Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329
DOI 10.1007/s12053-016-9459-2
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Wind energy integration via residential appliances
George Xydis & Lucian Mihet-Popa
Received: 27 February 2015 / Accepted: 6 June 2016 / Published online: 15 June 2016
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Abstract In this paper cold and thermal storage
options via wind energy surplus are examined
aiming to enable higher wind integration. A case
study in Greece with an installed wind farm (WF)
was investigated reviewing the possibilities for
higher renewables integration using thermostatically
controlled loads (TCLs), analysing thermal and cold
storage possibilities according to the needs of the
local municipalities. The basic aim is to describe the
idea of an aggregated system with a number of
residential freezers, in order the wind power to be
stored in the residential cold stores aiming at max-
imizing the benefit to the grid, utility or cold store
owner avoiding at the same time wind curtailment.
In addition, for thermal storage, by calculating ther-
mal losses of the building, ventilation losses and
adding up internal thermal gains of the building
the space heating needs can be calculated.
G. Xydis
Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection Lab,
Piraeus University of Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 41046,
12201 Athens, Greece
G. Xydis (*)
Georgios Xydis, xydis.gr/gx, Perissos, N. Ionia, 14232 Athens,
Greece
e-mail: gxydis@gmail.com
L. Mihet-Popa
Department of Electrical Engineering, Politehnica University of
Timisoara, Bd. Vasile Parvan 2, 300233 Timisoara, Romania
Keywords Storage . Wind energy . Thermostatically
controlled loads
Introduction
Electricity grid, the way it is structured nowadays, will
not be able to follow the upcoming changes of future
intelligent grids. In-depth research is needed in intelli-
gent grids, and a different approach is required with
basic aim to unify the whole electrical and district
heating and cooling (DHC) grid. The main focus should
be on improving the grid efficiency by increasing re-
newable energy sources (RES) integration. For instance,
it is more preferable electricity to be generated when
heat demand is low and market prices are relatively
high. The energy foreseen to be curtailed from the
transmission system operator (TSO) can be used to heat
the water up and use it when needed. A linear program-
ming model is developed to find and describe the opti-
mal way of this curtailed energy to be inexpensively
distributed to local end-users and at the same time to
reassure profits for the independent power producer.
A lot of studies include relevant analyses on the
penetration of RES into the grid. Many papers are
analysing various storage methods and devices.
Nielsen and Möller (2012) investigated how excess heat
production has an effect on DHC systems in Denmark.
Parameshwaran et al. (2012) worked on the overall
efficiency of thermal energy systems (TES) used to
cover cooling, air conditioning and heating needs for
320
buildings. Zukowski (2007a, b) tested and modelled a
short-term TES unit, while Fitzgerald et al. (2012) stud-
ied how the efficiency of the power system can be
improved introducing power from wind through a smart
electricity-driven water heating system. Bitterlin (2006)
examined a hybrid wind–PV–energy storage system for
isolated applications. It was proven that the use of the
battery minimizes the yearly operation of diesel gener-
ators, minimizing also the total required battery storage
capacity. Koroneos et al. (2007) proposed a desalination
system design driven from RES and produced a
software tool for increasing integration of RES. Xydis
(2015) used wind integration analysis in the agricultural
sector in order the share of the RES utilized for this
purpose to be increased.
There is also a significant number of studies on
modelling and metering different applications of
energy consumption in buildings. Azar and Menassa
(2011) have studied the residents’ impact on energy
