Introduction To Deep Learning

Introduction to Deep Learning
MIT 6.S191
Alexander Amini
January 28, 2019
Follow me of LinkedIn for more:

Steve Nouri
https://www.linkedin.com/in/stevenouri/
The Rise of Deep Learning
6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

1/28/19
introtodeeplearning.com
What is Deep Learning?
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
MACHINE LEARNING
Any technique that enables
Ability to learn without DEEP LEARNING
computers to mimic
human behavior explicitly being programmed Extract patterns from data using
neural networks

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Why Deep Learning and Why Now?
Why Deep Learning?
Hand engineered features are time consuming, brittle and not scalable in practice
Can we learn the underlying features directly from data?
Low Level Features Mid Level Features High Level Features
Lines & Edges Eyes & Nose & Ears Facial Structure

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Why Now?
Neural Networks date back decades, so why the resurgence?
Stochastic Gradient
1952
Descent
1958
Perceptron 1. Big Data 2. Hardware 3. Software
• Learnable Weights
• Larger Datasets • Graphics • Improved
• Easier Collection Processing Units Techniques
& Storage (GPUs) • New Models
1986 Backpropagation • Massively • Toolboxes
• Multi-Layer Perceptron Parallelizable
1995 Deep Convolutional NN
• Digit Recognition

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The Perceptron
The structural building block of deep learning
The Perceptron: Forward Propagation
Linear combination
Output of inputs
&" !" #
(' = * + &, !,
!$
Σ
,-"
&$ ('
!# Non-linear
activation function
&#
Inputs Weights Sum Non-Linearity Output

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Linear combination
Output of inputs
1
!%
#
&" !" )( = + !%+ - &. !.
Σ
./"
!$ )(
&$ Non-linear Bias
!# activation function
&#

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1
!% #
)( = + !%+ - &. !.
&" !" ./"
!$ Σ )( )( = + ! % + 1 2 3
&$ &" !"
!#
where: 1 = ⋮ and 3 = ⋮
&# !#
&#

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Activation Functions
1
!%
*) = , !% + . / 0
&" !"
!$ Σ *) • Example: sigmoid function
&$ 1
!# , 1 = 2 1 =
1 + 3 45
&#

1
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Common Activation Functions
Sigmoid Function Hyperbolic Tangent Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU)
1 & ( − & '(

! " = ! " = ( ! " = max ( 0 , " )
1 + & '( & + & '(
1, " > 0
! ′ " = !(") 1 − !(") ! ′ " = 1 − !(")- !′(") = 3
0, otherwise
tf.nn.sigmoid(z) tf.nn.tanh(z) tf.nn.relu(z)
NOTE: All activation functions are non-linear

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Importance of Activation Functions
The purpose of activation functions is to introduce non-linearities into the network
What if we wanted to build a Neural Network to

distinguish green vs red points?

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Linear Activation functions produce linear

decisions no matter the network size

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Linear Activation functions produce linear Non-linearities allow us to approximate

decisions no matter the network size arbitrarily complex functions

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The Perceptron: Example
3
We have: + , = 1 and . =
1 −2
1
*) = / + , + 1 2 .
3
&' Σ *) = / 1+ &
&' 2 3
−2 ( −2
*) = / ( 1 + 3 & ' − 2 & ( )
&(
This is just a line in 2D!

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*) = , ( 1 + 3 & ' − 2 & ( )
&(
0
1 1
=
(
2&
−
3
&' Σ *)
'
3&
1+
−2
&'
&(

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*) = , ( 1 + 3 & ' − 2 & ( )
&(
0
1 1
=
−1
(
2&
2
−
3
&' Σ *)
'
3&
1+
−2
&'
&(
−1
Assume we have input: 0 =
2
*) = , 1 + 3 ∗ −1 − 2 ∗ 2
= , −6 ≈ 0.002
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*) = , ( 1 + 3 & ' − 2 & ( )
&(
0
1 1
=
1 < 0
(
2&
* < 0.5
−
3
&' Σ *)
'
3&
1+
−2
&'
&(
1 > 0
* > 0.5

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Building Neural Networks with Perceptrons
The Perceptron: Simplified
1
!%
&" !"
!$ Σ *)
&$
!#
&#

