WELDABILITY

Weldability of a metal is usually defined as its

capacity to be welded into a specific, suitably
designed structure having certain properties and
characteristics and to perform satisfactorily in
the intended service.

In other words Weldability refers to the ease

with which a metal can be welded and how
effectively a joint can be produced so it will have
qualities comparable to the base metal
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

The oxyacetylene welding process uses a

combination of oxygen and acetylene gas
to provide a high temperature flame.
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
• OAW is a manual process in which the
welder must personally control the the
torch movement and filler rod application
• The term oxyfuel gas welding outfit refers
to all the equipment needed to weld.
• Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene
gas at extremely high pressure.
Typical Oxyacetylene Welding
(OAW) Station
 Oxygen Cylinders
• Oxygen is stored within cylinders of
various sizes and pressures ranging from
2000- 2640 PSI. (Pounds Per square inch)
• Oxygen cylinders are forged from solid
armor plate steel. No part of the cylinder
may be less than 1/4” thick.
• Cylinders are then tested to over 3,300
PSI using a (NDE) hydrostatic pressure
test.
Oxygen Cylinders

• Oxygen cylinders
incorporate a thin metal
“pressure safety disk”
made from stainless
steel and are designed
to rupture prior to the
cylinder becoming
damaged by pressure.
• The cylinder valve
should always be
handled carefully
Pressure Regulators for
Cylinders
• Regulators are shut off
when the adjusting screw
is turn out completely.
• Regulators maintain a
constant torch pressure
although cylinder
pressure may vary
• Regulator diaphragms
are made of stainless
steel
Pressure Regulators for
Cylinders
• Reduce high storage
cylinder pressure to
lower working
pressure.
• Most regulators have
a gauge for cylinder
pressure and working
pressure.
Pressure Regulators Gauges
Using a “Bourdon” movement
• Gas entering the gauge fills
a Bourdon tube
• As pressure in the
semicircular end increases it
causes the free end of the
tube to move outward.
• This movement is
transmitted through to a
curved rack which engages
a pinion gear on the pointer
shaft ultimately showing
pressure.
Regulator Hoses

• Hoses are are fabricated

from rubber
• Oxygen hoses are green in
color and have right hand
thread.
• Acetylene hoses are red in
color with left hand thread.
• Left hand threads can be
identified by a grove in the
body of the nut and it may
have “ACET” stamped on it
 Check Valves &
Flashback Arrestors
• Check valves allow gas
flow in one direction only
• Flashback arrestors are
designed to eliminate the
possibility of an explosion
at the cylinder.
• Combination Check/
Flashback Valves can be
placed at the torch or
regulator.
 Acetylene Cylinders

• Acetylene is stored in cylinders specially

designed for this purpose only.
• Acetylene is extremely unstable in its pure
form at pressure above 15 PSI (Pounds per Square
Inch)

• Acetone is also present within the cylinder to

stabilize the acetylene.
• Acetylene cylinders should always be stored
in the upright position to prevent the acetone
form escaping thus causing the acetylene to
Acetylene Cylinders
• Cylinders are filled with a
very porous substance
“monolithic filler” to help
prevent large pockets of
pure acetylene form
forming
• Cylinders have safety
(Fuse) plugs in the top
and bottom designed to
melt at 212° F (100 °C)
 Typical startup procedures
• Verify that equipment visually appears safe IE:
Hose condition, visibility of gauges
• Clean torch orifices with a “tip cleaners” (a
small wire gauge file set used to clean slag
and dirt form the torch tip)
• Crack (or open) cylinder valves slightly
allowing pressure to enter the regulators
slowly
• Opening the cylinder valve quickly will “Slam”
the regulator and will cause failure.
• Never stand directly in the path of a regulator
when opening the cylinder
 Typical startup procedures (Contd.)

