharge side - -
Remarks ,!
6-20
VIBRATION TEST
HORIZONTAL SPLIT CASE PUMP _ _
II
,
6-21
VIBRATION TEST
END SUCfION PUMP _ _
II
12
POINT
1&2 Pump bearing drive end top side _ _
3&4 Motor bearing drive end top side _ _
5&6 Motor bearing opposite end top side _ _
7&8 Coupling or shaft support top side _ _
9 & 10 Structure top side _ _
11 & 12 Pipe after flexible connection discharge _ _ suction _ _
Remarks
6-22
VIBRATION TEST
AHU-UNIT _ _
, '
I
!
14.
.13
'. POINT
1&2 Fan bearing drive end top side
3&4 Fan bearing opposite end top side
5&6 Fan bearing center (if applicable) top side
7&8 Motor bearing drive end top side
9 & 10 Motor bearing opposite end top side
11 & 12 Casing bottom & top side
13 & 14 Duct after flexible connection discharge suction
I Remarks
,I
6-23
1
L
Vibration and noise are the signals that reveal the presence of
mechanical faults. The vibration and noise are measured and then compared
to standards which enable the analyst to judge whether or not a fault is
present, and if so, to classify its severity. If a fault reveals its presence, a
careful analysis of the frequency components presented in the complex signal
will allow you to positively identify the problem. Identification is a simple
procedure involving relating observed frequencies to the frequencies
generated by known mechanical sources within the machine. For example:
vibration and noise caused by worn or damaged gears will have a definite
frequency component related to the RPM times the number of gear teeth.
Frequency of noise and vibration is the key. Phase measurements are also
useful in many cases.
Analysis Procedure
6-24
carefully tune through the appropriate ranges, recording the
amplitude and frequency at which significant frequency
components are detected. This survey determines: what
frequencies are present in the complex signal, what amplitude
ranges are most desirable, and whether "displacement",
"velocity," or "acceleration" is the most effective parameter to
measure. In most cases involving purely analysis, "velocity" will
be selected because both high and low frequencies receive equal
weight when measuring velocity .
6-25
Vibration and Noise Source Identification
Unbalance
6-26
f
seal, or a changing mechanical condition such as a bearing race slipping or
moving on a shaft or in its housing. When the amplitude and/or phase are
I unstable the fault should be located and corrected.
Misalignment
State two likely causes for each of the following HVAC system
conditions:
l High head pressure.
High suction pressure.
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• Systematic Troubleshooting Techniques
• Troubleshooting fans
7-2
is to verify that a malfunction actually exists. In other words, ensure that the
r system/components are set up for and operating normally.
Identifying and locating the cause of the malfunction can be the hardest
step in troubleshooting. This task ·is made much easier based on the
technician's level of knowledge of the overall system and its operation.
TROUBLESHOOTING FANS
From Chapter Three, we know that fans are used to move air in an
HVAC system. How well a fan performs its job depends on a few factors
such a size, speed and design of the system. Because the fan plays such a
big part of the system, it is very necessary for an HVAC Technician to
understand what common problems a fan have and how to troubleshoot for
them. The topics we will discuss are;
• Noise
• Performance Reduction
• Rotation
7-3
I
J
Figure 7.1 Probing For Spin
7·6
A. NOISE
7-7
l.
A. NOISE
Source Probable Cause
7-8
A. NOISE
7-9
j
B. LOW CFM, INSUFFICIENT AIR FLOW
7-12
B. LOW CFM, INSUFFlCIENT AIR FLOW
d. Projections, dampers or
other obstruction in part of
system where air velocity is
high.
I. .
r 7-13
I
,,
"
D. WRONG STATIC PRESSURE
7-14
D. WRONG STATIC PRESSURE
,i 7-15
j
,
i
l
F. STATIC PRESSURE IDGH, CFM LOW
G. HORSEPOWER IDGH
7-16
H. FAN DOES NOT OPERATE
I. PREMATURE FAILURE
7-17
•
I. PREMATURE FAILURE
Rotation
No system should be tested without first checking the fan rotation. Fan
rotation, as defined by the fan manufacturer, is either the "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise" spin of the fan impeller. But the rotation would depend
upon the position of the viewer relative to the fan. When checking rotation
for centrifugal fan the fan must be viewed from the drive side while it is
coasting to a stop. For tubular centrifugals, the fan must be viewed from the
outlet side. For axial fans the fans must be viewed from the inlet side.
Figures 7-2 and 7-3 show the correct rotation for centrifugal and axial
fan impellers.
7-18
~OTATION
RADIAL BACKWARD
INCLINED AIRFOIL
BLADE
~(@)J~
RADIAL TIP BACKWARD FORWARD
CU RVED CURVED
~
ROTATION
d ~ 2) C(~;b
t t t -t-
AIR FLOW t AIR FLOW t
, '"
ROTATION
~~)] ~ 0
t t t
tr
t
,, AIR FLOW t AIR FLOW -t-
7-19
TROUBLESHOOTING ABNORMAL AIR CONDITIONING
OPERATIONS
Of course, many other troubles may occur in the electrical circuitry but
they will have to be determined on case by case basis.
7-20
Three mam conditions In units that are operating but not cooling
satisfactorily are:
7-21
High Head Pressure
This condition may be diagnosed during the visual check of the system
by the service technician. External cleaning of the condenser fins and coil
may be done with a stiff brush or, if a portable air tank is available, by the
pressure of an air supply in the opposite direction to the normal air flow
through the condenser. Accumulations of dirt and dust may have to be
removed by the application of a soap and water solution, followed by
flushing the condenser with water from a hose - again from the direction
opposite to the normal air flow .