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The Perceptron: Simplified
!$
&=( %
!" %
!#
#
% = )* + , !- )-
-.$
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Multi Output Perceptron
!$
&$ = ( %$
%$
!"
&" = ( %"
%"
!#
#
%) = *+,) + . !/ */,)
/0$
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Single Layer Neural Network
($) (")
7 7
6 %$
%$
!$
6 %"
%" ('$
!"
%& ('"
6 %&
!#
%)*
6 %)*
Inputs Hidden Final Output

# )*
($) ($) (") (")
%+ = -.,+ +3 !4 -4,+ ('+ = 6 -.,+ +3 %4 -4,+
45$ 45$
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Single Layer Neural Network
%$
($)
!$ 5$,"
($)
5"," %" ('$
!"
($) %& ('"
5#,"
!#
%)*
#
($) ($)
%" = ,-," +2 !3 ,3,"
34$
($) ($) ($) ($)
= ,-," + !$ ,$," + !" ,"," + !# ,#,"
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Multi Output Perceptron
from tf.keras.layers import *
inputs = Inputs(m)
hidden = Dense(d1)(inputs)
outputs = Dense(2)(hidden)
%$ model = Model(inputs, outputs)
!$
%" ('$
!"
%& ('"
!#
%)*
Inputs Hidden Output

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Deep Neural Network
%&,$
!$
%&," *)$
!" ⋯ ⋯
%&,( *)"
!#
%&,+,
Inputs Hidden Output

+,78
(&) (&)
%&,- = /0,- +4 9(%&:$,5 ) /5,-
56$
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Applying Neural Networks
Example Problem
Will I pass this class?
Let’s start with a simple two feature model
! " = Number of lectures you attend

! $ = Hours spent on the final project

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Example Problem: Will I pass this class?
! " = Hours
spent on the
final project
Legend
Pass
Fail
! $ = Number of lectures you attend

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! " = Hours
spent on the
final project
Legend
? Pass
4
5 Fail
! $ = Number of lectures you attend

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$#
!#
#
! = 4 ,5 $" '&# Predicted: 0.1
!"
$%

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$#
!#
# Predicted: 0.1
! = 4 ,5 $" '&#
Actual: 1
!"
$%

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Quantifying Loss
The loss of our network measures the cost incurred from incorrect predictions
$#
!#
# Predicted: 0.1
! = 4 ,5 $" '&#
Actual: 1
!"
$%
ℒ , ! (.) ; 1 , ' (.)

Predicted Actual
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Empirical Loss
The empirical loss measures the total loss over our entire dataset
+(!) '
$#
4, 5 !# 0.1 1
)= 2, 1 0.8 0
$" '&#
5, 8 0.6 1
⋮ ⋮ !"
⋮ ⋮
$%
1 5
Also known as: . / = 2 ℒ + ! (3) ; / , ' (3)
• Objective function
• Cost function
1 34#
• Empirical Risk Predicted Actual
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Binary Cross Entropy Loss
Cross entropy loss can be used with models that output a probability between 0 and 1
+(!) '
$#
4, 5 !# 0.1 1
) = 2, 1 0.8 0
$" '&#
5, 8 0.6 1
⋮ ⋮ !"
⋮ ⋮
$%
1 5
. / = 2 ' (3) log + ! 3 ; / + (1 − ' (3) ) log 1 − + ! 3 ; /
1 34#
Actual Predicted Actual Predicted
loss = tf.reduce_mean( tf.nn.softmax_cross_entropy_with_logits(model.y, model.pred) )

Mean Squared Error Loss
Mean squared error loss can be used with regression models that output continuous real numbers
+(!) '
$#
4, 5 !# 30 90
) = 2, 1 80 20
$" '&#
5, 8 85 95
⋮ ⋮ !"
⋮ ⋮
$%
1 5 "
. / = 2 ' 3 3
− + ! ;/ Final Grades
1 34# (percentage)
Actual Predicted
loss = tf.reduce_mean( tf.square(tf.subtract(model.y, model.pred) )

Training Neural Networks
Loss Optimization
We want to find the network weights that achieve the lowest loss
1 0
!∗ = argmin , ℒ 2 3 (-) ; ! , 8 (-)
! + -./
!∗ = argmin 9(!)
!