• Check for leaks using by listening for “Hissing”

or by using a soapy “Bubble” solution
• Adjust the regulators to the correct operating
pressure
• Slightly open and close the Oxygen and
Acetylene valves at the torch head to purge any
atmosphere from the system.
• Always use a flint and steel spark lighter to light
the oxygen acetylene flame.
• Never use a butane lighter to light the flame
 Flame Settings

• There are three distinct types of oxy-acetylene

flames, usually termed:
– Neutral
– Carburizing (or “excess acetylene”)
– Oxidizing (or “excess oxygen” )
• The type of flame produced depends upon the
ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture
which leaves the torch tip.
 Flame definition
• The neutral flame (Fig. 4-1) is produced when the ratio of
oxygen to acetylene, in the mixture leaving the torch, is almost
exactly one-to-one. It’s termed ”neutral” because it will usually
have no chemical effect on the metal being welded. It will not
oxidize the weld metal; it will not cause an increase in the
carbon content of the weld metal.
• The excess acetylene flame (Fig. 4-2), as its name implies, is
created when the proportion of acetylene in the mixture is
higher than that required to produce the neutral flame. Used on
steel, it will cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld
metal.
• The oxidizing flame (Fig. 4-3) results from burning a mixture
which contains more oxygen than required for a neutral flame. It
will oxidize or ”burn” some of the metal being welded.
PORTABLE GAS CUTTING MACHINE (LINE CUTTER)
 9% 2%

13% SMAW
42% GMAW/FC
GTAW
SAW
Others

34%
ELECTRODE HOLDER & ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE HOLDERS & EARTH CLAMPS
 Welding Power Sources
• Each type of power source has
fundamental electrical differences that
best suit particular processes
• Welding machine
– Must meet changing arc load and
environmental conditions instantly
– Must deliver exact amount of electric current
precisely at right time to welding arc
• Available in wide variety of types and sizes
 Welding Power Sources
• Also known as power supplies and
welding machines
• Two classifications
– Output slope
• Whether constant current or constant voltage
– Power source type
• Transformer
• Transformer-rectifier
• Inverter
• Generator
 Type of Output Slope
• Two basic types
– Constant current
• Referred to as variable voltage
– Constant voltage
• Referred to as constant potential
 Output Slope
• Relationship between output voltage and
output current (amperage) of machine as
current increased or decreased
– Also called volt-ampere characteristic or curve
• Largely determines how much welding
current will change for given change in
load voltage
– Permits welding machine to control welding
heat and maintain stable arc

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Output Slope
• Indicates type and amount of electric
current designed to produce
• Each arc welding process has
characteristic output slope
– SMAW and GTAW require steep output slope
from constant current welding machine
– GMAW and FCAW require relatively flat
output slope from constant voltage power
source
– Submerged arc welding adaptable to either
slop
 Constant Current
Output Slope
Some jobs require steep volt-ampere curve

Other jobs use less steep

volt-ampere curve

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Open Circuit Voltage
• Voltage generated by welding machine
when no welding being done
– Machine running idle
• Arc voltage
– Voltage generated between electrode and
work during welding
• Load voltage
– Voltage at output terminals of welding
machine when arc is going
– Combination of arc voltage plus voltage drop
in welding circuit
 Open Circuit and Arc Voltage
• Open circuit voltage runs between 50-100
volts
– Drops to arc voltage when arc struck
• Arc voltages
– Range: 36 volts (long arc) to 18 volts (short
arc)
– Determined by arc length held by welder and
type of electrode used
• Arc lengthened, arc voltage increases and
current decreases
 Four Types of Power Source
• Engine-driven generators
– Powered by gas or diesel combustion engine
– Can be found with a.c. or d.c. electric motor
• No longer being manufactured and rarely found
• Transformer-rectifiers
– Use basic electrical transformer to step down
a.c. line power voltage to a.c. welding voltage
– Welding voltage then passed through rectifier
to convert a.c. output to d.c. welding current
– May be either d.c. or a.c.-d.c. machines
 Four Types of Power Source
• A.C. transformers
– Used to step down a.c. line power voltage to
a.c. welding voltage
• Inverters
– Increases frequency of incoming primary
power
– Constant current, constant voltage, or both
– Produce a.c. or d.c. welding current
 Motor Generator Welding
Machines
• Usually supply only direct current
– Can be made to supply a.c.
• Most constant current type
• Used chiefly for shielded metal arc welding
and gas tungsten arc welding
 A.C. Transformer Welding
Machines
• Most popular a.c. welding machine
• Function of transformer
– Step down high voltage of input current to
high amperage, low voltage current required
for welding
• Especially suited
for heavy work