use in commercial buildings, while Berges et al. (2008,
2011) were focused on load monitoring of home’s ap-
pliances mainly in residential buildings. Mardookhy
et al. (2014) studied energy efficiency in residential
buildings in Knoxville, while Agüero-Rubio et al.
(2014) proposed a methodology for management of
thermal loads with real-time prices. Leduc and Van
Kann (2013) focused on sustainable energy harvesting
on urban areas ending up to smarter regions. A lot of
studies on water heating with the use of storage tanks
have estimated that this energy could account up to
30 % of the total electricity consumption of the building
(Rankin and Rousseau 2007; Saidur et al. 2007;
Fernández-Seara et al. 2007).
A not so commonly used method for temporal elec-
tricity storage is cold storage. The surplus of wind or of
any of stochastic nature (renewable) energy source can
be stored in freezers in the form of low temperature and
could increase the system resilience. This can be
achieved by using TCLs in residential freezers. The
frozen items stored will be cooled below their standard
temperature using the available energy surplus. When
prices are high (or experience a power shortage), the
controllers of the freezers will block electricity con-
sumption and the low temperature shall be steadily
increased (storage will be Bdischarged^) coming up to
the standard storage temperature. Limited research has
been done so far on the cold storage topic. Loisel et al.
(2010) worked on proving that thermal and cold storage
are significant tools in averting grid congestion. Project
Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329
Night Wind results (2006) presented simulations of this
idea as well, while Blarke et al. (2012) analysed a smart
grid approach for cooling and heating buildings from
renewables. Majozi (2009) published a paper on opti-
mizing energy utilization using heat storage option. The
idea for smart utilization of the curtailed energy, man-
aging peak load demand offering, at the same time,
balancing services increasing at the same time the sys-
tem’s efficiency was the drive for this work.
Methods
A detailed flowchart describing the followed methodol-
ogy can be seen in Fig. 1.
A wind farm (WF) in Rhodes Island was chosen, and
data were analysed from March 2009 to February 2010
(Fig. 2). The WF consists of 13 NEG-Micon NM 900/
52 (LM) wind turbines, each of which is capable of
producing 900 kW of power totalling to 11.7 MW of
installed wind capacity.
During the analysis period of the WF, the effected
curtailment is shown in Fig. 3 and in Table 1.
It is clear that the effected energy curtailment is
meaningfully lower in July, August (actually, for July–
August it is zero) and September. There is lower or no
curtailment at this period due to the increased energy
demand of the touristic period, and therefore almost all
generated electricity is absorbed by the grid. In total, the
average effected wind curtailment is approximately
120 MWh per month (Table 1) which means an average
loss of 6.1 % compared to the amount of megawatt
hours produced.
It is a clear scope of modern/intelligent grid to use,
and not waste, the electricity rejected from the TSO. The
smartest way to utilize it is to take advantage of the
operating residential appliances for that. For example,
for space heating, boilers can utilize this amount of
energy to maintain water temperature at required levels
at all times. The energy decided from the TSO Bto be
curtailed^ could be utilized for this, instead of using
fossil fuels to warm up water and use it for the buildings’
radiators. Other operating/existing appliances for short-
term storage are residential freezers. Existing freezers
could partly store the electricity foreseen Bto be
curtailed^ and could release it when peak load is re-
quired. When there is sufficient electricity generated, the
freezer temperature may fall, the frozen items inside the
freezer will be cooled further and the electricity
Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329 321