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Loss Optimization
We want to find the network weights that achieve the lowest loss
1 0
!∗ = argmin , ℒ 2 3 (-) ; ! , 8 (-)
! + -./
!∗ = argmin 9(!)
!
Remember:
! = !(:) , !(/) , ⋯

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Loss Optimization
!∗ = argmin *(!)
! Remember:
Our loss is a function of
the network weights!
*(-., -0)
-0
-.
Loss Optimization
Randomly pick an initial ("#, "%)
'("#, "%)
"%
"#
Loss Optimization
!"($)
Compute gradient, !$
&('(, '*)
'*
'(
Loss Optimization
Take small step in opposite direction of gradient
!(#$, #&)
#&
#$
Gradient Descent
Repeat until convergence
!(#$, #&)
#&
#$
Gradient Descent
Algorithm
1. Initialize weights randomly ~"(0, & ') weights = tf.random_normal(shape, stddev=sigma)
2. Loop until convergence:

3. )*(+)
Compute gradient, )+ grads = tf.gradients(ys=loss, xs=weights)
4. )*(+)
Update weights, + ← + − . weights_new = weights.assign(weights – lr * grads)
)+
5. Return weights

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Gradient Descent
Algorithm
1. Initialize weights randomly ~"(0, & ') weights = tf.random_normal(shape, stddev=sigma)

3. )*(+)
Compute gradient, )+ grads = tf.gradients(ys=loss, xs=weights)
4. )*(+)
Update weights, + ← + − . weights_new = weights.assign(weights – lr * grads)
)+
5. Return weights

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Computing Gradients: Backpropagation
!) !"
' () +* #(%)
How does a small change in one weight (ex. !") affect the final loss #(%)?

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&+ &'
) *+ -, "($)
!"($)
=
!&'
Let’s use the chain rule!

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&. &'
, -. *) "($)
!"($) !"($) !*)

= ∗
!&' !*) !&'

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&' &.
, -' *) "($)
!"($) !"($) !*)

= ∗
!&' !*) !&'
Apply chain rule! Apply chain rule!

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&' &.
- ,' *) "($)
!"($) !"($) !*) !,'

= ∗ ∗
!&' !*) !,' !&'

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&' &.
- ,' *) "($)
!"($) !"($) !*) !,'

= ∗ ∗
!&' !*) !,' !&'
Repeat this for every weight in the network using gradients from later layers
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Neural Networks in Practice:
Optimization
Training Neural Networks is Difficult
“Visualizing the loss landscape

of neural nets”. Dec 2017.
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Loss Functions Can Be Difficult to Optimize
Remember:
Optimization through gradient descent
%& (!)
!←!−$
%!

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Loss Functions Can Be Difficult to Optimize
Remember:
Optimization through gradient descent
%& (!)
!←!−$
%!
How can we set the

learning rate?

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Setting the Learning Rate
Small learning rate converges slowly and gets stuck in false local minima
"(!)
Initial guess
!
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Large learning rates overshoot, become unstable and diverge
"(!)
Initial guess
!
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Stable learning rates converge smoothly and avoid local minima
"($)
Initial guess
!
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How to deal with this?
Idea 1:
Try lots of different learning rates and see what works “just right”

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How to deal with this?
Idea 1:
Try lots of different learning rates and see what works “just right”
Idea 2:
Do something smarter!
Design an adaptive learning rate that “adapts” to the landscape

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Adaptive Learning Rates
• Learning rates are no longer fixed

• Can be made larger or smaller depending on:
• how large gradient is
• how fast learning is happening
• size of particular weights
• etc...

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Adaptive Learning Rate Algorithms
Qian et al. “On the momentum term in gradient
• Momentum tf.train.MomentumOptimizer descent learning algorithms.” 1999.
Duchi et al. “Adaptive Subgradient Methods for Online

• Adagrad tf.train.AdagradOptimizer Learning and Stochastic Optimization.” 2011.
Zeiler et al. “ADADELTA: An Adaptive Learning Rate

• Adadelta tf.train.AdadeltaOptimizer
Method.” 2012.
• Adam tf.train.AdamOptimizer
Kingma et al. “Adam: A Method for Stochastic
Optimization.” 2014.
• RMSProp tf.train.RMSPropOptimizer
Additional details: http://ruder.io/optimizing-gradient-descent/

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Mini-batches
Gradient Descent
Algorithm
1. Initialize weights randomly ~"(0, & ')
3. )*(+)
Compute gradient, )+
4. )*(+)
Update weights, + ← + − .
)+
5. Return weights

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Gradient Descent
Algorithm
3. )*(+)
Compute gradient, )+
4. )*(+)
Update weights, + ← + − .
)+
5. Return weights
Can be very
computational to
compute!