Miller Electric Mfg. Co

The Lincoln Electric Co.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 D.C. Transformer-Rectifier
Welding Machines
• Have many designs and purposes
• Flexibility one reason for wide acceptance
– Deliver either DCEN or DCEP
• May be used for:
– Stick electrode welding
– Gas tungsten arc welding
– Submerged arc welding
– Multi-operator systems
– Stud welding Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
The Lincoln Electric Co.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Motor Generator Welding
Machine for SMAW
Instruction on the
Variable Name-plate
voltage
control

Polarity switch
Constant
voltage

The Lincoln Co.

Toggle switch
Current control
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Internal Construction of a D.C. Motor
Generator Welding Machine

The Lincoln Electric Co.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 D.C. and A.C.-D.C. Inverter
Welding Machines
• Portable, lightweight, and versatile
• May be either constant current, constant
voltage or both
• Can perform several different processes

Miller electric Mfg. Co.

The Lincoln Electric Co.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Current Output
• Rated on basis of current output in
amperes
• Amperage range
– 200 amperes or less for light or medium work
– Over 2,000 amperes for submerged arc
welding
 Open Circuit Voltage
• Maximum allowable used for manual
welding
– 80 volts for a.c. or a.c.-d.c. machines
– 100 volts for d.c. machines
• Very smooth output (less than 2% ripple)
• Automatic machine welding
– Some constant current machines rated up to
125
– Constant voltage types normally rated from
15 to 50
 Duty Cycle
• Percentage of any given 10-minute period
that machine can operate at rated current
without overheating or breaking down
– Rating of 100% means machine can be used
at rated amperage on continuous basis
• Required by continuous, automatic machine
welding
– Rating of 60% means machine can be used at
its capacity 6 out of every 10 minutes without
damage
• Satisfactory for heavy SMAW and GTAW
 Efficiency
• Relationship of secondary power output to
primary power input
– Indicated in percent
• Determined by losses through machine
when actually welding at rated current and
voltage
• Average efficiencies
– Motor generator welding machines: 50%
– Transformer-rectifier: 70%
– Inverter: 85%
GMAW
• GMAW is defined as arc welding using a
continuously fed consumable electrode and
a shielding gas.

• GMAW is also known as MIG (Metal Inert

Gas).

• Produces high-quality welds

• Yields high productivity

 ADVANTAGES

•Large gaps filled or bridged easily

•Welding can be done in all positions
•No slag removal required
•High welding speeds
•High weld quality
•Less distortion of work piece
 Types of Metal Transfer
The basic GMAW process includes three
distinctive process techniques:

1. Short Circuit (Short Arc)

2. Globular Transfer
3. Spray Arc Transfer
 Short Circuit (Short Arc)
Operates at low voltages and welding
current
Small fast-freezing weld puddle obtained
Useful in joining thin materials in any
position, as well as thick materials in
vertical and overhead positions
Metal transfer occurs when an electrical
short circuit is established
 Globular Transfer
Welding current and wire speed are
increased above maximum for short arc
Droplets of metal have a greater diameter
than the wire being used
Spatter present
Welding is most effectively done in the flat
position when using globular transfer
 Spray Arc Transfer
Occurs when the current and voltage
settings are increased higher than that
used for Globular Transfer
Used on thick sections of base material,
best suited for flat position due to large
weld puddle
Spatter is minimal to none
 Manual GMAW Equipment
Three major elements are :
1.) Welding torch and accessories
2.) Welding control & Wire feed motor
3.) Power Source