Fig. 1 A detailed flowchart of the

proposed methodology

provided shall be stored as a form of Bthermal^ energy
(cold storage). At periods of increased load demand,
significant energy saving could be achieved by allowing
the appliance’s inner temperature to be risen again of-
fering flexibility to the grid.
Study for the thermostatically controlled loads: cold
storage
Local energy policy makers in the need of cutting down
costs under the burden of the Greek government-debt

Fig. 2 Wind farm location in Rhodes Island: a map with RES projects, b zoom and villages nearby the WF area
322 Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329

Fig. 3 Effected curtailment of the

WF from March 2009 to February
2010

crisis, aiming to achieve a more sustainable energy
model, are forced to support the energy upgrading of
household appliances. A system with a number of avail-
able freezers connected to each other, can store wind
power (wind power deriving from the WF in Rhodes
Island) being beneficial for the grid (or utility) besides
the freezer owner.
Based on Borgnakke and Sonntag (2009) research
results, and assuming (a) a typical freezer temperature
of −18 °C and (b) the room’s temperature approximately
24 °C, using a Carnot cycle:
QL QL TL
COP ¼ ¼ ¼ ≈5:93; ð1Þ
W QH −QL T H −T L
where COP is the performance coefficient, QL is the
heat transfer from the low temperature body, QH is
the high temperature body heat transfer, TH is the
high temperature body temperature (24 °C), and TL
the low temperature body temperature (−18 °C). The
Eq. 2 correlates volume V, with the freezers’ annual
energy consumption (AEC) and with the energy
factor, EF, based on test procedure from DOE
(m3·day/kWh). It is necessary according to the leg-
islation that all manufacturers (based in the USA)
should provide the energy factor for all products
(DOE 2001).
365⋅V⋅1:73
AEC ¼ ; ð2Þ
EF
where 365 is the number of the days during a year,
and 1.73 is the coefficient which when multiplied by
the volume of the freezer, it calculates the freezer’s
adjusted volume according to DOE (DOE 2005).
Estimating typically a 0.45 m 3 freezer size per

Table 1 WF statistics from

March 2009 to February 2010 Produced Technical Cap. factor Effected Turb avg wind
energy [kWh] availability [%] [%] curtailment speed [m/s]
[kWh]

Mar 2009 2,998,800 90.76 34.95 12,015 8.92

Apr 2009 2,025,600 99.34 24.05 64,008 6.68
May 2009 1,299,200 99.56 14.93 23,823 5.22
Jun 2009 1,440,000 99.54 17.09 18,504 5.30
Jul 2009 2,380,800 99.74 27.35 0 7.38
Aug 2009 803,200 99.82 9.23 0 4.43
Sep 2009 1,481,600 99.05 17.69 1980 5.65
Oct 2009 1,328,000 99.32 15.26 54,765 4.46
Nov 2009 2,059,200 99.01 24.44 200,691 5.81
Dec 2009 1,875,200 97.88 21.54 799,830 8.17
Jan 2010 2,756,800 95.55 31.67 181,566 9.56
Feb 2010 3,051,200 97.38 38.81 77,445 10.19
Average 1,958,300 98 23 119,552 7.00
Total 23,499,600 1,434,627
Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329 323

household and EF equal to 16.57 (DOE 2005), the Table 2 Energy consumption per day from −15 to −22 °C in a
freezer
AEC is as follows:
TS (°C) E (kWh) DO Tr (°C) L (kg) RH (%)

AEC ¼ 605:5 kWh: ð3Þ −15 1.29 5 24 5 50

−15.5 1.35 5 24 5 50
It was assumed that the freezers were purchased in
−16 1.42 5 24 5 50
1995 (20 years old) in order to select a weighted EF, as it
−16.5 1.48 5 24 5 50
cannot be known when consumers have bought their
−17 1.55 5 24 5 50
freezers. Equation 3 calculates the energy consumption
−17.5 1.61 5 24 5 50
per day on average, E, which is 1.66 kWh. Based on
−18 1.68 5 24 5 50
Eqs. 1 and 3, the minimum electricity needed to operate
−18.5 1.74 5 24 5 50
a freezer within a year can be estimated:
−19 1.81 5 24 5 50
−19.5 1.87 5 24 5 50
AEC −20 1.94 5 24 5 50
QL −20.5
Pin ¼ COP ¼ ¼ 8760 ¼ 11:65 W; ð4Þ 2.00 5 24 5 50
W W −21 2.07 5 24 5 50
−21.5 2.13 5 24 5 50
Following the results from the equation of Masjuki −22 2.20 5 24 5 50
et al. (2001) and based on experimental series on
upright freezers (Grimes et al. 1977), the energy
consumption for reducing the temperature of the the months July–September (90 days), the yearly
freezer from −15 to −21 °C was calculated. gain per freezer shall be as follows:
According to Grimes et al. (1977) for E:



E ¼ ΔE 1 ⋅270 þ ΔE2 ⋅90 ¼ Eð−22Þ −E ð−15Þ ⋅270 þ E ð−19Þ −E ð−15Þ ⋅90 ¼
¼ ½ð2:2−1:29Þ⋅270 þ ð1:81−1:29Þ⋅90kWh=year ¼ 292:5 kWhe =year;
E ¼ −512:8 þ 6:5⋅DO þ 34:4⋅Tr þ 129:7⋅TS
ð6Þ
þ 62:5⋅L þ 0:7⋅RH; ð5Þ
Study for the thermostatically controlled loads: thermal
where DO is the number of times the door of the storage
freezer opens during the day, Tr is the temperature
of the room (in °C), L the food quantity inside the Regarding thermal storage, a typical household was
freezer (in kg), TS is the freezer’s thermostat setting considered, sited in the wider area, in Rhodes Island.
position, and RH is the relative humidity of the A ground plan of the building and a schematic descrip-
environment inside the residence (%). Assuming tion of the heating system (boiler-room in the basement
DO 5, Tr 24 °C, L 5 kg and RH 50 %, by altering in order to reduce heat losses) are shown in Fig. 4. The
TS, a significant difference can be seen in the ener- following hypotheses were taken into account:
gy consumption (Table 2). It was also proven from
Grimes et al. (1977) that the electricity consumed & √ Surface, 90 m2; building’s exterior surface; F,
increased by 10 % for each degree of decrease in 294 m2; building volume V, 718.4 m3; ratio F/V,
temperature. 0.41 m − 1 ; coefficient of heat transfer K m ,
It can be noticed (Fig. 3 and Table 1) that be- 0.393 kcal/m2 h °C, floor-to-roof distance, 3 m
tween months July and September, the TSO-effected
curtailment is lower in comparison to the rest
9 months of the year. Therefore, assuming that this The hot water from the boiler is distributed via six
is an option (lowering the freezer’s temperature from different pipes, with six extra pipes for cold water return.
−15 to −22 °C) only once within each day for the The material of the radiators is from steel, and the pipes
9 months (270 days) and from −15 to −19 °C during are from plastic, with an output of 530 kJ/m2.
324 Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329

Fig. 4 Ground plan of the

heating system of the building

A typical boiler is assumed, which uses oil interrupted operation–according to DIN 4701/77
with low heating value 10,200 kcal/kg. The boiler guidelines–and thus for Q1:
characteristics (Kiturami boilers 2014) are as
follows:
Q1 ¼ ð1 þ 0:07Þ⋅K m ⋅ F⋅ΔΤ
& √ Type, diesel oil boiler Kiturami 30S; nominal ¼ 1:07⋅1386:5⋅4184 kJ=h ¼ 6207 kJ=h; ð8Þ
power, 30,000 kcal/h; thermal potential,
25,500–40,250 kcal/h; fuel supply, 3.2 kg/h; For the ventilation losses Q2:
boiler efficiency, 90,346 %; λ, 1.15; electric
power, 130 W ⋅
⋅
Q2 ¼ m ⋅cp ⋅ΔΤ ¼ ρ⋅ V ⋅cp ⋅ΔΤ ¼ ρ⋅N ⋅V⋅cp ⋅ΔΤ
The yearly heating period (heating system in op-
eration) for Rhodes Island was assumed to be from ¼ 977 kJ=h; ð9Þ
November until March (assuming 154 days for that–
where N is the times for the renewal of the air per hour
slightly higher than the 150 days mathematically
(N = 0.25), V the volume of indoor space (90 m2 × 3 m),
foreseen for this period–plus 2 days before and
cp the air-specific heat capacity − 1.005 kJ/kg °C.
2 days after this period, just for leap year cases
A basic assumption was done on the internal heat
and safety reasons). The losses of the building con-
gains (including the solar thermal gains) of the building
sidered are the following: (a) the building shell
and account approximately 50 % of the envelope of the
thermal conductivity losses, Q1, and the losses for
building (Suehrcke et al. 2008; Yacouby et al. 2011;
ventilation Q2.
Lam and Li 1999). Therefore the losses, in total, Qtot, are
given from:
Q1 ¼ K m ⋅F⋅ΔΤ; ð7Þ