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Stochastic Gradient Descent
Algorithm
3. Pick single data point )
4. *+, (-)
Compute gradient, *-
5. *+(-)
Update weights, - ← - − 0 *-
6. Return weights

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Algorithm
3. Pick single data point )
4. *+, (-)
Compute gradient, *-
5. *+(-)
Update weights, - ← - − 0 *-
6. Return weights
Easy to compute but
very noisy
(stochastic)!
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Algorithm
3. Pick batch of ) data points
4. *+(,) . *+3 (,)
Compute gradient, *,
= / ∑/
12. *,
5. *+(,)
Update weights, , ← , − 6 *,
6. Return weights

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Algorithm
3. Pick batch of ) data points
4. *+(,) . *+3 (,)
Compute gradient, *,
= / ∑/
12. *,
5. *+(,)
Update weights, , ← , − 6 *,
6. Return weights
Fast to compute and a much better
estimate of the true gradient!
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Mini-batches while training
More accurate estimation of gradient

Smoother convergence
Allows for larger learning rates

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Mini-batches while training
More accurate estimation of gradient

Smoother convergence
Allows for larger learning rates
Mini-batches lead to fast training!

Can parallelize computation + achieve significant speed increases on GPU’s

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Overfitting
The Problem of Overfitting
Underfitting Ideal fit Overfitting

Model does not have capacity Too complex, extra parameters,
to fully learn the data does not generalize well

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Regularization
What is it?
Technique that constrains our optimization problem to discourage complex models

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Regularization
What is it?
Technique that constrains our optimization problem to discourage complex models
Why do we need it?

Improve generalization of our model on unseen data

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Regularization 1: Dropout
• During training, randomly set some activations to 0
'$,$ '",$
!$
'$," '"," &%$
!"
'$,# '",# &%"
!#
'$,) '",)

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• Typically ‘drop’ 50% of activations in layer tf.keras.layers.Dropout(p=0.5)
• Forces network to not rely on any 1 node
'$,$ '",$
!$
'$," '"," &%$
!"
'$,# '",# &%"
!#
'$,) '",)

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• Typically ‘drop’ 50% of activations in layer tf.keras.layers.Dropout(p=0.5)
• Forces network to not rely on any 1 node
'$,$ '",$
!$
'$," '"," &%$
!"
'$,# '",# &%"
!#
'$,) '",)

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Regularization 2: Early Stopping
• Stop training before we have a chance to overfit
Loss
Training Iterations
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Legend
Loss Testing
Training
Training Iterations
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Legend
Loss Testing
Training
Training Iterations
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Legend
Loss Testing
Training
Training Iterations
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Legend
Loss Testing
Training
Training Iterations
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Legend
Loss Testing
Training
Training Iterations
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Legend
Loss Stop training Testing

here!
Training
Training Iterations
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Under-fitting Over-fitting
Legend
Loss Stop training Testing

here!
Training
Training Iterations
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Core Foundation Review
The Perceptron Neural Networks Training in Practice
• Structural building blocks • Stacking Perceptrons to • Adaptive learning

• Nonlinear activation form neural networks • Batching
functions • Optimization through • Regularization
backpropagation
(),%
"% "%
(),# '&%
"# Σ '& "# ⋯ ⋯
(),+ '&#
"$
"$
(),,-

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Images are Numbers
What the computer sees
An image is just a matrix of numbers [0,255]!

i.e., 1080x1080x3 for an RGB image

[1] 1/29/19
Tasks in Computer Vision
Lincoln 0.8
Washington 0.1
classification
Jefferson 0.05
Obama 0.05
Input Image Pixel Representation
- Regression: output variable takes continuous value

- Classification: output variable takes class label. Can produce probability of belonging to a particular class

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High Level Feature Detection
Let’s identify key features in each image category
Nose, Wheels, Door,

Eyes, License Plate, Windows,
Mouth Headlights Steps

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Manual Feature Extraction
Detect features
Domain knowledge Define features
to classify
Problems?

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Learning Feature Representations
Can we learn a hierarchy of features directly from the data
instead of hand engineering?
Low level features Mid level features High level features
Edges, dark spots Eyes, ears, nose Facial structure

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Learning Visual Features
Fully Connected Neural Network

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Input: Fully Connected:

• 2D image • Connect neuron in hidden
• Vector of pixel values layer to all neurons in input
layer
• No spatial information!
• And many, many parameters!