GMAW equipment can be used either

manually or automatically
WIRE FEEDER
POWER SOURCE
SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF GMAW
GMAW WELDING MACHINE
 Flux–cored Arc – Welding

• Flux cored arc welding is similar to a gas metal

arc welding
• Electrode is tubular in shape and is filled with
flux
• Cored electrodes produce more stable arc
improve weld contour and produce better
mechanical properties
• Flux is more flexible than others
Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Fig : Schematic
illustration of
the flux-cored
arc-welding
process. This
operation is
similar to gas
metal-arc
welding.
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
 Basics of GTAW Process

GTAW uses a nonconsumable tungsten-alloy electrode. It's

held in a torch assembly, which initiates and maintains the
arc. In manual GTAW, the heat of the arc commonly is
controlled one of two ways: through the use of a foot pedal or
as a static setting on the power source. The foot pedal
provides variable control of the welding amperage, or heat.

The torch assembly is either water- or air-cooled. A solenoid

on the power source activates the flow of shielding gas to the
torch. Some power sources provide an additional solenoid,
which switches the water flow to the torch, while others don't
have a solenoid for the torch coolant so the cooler can
circulate coolant constantly through the torch, providing
cooling all the time.
 Basics of GTAW Process (contd.)

High frequency (HF) may be required to start the arc for

non-touch-start applications. Most GTAW power sources
provide HF capability, but not all do.

A GTAW power source is a constant-current machine.

Unlike constant-voltage power sources, it will do its best to

maintain a constant current (i.e., heat) despite changes in
the voltage (i.e., arc length). A constant-voltage power
source does just the opposite, which is required for gas
metal arc welding (GMAW).
Manual gas tungsten arc welding is often considered the
most difficult of all the welding processes commonly
used in industry. Because the welder must maintain a
short arc length, great care and skill are required to
prevent contact between the electrode and the
workpiece. GTAW normally requires two hands, since
most applications require that the welder manually feed
a filler metal into the weld area with one hand while
manipulating the welding torch in the other.
However, some welds combining thin materials (known
as autogenous or fusion welds) can be accomplished
without filler metal; most notably edge, corner, and butt
joints.
GTAW
 Electro gas Welding :
• EGW is welding the edges of sections vertically in one pass with
the pieces placed edge to edge
• Weld metal is deposited into weld cavity between the two pieces
to be joined
• Mechanical drives moves shoes upwards
• Single and multiple electrodes are fed through a conduit and a
continuous arc is maintained using flux-cored electrodes at up to
750 A

Process capabilities :
• Weld thickness ranges from 12mm to 75mm
• Metals welded are steels, titanium, aluminum alloys
• Applications are construction of bridges, pressure vessels, thick
walled and large diameter pipes, storage tanks and ships.
Electrogas Welding

Fig : Schematic
illustration of the
electrogas welding
process
 Electroslag Welding:

• Similar to Electro gas welding

• Difference is Arc is started between electrode tip and bottom

part of the part to be welded

• Flux added first and then melted by the heat on the arc

• Molten slag reaches the tip of the electrode and the arc is
extinguished

• Heat is then continuously produced by electrical resistance of

the molten slag

• Single or multiple solid as well as flux-cored electrodes may be

used
Equipment used in Electroslag welding

Fig : Equipment used

for electroslag
welding
operations.
 Submerged arc welding:

Fig : Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding

process and equipment. The unfused flux is recovered and
reused .
 Submerged arc welding:

• Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux ,consisting of silica,

lime, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and other
compounds.

• Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle

• Thick layer of flux covers molten metal

• Flux acts as a thermal insulator ,promoting deep penetration

of heat into the work piece

• Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire fed

automatically through a tube

• Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power lines

SUBMERGED ARC DEPOSITION RATE
Wire

SAW is normally operated with a single wire on either AC

or DC current. Common variants are:

twin wire
multiple wire (tandem or triple)
single wire
tubular wire with metal powder core

All contribute to improved productivity through a marked

increase in weld metal deposition rates and/or travel
speeds.
Flux

Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of

manganese, silicon, titanium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, magnesium
and other compounds such as calcium fluoride. The flux is specially
formulated to be compatible with a given electrode wire type so that the
combination of flux and wire yields desired mechanical properties. All fluxes
react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal chemical composition
and mechanical properties. It is common practice to refer to fluxes as
'active' if they add manganese and silicon to the weld, the amount of
manganese and silicon added is influenced by the arc voltage and the
welding current level. The main types of flux for SAW are:
Bonded fluxes - produced by drying the ingredients, then bonding them
with a low melting point compound such as a sodium silicate. Most bonded
fluxes contain metallic deoxidisers which help to prevent weldporosity.
These fluxes are effective over rust and mill scale.
Fused fluxes - produced by mixing the ingredients, then melting them in an
electric furnace to form a chemically homogeneous product, cooled and
ground to the required particle size. Smooth stable arcs, with welding
currents up to 2000A and consistent weld metal properties, are the main
attraction of these fluxes.
Applications

SAW is ideally suited for longitudinal and circumferential butt

and fillet welds. However, because of high fluidity of the weld
pool, molten slag and loose flux layer, welding is generally
carried out on butt joints in the flat position and fillet joints in
both the flat and horizontal-vertical positions. For
circumferential joints, the workpiece is rotated under a fixed
welding head with welding taking place in the flat position.
Depending on material thickness, either single-pass, two-pass
or multipass weld procedures can be carried out. There is
virtually no restriction on the material thickness, provided a
suitable joint preparation is adopted. Most commonly welded
materials are carbon-manganese steels, low alloy steels and
stainless steels, although the process is capable of welding
some non-ferrous materials with judicious choice of electrode
filler wire and flux combinations.
S A W Application – Spiral Welding of Pipe
SAW Boom
SAW
wire
• SPOT
WELDING
MACHINE
SPOT
WELDING
SEAM WELDING
FLASH BUTT WELDING
PLASMA WELDING
Laser Welding Welding Processes

• Laser beam produced by a CO2 or YAG Laser

• High penetration, high-speed process

• Concentrated heat = low distortion

• Laser can be shaped/focused & pulsed on/off

• Typically automated & high speed (up to 250 fpm)

• Workpieces up to 1” thick

Typical laser welding applications :

•Catheters & Other Medical Devices

•Small Parts and Components
•Fine Wires
•Jewelry
•Small Sensors
•Thin Sheet Materials Down To 0.001" Thick
Solid State Welding Processes Welding Processes

Friction Welding

Diffusion Welding

Ultrasonic Welding

Resistance Welding
Friction Welding (Inertia Welding) Welding Processes

• One part rotated, one stationary

• Stationary part forced against rotating part

• Friction converts kinetic energy to thermal energy

• Metal at interface melts and is joined

• When sufficiently hot, rotation is stopped

& axial force increased
Ultrasonic welding is solid state welding process, wherein coalescence is produced by
local application of high frequency vibratory energy to the workpiece as they are held
together under pressure
 Forge Welding
The Blacksmith’s Art

Forge welding is a solid-state welding process that

produces a weld by heating the work pieces to welding
temperature and applying blows sufficient to cause
permanent deformation at the faying surface. Forge
welding was the earliest welding process and the only
one in common use until the 19th century.
 Ele ctrical

Solid
State Chemical
Welding
Pressure & Forge
Radiation
Deformation Weld

Me chanical
 Fluxes

Often fluxes are needed to prevent oxide formation on the

parts to be welded. Two commonly used fluxes for steels
are silica sand and borax (sodium tetraborate).
Diffusion Welding Welding Processes