Qtot ¼ fðQ1 þ Q2 Þ⋅24⋅154g⋅0:5≈13; 276 MJ=year; ð10Þ

Assuming indoor temperature, Tr 24 °C, and
based on the fact that the average temperature of
the Island from November to March is 12 °C
(Hellenic National Meteorological Service 2013),
ΔT equals 12 °C. Furthermore, an increasing 7 %
of losses is considered due to intermittent/
and assuming that the heating system’s operating nom-
inal power is 30,000 kcal/h, it can be translated that it
roughly works for 106 h per year. Converting kilojoules
to kilowatt hour yearly, this is 3689.7 kWhth/year for
each household’s heating system.
Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329
A conventional heating system and a conventional
freezer both have a control system. The main idea is not
to substitute the thermostatic control system of the
freezer and the conventional heating system but to create
set points to the actual control system so that the to-be-
curtailed wind energy be utilized in an integrated man-
ner in both systems as a virtual battery e.g. stored
primarily in the freezer and at a second stage launching
the boiler for the hot water to be warmed up for space
heating.
Regarding the methodology followed, the analysis
was done based on meeting the energy demand, based
on the optimization of the objective function. Based on
the local demand and the approximated number of
households, the amount of energy required was calcu-
lated according to the following equations:
E f ¼ NoH⋅Egcs ; ð11Þ
where Ef is the energy for the freezers, NoH is the
number of households, and Egcs is the energy gain from
the cold storage in the area. Having already calculated
the energy for the freezers and knowing the yearly
effected curtailment, Eefcurt, it is simple to calculate the
amount remaining for the heating energy demand, Eh:
E h ¼ E efcurt −E f : ð12Þ
The aim of this work is to develop a methodology
that will maximize the sales in lower prices from the
local community–compared to the utility’s offered
prices. Thus, the following objective function is used
for that:
MaxðA1 ⋅X 1 þ A2 ⋅X 2 þ A3 ⋅X 3 þ A4 ⋅X 4 þ A5 ⋅X 5 Þ;
ð13Þ
where
A1 þ A2 þ A3 ¼ E 1 ; ð14Þ
and E1 is the sum of the amount of energy in megawatt
hour/year for the freezers of the villages in the wider
area, the needs of whose are in the model. A4 is the
annual energy in megawatt hour for heating needs of the
villages and A5 are the megawatt hour for each house-
hold’s heating system aggregating the amount of energy
than just the curtailed to meet the heating needs of the
area under examination nearby. X1 represents the offered
price for the peak consumption months of the year, X2
the medium demand offered price, and X3 the low
demand offered price. X4 represents the price for heating
325
only from electricity and X5 the price for the amount of
energy than only the curtailed amount to meet the
heating needs. The objective function is subject to:
Bi≤ Xi ≤ Bj; ð15Þ
where Bi,j are the lower and upper limits of the
problem constraints of the various prices offered to
the end-users by the utilities according to their con-
sumption for the electricity or heating, the non-
negativity constraints in order to end up to the
feasible region of the problem.
Case study and linear programming
In specific, the analysis, in the case study, is based on the
near the WF area energy needs. The population of the
villages nearby the WF, the villages of Ebonas, Ag.
Isidoros, Kritinia and Lakki with a distance smaller than
5 km from WF area (Fig. 1b), is in total approximately
4300 inhabitants and assuming typically, a 4-member
family, households are 1075. According on the results
the best solution is as follows:
& √ 1075∙0.2925 = 314.44 MWh/year for the freezers
of the surrounding villages, where 1075 is the
households number and 0.2925 MWh/year the
energy output based on the cold storage in the
area.
& √ (1434.6–314.44) = 1120.16 MWh/year for the
heating demand of the villages, where 1434.6
MWh/year is the yearly effected curtailment.
The main scope is the distribution of the generated
electricity to the local community (maximization of
sales) in lower prices (constraints) than those usually
offered from the wholesaler. Therefore, an objective
function was built for this purpose subject to pricing
constraints (lingo and What’s Best! solvers were used)
which is presented below:
Max ð4:48⋅X 1 þ 33:88⋅X 2 þ 276:02⋅X 3 ð16Þ
þ 1120:16⋅X 4 þ 2846:24⋅X 5 Þ
Subject to:
0:0946≤ X 1 ≤ 0:1025; ð17Þ
326
0:07793≤ X 2 ≤ 0:0946; ð18Þ
0:02676≤ X 3 ≤ 0:07793; ð19Þ