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Input: Fully Connected:

• 2D image • Connect neuron in hidden
• Vector of pixel values layer to all neurons in input
layer
• No spatial information!
• And many, many parameters!
How can we use spatial structure in the input to inform the architecture of the network?

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Using Spatial Structure
Input: 2D image. Idea: connect patches of input

Array of pixel values to neurons in hidden layer.
Neuron connected to region of
input. Only “sees” these values.

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Using Spatial Structure
Connect patch in input layer to a single neuron in subsequent layer.

Use a sliding window to define connections.
How can we weight the patch to detect particular features?

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Applying Filters to Extract Features
1) Apply a set of weights – a filter – to extract local features
2) Use multiple filters to extract different features
3) Spatially share parameters of each filter

(features that matter in one part of the input should matter elsewhere)

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Feature Extraction with Convolution
- Filter of size 4x4 : 16 different weights
- Apply this same filter to 4x4 patches in input
- Shift by 2 pixels for next patch
This “patchy” operation is convolution

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Feature Extraction and Convolution
A Case Study
X or X?
Image is represented as matrix of pixel values… and computers are literal!

We want to be able to classify an X as an X even if it’s shifted, shrunk, rotated, deformed.

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Features of X

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Filters to Detect X Features
filters

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The Convolution Operation
1 X 1 =1
element wise
add outputs
multiply
= 9

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Suppose we want to compute the convolution of a 5x5 image and a 3x3 filter:
filter
image
We slide the 3x3 filter over the input image, element-wise multiply, and add the outputs…

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We slide the 3x3 filter over the input image, element-wise multiply, and add the outputs:
filter feature map

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filter feature map

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filter feature map

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filter feature map

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filter feature map

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filter feature map

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filter feature map

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filter feature map

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filter feature map

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Producing Feature Maps
Original Sharpen Edge Detect “Strong” Edge

Detect

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Feature Extraction with Convolution

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Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)
CNNs for Classification
1. Convolution: Apply filters with learned weights to generate feature maps.

2. Non-linearity: Often ReLU.
3. Pooling: Downsampling operation on each feature map.
Train model with image data.
Learn weights of filters in convolutional layers.
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Convolutional Layers: Local Connectivity
For a neuron in hidden layer:

- Take inputs from patch
- Compute weighted sum
- Apply bias

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Convolutional Layers: Local Connectivity
For a neuron in hidden layer:

- Take inputs from patch
- Compute weighted sum
- Apply bias
' '
4x4 filter: matrix 1) applying a window of weights
$ $ !"# (")*,#), + .
of weights !"# 2) computing linear combinations
"%& #%&
3) activating with non-linear function
for neuron (p,q) in hidden layer
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CNNs: Spatial Arrangement of Output Volume
depth
Layer Dimensions:
ℎ"#"$
where h and w are spatial dimensions
d (depth) = number of filters
height
Stride:
Filter step size
Receptive Field:
Locations in input image that
width a node is path connected to

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Introducing Non-Linearity
- Apply after every convolution operation (i.e., after Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU)
convolutional layers)
- ReLU: pixel-by-pixel operation that replaces all negative
values by zero. Non-linear operation!
! " = max ( 0 , " )

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Pooling
1) Reduced dimensionality
2) Spatial invariance
How else can we downsample and preserve spatial invariance?

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Representation Learning in Deep CNNs
Low level features Mid level features High level features
Edges, dark spots Eyes, ears, nose Facial structure

Conv Layer 1 Conv Layer 2 Conv Layer 3

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CNNs for Classification: Feature Learning
1. Learn features in input image through convolution

2. Introduce non-linearity through activation function (real-world data is non-linear!)
3. Reduce dimensionality and preserve spatial invariance with pooling
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CNNs for Classification: Class Probabilities
- CONV and POOL layers output high-level features of input + ,-

- Fully connected layer uses these features for classifying input image softmax () =
∑/ + ,0
- Express output as probability of image belonging to a particular class

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CNNs: Training with Backpropagation
Learn weights for convolutional filters and fully connected layers

Backpropagation: cross-entropy loss
! " = $ & (%) log -
,(%)
%
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CNNs for Classification: ImageNet
ImageNet Dataset
Dataset of over 14 million images across 21,841 categories
“Elongated crescent-shaped yellow fruit with soft sweet flesh”
1409 pictures of bananas.