• Parts forced together at high temperature

(< 0.5Tm absolute) and pressure

• Heated in furnace or by resistance heating

• Atoms diffuse across interface

• After sufficient time the interface disappears

• Good for dissimilar metals

• Bond can be weakened by surface impurities

Kalpakjian, S., Manufacturing Engineering & Technology, p. 889, 1992

Soldering & Brazing Metal Joining Processes

Soldering & Brazing

• Only filler metal is melted, not base metal

• Lower temperatures than welding

• Filler metal distributed by capillary action

• Metallurgical bond formed between filler & base metals

• Strength of joint typically

– stronger than filler metal itself
– weaker than base metal
– gap at joint important (0.001 – 0.010”)

• Pros & Cons

– Can join dissimilar metals

– Less heat - can join thinner sections (relative to welding)

– Excessive heat during service can weaken joint

Soldering Metal Joining Processes

Soldering

Solder = Filler metal

• Alloys of Tin (silver, bismuth, lead)
• Melt point typically below 840 F

Flux used to clean joint & prevent oxidation

• separate or in core of wire (rosin-core)

Tinning = pre-coating with thin layer of solder

Applications:
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB) manufacture
• Pipe joining (copper pipe)
• Jewelry manufacture
• Typically non-load bearing

Easy to solder: copper, silver, gold

Difficult to solder: aluminum, stainless steels
(can pre-plate difficult to solder metals to aid process)
PCB Soldering Metal Joining Processes
Manual PCB Soldering
PTH - Pin-Through-Hole connectors

• Soldering Iron & Solder Wire

• Heating lead & placing solder

• Heat for 2-3 sec. & place wire

opposite iron

• Trim excess lead

PCB Reflow Soldering Metal Joining Processes
Automated Reflow Soldering
SMT = Surface Mount Technology

• Solder/Flux paste mixture applied to PCB using screen print or similar

transfer method

• Solder Paste serves the following functions:

– supply solder material to the soldering spot,
– hold the components in place prior to soldering,
– clean the solder lands and component leads
– prevent further oxidation of the solder lands.
Printed solder paste on a printed circuit board (PCB)

• PCB assembly then heated in “Reflow” oven to melt solder and secure connection
Brazing Metal Joining Processes

Brazing

Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between
mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action

• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys (melt point

typically above 840 F)

• Flux also used

• Types of brazing classified by heating method:

– Torch, Furnace, Resistance

Applications:
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Joint can possess significant strength
Brazing Metal Joining Processes

Brazing

Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between
mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action

• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys (melt point

typically above 840 F)

• Flux also used

• Types of brazing classified by heating method:

– Torch, Furnace, Resistance

Applications:
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Joint can possess significant strength
Brazing Metal Joining Processes
Brazing

Figuring length of lap for flat joints.

X = Length of lap
T = Tensile strength of weakest member
W = Thickness of weakest member
C = Joint integrity factor of .8
L = Shear strength of brazed filler metal
Let’s see how this formula works, using an example.

Problem: What length of lap do you need to join .050" annealed Monel sheet to a metal of equal or greater strength?
Solution:

C = .8 T = 70,000 psi (annealed Monel sheet)

W = .050"
L = 25,000 psi (Typical shear strength for silver brazing filler metals)
X = (70,000 x .050) /(.8 x 25,000) = .18" lap length
the properties of the HAZ are determined primarily
by the composition of the base material and the
amount of thermal energy delivered during
welding.
Laser Welding Welding Processes

• Laser beam produced by a CO2 or YAG Laser

• High penetration, high-speed process

• Concentrated heat = low distortion

• Laser can be shaped/focused & pulsed on/off

• Typically automated & high speed (up to 250 fpm)

• Workpieces up to 1” thick

Typical laser welding applications :

•Catheters & Other Medical Devices

•Small Parts and Components
•Fine Wires
•Jewelry
•Small Sensors
•Thin Sheet Materials Down To 0.001" Thick
Solid State Welding Processes Welding Processes