0:02676≤ X 4 ≤ 0:037; ð20Þ
0:037 ≤ X 5 ≤ 0:047; ð21Þ
0:02676≤ 0:375⋅X 1 þ 0:215⋅X 2 þ 0:027⋅X 3
þ 0:005⋅X 4 þ 0:375⋅X 5 ≤ 0:08227; ð22Þ
X 1 þ 3:56X 5 ≤ 0:24536; ð23Þ
X i ≥ 0; ð24Þ
According to data from the Hellenic Statistical
Authority (2013) on households in islands, only 1.5 %
of the consumption is more than 2000 kWh/4 months,
10.5 % between 800 and 2000 and approximately 88 %
0–800 kWh. Therefore, by multiplying with these per-
centages with the 314.44 kWh, calculated above, we
receive A1, A2 and A3 parameters. Based on the Law for
Renewables 3851/2010 (2010), there is a provision
dealing with the matter of compensation because of grid
curtailments. At the end of the year, the Greek TSO
remunerates–in theory–each WF independent power
producer with an additional compensation equal to the
corresponding 30 % of the energy cuts that took place
the previous year. According to the Law 3851/2010, this
fraction can be increased up to 100 %, so as the total
compensation is equal to the smallest amount between
(a) the compensation to be received if operated with two
thousand (2000) hours equivalent, and (b) the compen-
sation to be received if operating without any curtail-
ments. Where the capacity factor of wind farms is small
(e.g. mainland with low wind potentials) is of the order
of 20–25 %, namely about 2000 h, therefore the com-
pensation is usually 100 %. However, in Rhodes Island,
since the curtailment is higher, it is assumed that this is
the usual compensation. Moreover, under the EU Target
Model this is not clearly dealt–and the Renewables
Directive simply implies that renewables curtailment
should be minimized. Therefore, based on the effected
Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329
wind curtailment numbers (Table 1), and multiplying
the curtailment for each year with this 30 % compensa-
tion and by the Feed-in-Tariff (FiT), we have 38,390.4 €.
Dividing this number with the 1434.62 MWh (yearly
effected curtailment), the least of the FiT for the WF,
equals to 26.76 €/MWh. Therefore, the price range of
X3, which is the cheaper price offered (Nov–Feb price,
where the curtailment is significant)–is equal to the
running household TSO tariffs for electricity demand
below 800 kWh per 4 months (Public Power
Corporation 2014)–can be expressed as in Eq. 19.
Regarding Eq. 18 and X2 which represents the price
for the months of October, March, April, and May–
where the curtailment is significantly lower than that
during the winter months, the price should be more
expensive–equal to the current residential TSO tariffs
for consumption from 800 to 1600 kWh per 4 months
(Eq. 18). The most expensive price (X1) offered should
be the price required in the summer months (months
June–September) that the curtailment is very little and
approximately all produced electricity is integrated and
absorbed (Eq. 16). Equation 17 represents that by setting
the upper limit at the highest possible rates from the
TSO when consumption every 4 months exceeds
2000 kWh. Furthermore, based on the EUBIONET III
project findings (EUBIONET III 2011) and heating oil
prices (Kaldellis et al. 2005) that fuel price for firewood
and pellets from that, the firewood cost in Greece for the
last few years was estimated approximately at 18
€/MWh and the pellet cost reached approximately 47
€/MWh. Therefore, these could be the upper (but not the
lower, since 26.76 €/MWh is the lower it can get due to
the TSO curtailment price offered to the WF owner)
limit of the model used price. X4 (Eq. 15) represents
price for heating from electricity, and X5 represents the
electricity price used for heating for offering more ener-
gy than just the curtailed to meet heating needs of the
local area. Therefore, in Eq. 21, it was considered
that this should be done at a higher price since from
an exergy perspective is not productive/efficient to
utilize electricity for producing thermal energy. It
was examined though, taking into account the run-
ning residential tariffs (Public Power Corporation
2014) for greater than 800 kWh/4-month demand
but lower than 1600 kWh per 4-month, these prices
were chosen. According to a study (Samiotaki et al.
2010), regarding the selected means utilized for
heating (electricity, heating oil and pellets), the up-
per and the lower limits were chosen. Equation 22
Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329
represents according to the rate of utilization of each
price offered the lower and upper limits of the price,