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ImageNet Challenge
Classification task: produce a list of object categories present in image. 1000 categories.
“Top 5 error”: rate at which the model does not output correct label in top 5 predictions
Other tasks include:
single-object localization, object detection from video/image, scene classification, scene parsing

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ImageNet Challenge: Classification Task
30 28.2 2012: AlexNet. First CNN to win.
25.8 - 8 layers, 61 million parameters
classification error %
2013: ZFNet
20
- 8 layers, more filters
16.4 2014:VGG
- 19 layers
11.7 2014: GoogLeNet
10
6.7 - “Inception” modules
5.1 - 22 layers, 5million parameters
3.57
2015: ResNet
0 - 152 layers
10
11
12
13
14
15
an
20
20
20
20
20
20
um
H

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ImageNet Challenge: Classification Task
30 28.2 150
25.8
classification error %
number of layers
20
100
16.4
11.7
10 50
7.3 6.7
5.1
3.57
0 0
10
11
12
13
14
14
15
an
10
11
12
13
14
14
15
um
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
H

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An Architecture for Many Applications
An Architecture for Many Applications
Object detection with R-CNNs

Segmentation with fully convolutional networks
Image captioning with RNNs
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Beyond Classification
Semantic Segmentation Object Detection Image Captioning
CAT CAT, DOG, DUCK The cat is in the grass.

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Semantic Segmentation: FCNs
FCN: Fully Convolutional Network.
Network designed with all convolutional layers,
with downsampling and upsampling operations

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Driving Scene Segmentation
6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning Fix reference [10] 1/29/19

Driving Scene Segmentation

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Object Detection with R-CNNs
R-CNN: Find regions that we think have objects. Use CNN to classify.

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Image Captioning using RNNs

[14,15] 1/29/19
Image Captioning using RNNs

[14,15] 1/29/19
Deep Learning for Computer Vision:
Impact and Summary
Data, Data, Data
Airplane
Automobile
Bird
Cat
Deer
Dog
MNIST: handwritten digits
Frog
Horse
Ship
ImageNet:
22K categories. 14M images. Truck
places: natural scenes
CIFAR-10
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Deep Learning for Computer Vision: Impact

1/29/19
Impact: Face Detection 6.S191 Lab!

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Impact: Self-Driving Cars

[16] 1/29/19
Impact: Healthcare
Identifying facial phenotypes of genetic disorders using deep learning
Gurovich et al., Nature Med. 2019

[17] 1/29/19
Deep Learning for Computer Vision: Summary
Foundations CNNs Applications

• Why computer vision? • CNN architecture • Segmentation, object
• Representing images • Application to detection, image
classification captioning
• Convolutions for
feature extraction • ImageNet • Visualization

1/29/19

Introduction To Deep Learning

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Introduction To Deep Learning

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Introduction to Deep Learning

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6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Low Level Features Mid Level Features High Level Features

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Inputs Weights Sum Non-Linearity Output

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

&" !" )( = + !%+ - &. !.

Inputs Weights Sum Non-Linearity Output

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Inputs Weights Sum Non-Linearity Output

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

!$ Σ *) • Example: sigmoid function

Inputs Weights Sum Non-Linearity Output

1 & ( − & '(

tf.nn.sigmoid(z) tf.nn.tanh(z) tf.nn.relu(z)

NOTE: All activation functions are non-linear

What if we wanted to build a Neural Network to

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Linear Activation functions produce linear

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Linear Activation functions produce linear Non-linearities allow us to approximate

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Inputs Weights Sum Non-Linearity Output

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Inputs Hidden Final Output

Inputs Hidden Output

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Inputs Hidden Output

Will I pass this class?

Let’s start with a simple two feature model

! " = Number of lectures you attend

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

! $ = Number of lectures you attend

! $ = Number of lectures you attend

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

ℒ , ! (.) ; 1 , ' (.)

loss = tf.reduce_mean( tf.nn.softmax_cross_entropy_with_logits(model.y, model.pred) )

loss = tf.reduce_mean( tf.square(tf.subtract(model.y, model.pred) )

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

2. Loop until convergence:

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

2. Loop until convergence:

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

Let’s use the chain rule!

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

!"($) !"($) !*)

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

!"($) !"($) !*)

Apply chain rule! Apply chain rule!

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

!"($) !"($) !*) !,'

6.S191 Introduction to Deep Learning

!"($) !"($) !*) !,'