Care must be taken that electrical connections are protected when the
unit is being cleaned.
7-22
been completely removed. However, moisture-laden air in the system
indicates that it was opened for repair or component replacement and was not
evacuated properly. Proper evacuation is absolutely necessary to eliminate
both air and moisture.
Most small condensers do not have purge valves at the top, so the
purging must be done through the gauge manifold. The purging should be
done in small amounts, with a few moments of time elapsing between brief
periods of purging. This will permit the air or noncondensable gas to collect
at the high point, which would be the gauge manifold, and allow it to be
purged without losing too much refrigerant. It is impossible to purge without
7-23
the loss of some refrigerant, since complete separation cannot be obtained.
Purging should continue until the head pressure drops down to the proper
point corresponding to the temperature of the refrigerant. Purging of the
capillary tubes or other critical charge systems is not recommended - only
proper and complete evacuation procedures should be followed.
Overcharge of Refrigerant
If there is a sight glass installed in the liquid line just ahead of the
liquid control, a full glass will indicate that there is either enough refrigerant
in the system or a restriction ahead of the sight glass. If the possibility of a
restriction has already been eliminated, and a surplus refrigerant charge is
suspected, some of the refrigerant must be removed from the system.
Refrigerant should be removed from the system until the sight glass
indicates a shortage, that is, when bubbles of gas entering the liquid line are
visible in the sight glass. The refrigerant removed from the system should
be placed in an empty, dry drum or carefully purged to the atmosphere and
new refrigerant added. Only enough refrigerant to clear up the gas bubbles
should be charged back into the system.
7-24
Insufficient Condensing Medium
Insufficient air moving across the condenser can also be the result of
a loose or slipping belt between the motor and fan, a loose fan wheel on
direct drive equipment, or binding of the shaft of either the motor or fan
because of bad shaft bearings or lack of lubrication.
If the condensing unit with a blow through fan is located indoors and
too close to a wall or other obstacle, it is possible that the hot air exhausts
from the condenser may be short cycled back into the inlet of the fan. This
would increase the temperature of the available air for removal of heat form
the refrigerant. For optimum operation, a condensing unit located indoors
must have some provision for the removal of condenser discharge air. A
poorly located outdoor condensing unit also can short cycle air into the fan.
7-25
air cooled condenser would cause a restriction in the flow of the "hot
refrigerant vapor. An increase in pressure measured at the compressor, along
with a corresponding increase in temperature, would result.
Insufficient air on the forced air evaporator coil may be caused by dirty
air filters, too small return ducts, improper speed of the blower, a clogged
cooling coil, a combination of these possible causes, or improperly adjusted
duct dampers or registers. The service technician should check to see if there
are filters in the air distribution system. If they are dirty, they should be
cleaned or replaced. The cooling coil should be checked to make sure it is
clean and free of dirt and lint, whether or not there is a filter in the system.
If the blower motor and/or blower shaft bearings have not been
lubricated for some time and are not running freely, the flow of air through
the cooling coil may be less than normal. An improperly adjusted blower
belt could cause a slowdown in the blower speed and a reduction of the air
flow across the coil. (It should be noted that a squirrel cage blower running
7-26
J6dbackward will deliver air in the proper direction, but at a greatly reduced
volume.)
7·27
(,0,,-, \~ , .'::
flpw between the outlet of the condensing unit and the inlet to the cooling
COIL This inciudes the' receiver, drier, sight glass, and refrigerant conirols.
1" .If il , receiveLi~ psed, tpe.liquid line valve on the receiver may be partially
,: ...closed.
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The;'e~ai
,., '
also be a restriction
, .
in the liquid flow due
,
to a crimp
"
in
I(;d~~ ~\ne, p~r~!a!ly , ~mashed tubl?g, a qUIck-connect couphng that i.s, only
.. : partIajly .open, a cj[1~r full of mOIsture, or an obstruction of some sort il) the
. I, meterigg device. rn:any case, a restriction to the flow of liquid refriger~tion
could affect the operation of the system. It may cause enough pre~ure, drop
to reduce the boiling point of liquid available in the cooling coil. There
will be a definite temperature drop across the point of restriction, which,
depending on its location, mayor may not be easily located.
,54 ., ' .1
7-28
• . short-cycle (that is, start and stop at frequent intervals) when the expansion
~~Ji valve is only partially closed and insufficient liquid is 'entering the coil.
•'. r v
'il With the expansion valve completely closed, ~he compressor ~ill16wer
the pressure in the evaporator down to the cutout point of the low pressure
· ' control, which will stop the compressor. If there is no low pressure control
switch in the system, the compressor will continue to tun with no work being
':n done until the motor windings heat up and are cut off by the ' ,electrical
.. . "
· overload control operation.
'''':; 1 I
' .. ,: '.,. I r;. ,
Low Discharge Pressure
L "-
,
7-29
rises higher and higher as does the motor load. At the same time because of
the reduction of suction gas to the hermetic compressor, the latter cannot
properly cool the motor, and prolonged cycling and overheating may
eventually result in total motor burnout.
SUMMARY
There are common problems associated with fans and air conditioners.
Being able to recognize what those problems are allows you to be able to
minimize downtime and the cost of maintenance.
7-32