while Eq. 23 stresses on meeting the consumption of
cold storage and heating needs of the area according
to the curtailment.
Results and discussion
The initial results of the optimization are shown below
(Fig. 5):
As expected, optimization results for the X1–X5 prices
have to be within the constraint limits of Eqs. 17–23.
Based on the runs and the results from the objective
function for the wind operator, the profits are as follows:
67 €≤ profits ≤ 197:58 €
As mentioned in a previous section, based on the
current law enforcements, the TSO covers the load
curtailment losses with the smallest amount between
(a) the compensation if operated with 2000 h annually
and (b) the compensation if operating without any cur-
tailments. With the effected wind curtailment data and
the 30 % compensation, the gain for the investor would
have been 38,390.4 €. This means that even in the lower
prices selection, the operator almost doubles its profits
compared to the remuneration based on the law for
curtailment.
Fig. 5 Optimization results–graphical representation
327
Furthermore, for the wind power integration, following
the papers of Hepbasli and Alsuhaibani (2011) and Xydis
(2012, 2013) WFs exergy efficiency, taking into account
all losses, can be calculated from the following equation:
NetAEP
Exergy efficiency ¼ ⋅100%: ð24Þ
8760⋅C i
NetAEP is the net energy (MWh), 8760 represents
the number of hours in a year (365 days × 24 h), and Ci
the WF’s installed capacity (MW). After the power
output measurements (Table 1), it was found that the
exergetic capacity factor (ExCF) was 22.93 % (average
price). However, using the wind to-be-curtailed through
the thermal energy and cold storage as described above,
the accumulated capacity factor (Kalaiselvam and
Parameshwaran 2014; Xydis 2014) could have reached
24.32 %.
The methodology presented is a generic, but not a
forecast-based approach. However, implementing a
forecasting methodology can be applicable to provide
seasonal, or even real-time market, wherein prices to
be offered and utilized into the system. The method-
ology presented could offer the operator an overview
of the WF exergetic performance, which could more
effectively link the end-user with the system’s needs.
Demand side forecast approaches and algorithms
(Thomas et al. 2008; Sesto and Casale 1998; Wang
et al. 2015), based on detailed meteorological infor-
mation as input, can be utilized to create advanced
328
forecasting approaches and various scenarios aiming
to comprise integral parts of the team’s future work.
Such demand response applications could lead to the
selection of the proper consumer programme linked
with the residential appliances, which at the end will
not only improve the grid’s stability but will also save
resources for the end-user.
Conclusions
The basic aim of this research was to find out how much
more wind can be integrated into the grid, increasing the
profits of the independent power producer, the capacity
factor of the plant and at the same time save costs for the
end-users. Wind power to cold and thermal storage case
studies were examined to enable greater wind energy
penetration. A methodology was proposed for the sur-
plus of the wind power production to be stored in
residential freezers and space-heating boilers. It was
found that:
a) The WF owner can be compensated with greater
amount compared to the curtailment reimbursement
(at least 67 € compared to the approximately 38 € on
average annually deriving from the reimbursement
fee according to the Law 3851/2010),
b) The end-user can save from the electricity bill—
since compared to running tariff schemes, it is not
allowed to the independent power producer to
charge higher to the customer than what he ought
to be charging if the demand was below 800 kW/4-
month consumption—depending on the season, and
c) This way the system can consume the anyway
generated electricity which at the end the plan is to
be curtailed and will increase the ACFs by 1.39 %.
This way, the TSOs will be able to save costs and
use higher portion of the electricity already gener-
ated and not refund companies for not delivering
physical amount of energy to the grid (curtailed
energy).
Therefore, this triple win situation (owner–end-user–
rid) can be beneficial for all parties and particularly for
the society.
Acknowledgments The preparation of this paper would not
have been possible without the support of Strenecon S.A.
Energy Efficiency (2017) 10:319–329
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