Friction Welding

Diffusion Welding

Ultrasonic Welding

Resistance Welding
Friction Welding (Inertia Welding) Welding Processes

• One part rotated, one stationary

• Stationary part forced against rotating part

• Friction converts kinetic energy to thermal energy

• Metal at interface melts and is joined

• When sufficiently hot, rotation is stopped

& axial force increased
Diffusion Welding Welding Processes

• Parts forced together at high temperature

(< 0.5Tm absolute) and pressure

• Heated in furnace or by resistance heating

• Atoms diffuse across interface

• After sufficient time the interface disappears

• Good for dissimilar metals

• Bond can be weakened by surface impurities

Kalpakjian, S., Manufacturing Engineering & Technology, p. 889, 1992

Soldering & Brazing Metal Joining Processes

Soldering & Brazing

• Only filler metal is melted, not base metal

• Lower temperatures than welding

• Filler metal distributed by capillary action

• Metallurgical bond formed between filler & base metals

• Strength of joint typically

– stronger than filler metal itself
– weaker than base metal
– gap at joint important (0.001 – 0.010”)

• Pros & Cons

– Can join dissimilar metals

– Less heat - can join thinner sections (relative to welding)

– Excessive heat during service can weaken joint

Soldering Metal Joining Processes

Soldering

Solder = Filler metal

• Alloys of Tin (silver, bismuth, lead)
• Melt point typically below 840 F

Flux used to clean joint & prevent oxidation

• separate or in core of wire (rosin-core)

Tinning = pre-coating with thin layer of solder

Applications:
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB) manufacture
• Pipe joining (copper pipe)
• Jewelry manufacture
• Typically non-load bearing

Easy to solder: copper, silver, gold

Difficult to solder: aluminum, stainless steels
(can pre-plate difficult to solder metals to aid process)
PCB Soldering Metal Joining Processes
Manual PCB Soldering
PTH - Pin-Through-Hole connectors

• Soldering Iron & Solder Wire

• Heating lead & placing solder

• Heat for 2-3 sec. & place wire

opposite iron

• Trim excess lead

PCB Reflow Soldering Metal Joining Processes
Automated Reflow Soldering
SMT = Surface Mount Technology

• Solder/Flux paste mixture applied to PCB using screen print or similar

transfer method

• Solder Paste serves the following functions:

– supply solder material to the soldering spot,
– hold the components in place prior to soldering,
– clean the solder lands and component leads
– prevent further oxidation of the solder lands.
Printed solder paste on a printed circuit board (PCB)

• PCB assembly then heated in “Reflow” oven to melt solder and secure connection
Brazing Metal Joining Processes

Brazing

Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between
mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action

• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys (melt point

typically above 840 F)

• Flux also used

• Types of brazing classified by heating method:

– Torch, Furnace, Resistance

Applications:
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Joint can possess significant strength
Brazing Metal Joining Processes

Brazing

Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between
mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action

• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys (melt point

typically above 840 F)

• Flux also used

• Types of brazing classified by heating method:

– Torch, Furnace, Resistance

Applications:
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Joint can possess significant strength
Brazing Metal Joining Processes
Brazing

Figuring length of lap for flat joints.

X = Length of lap
T = Tensile strength of weakest member
W = Thickness of weakest member
C = Joint integrity factor of .8
L = Shear strength of brazed filler metal
Let’s see how this formula works, using an example.

Problem: What length of lap do you need to join .050" annealed Monel sheet to a metal of equal or greater strength?
Solution:

C = .8 T = 70,000 psi (annealed Monel sheet)

W = .050"
L = 25,000 psi (Typical shear strength for silver brazing filler metals)
X = (70,000 x .050) /(.8 x 25,000) = .18" lap length
 Welded Joint
Fusion zone
The area of base metal and filler metal that has been
completely melted

Weld interface
A thin area of base metal that was melted or partially
melted but did not mix with the filler metal

Heat affected zone

The surrounding area of base metal that did not melt, but
was heated enough to affect its grain structure
 Welding Metallurgy
The base metal(s) and filler metal mix
together during melting, forming an alloy
when they solidify

The solidification of the metals can be

considered as casting a small amount of
metal in a metal mold
Welding Metallurgy