1

GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICALUNIVERSITY
Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
Affiliated

Darshan Institute of Engineering and Technology, Rajkot

A
Project Report
On

(Cracks in building:causes and preventions)

Under subject of
DESIGN ENGINEERING – 2A
B. E. III, Semester – V
(Civil Branch)

Submitted by
Group No: 02

Sr. Name of Student Enrolment No.

1. Parth Patel 150540106127
2. Dhruv Patt 150540106132
3. Yash Nathwani 150540106111
4. kiran Parmar 150540106123
5. Bhaskar Rathod 150540106143

Prof. Hukum M. Jadeja

(Faculty Guide)

(Head of the Department)

Prof. M.D.Barasara

Academic year
(2016-2017)
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CERTIFICATE

Date:

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “Cracks in building: causes and
preventions” has been carried out by (Parth Patel),(Druv Patt),(Yash

Nathwani),(Kiran Parmar),(Bhaskar Rathod) under my guidance in fulfillment of the

“Design Engineering 1A” of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering (5rdSemester)
of Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad during the academic year 2016-17.

Prof. Hukum M. Jadeja Prof. M.D.Barasara

Internal Guide Head of the Department External
Examiner
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Acknowledgement
I am highly indebted to PROF. LALKISHAN PANDIYA & Head Of Department
PROF. M.D.BARASARA (M.E. STRUCTURE) for their guidance and constant
supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the project & also for
their support in completing the project.

I would like to express my gratitude towards OUR PARENTS & member of CIVIL
DEPARTMENT OF DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help us in completion of this project.

I would like to explicit my thanks to MR. Name of Field owner / site supervisor /
Engineer for giving me such attention and time.

Our thanks and appreciations also go to our COLLEAGUE in developing the

project and PEOPLE WHO HAVE WILLINGLY HELPED US out with their abilities.

Team Members
DIET
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Abstract

Masonry: concrete block, lime stone and recently oven dried clay hollow bricks
are widely used in most of the underdeveloped and developing countries in the
construction industry either as a wall bearing construction or as part of the
structure skeleton for walls. Yet little is known about the deformations
encountered once these units are in service due to the lack of research and
information employed in the design. When it comes to the collective behaviour
the knowledge gap is worse, wall cracking is the typical drawbacks noticed in
most of the low rise masonry buildings. These cracks are attributed to various
effects ranging from unit properties, climatic boundaries, poor construction, and
bad design: collectively leads to cracking and at ultimate can result in failure.
This project thoroughly pin points the wide varieties of cracks in walls and
summarizes their causes and how they can be avoided contributing to good
masonry design through insuring aesthetic as well as safety provision.
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Table of contents
Contents Page
no.
Certificate 1
Acknowledgement 2
Abstract 3

List of Content 4
Introduction of design thinking 7
1.1 Definition of design thinking 7

1.3 Team Building and Role Playing 8

Empathy Mapping 9
2.1 Observation Report 9
2.1.1 Formal/Informal questions/answers
2.1.2 Photographs of site / other observations 9
2.1.3 Discussion with team members 10
2.2 Summary of AEIOU Framework 11-12
2.2.1 Description of Activities framework 11-12
2.2.2 Description of Environment framework 11-12
2.2.3 Description of Interaction framework 11-12
2.2.4 Description of Object framework 11-12
2.2.5 Description of User framework 11-12
2.2.6 AEIOU observation sheet photograph & 13
Conclusion of AEIOU canvas
2.3 Empathy Mapping /framework 9
2.3.1 User and Stakeholder and Activities 9
2.3.2 Happy and Sad story 9
2.3.3 Empathy mapping canvas photograph 9
2.3.4 Conclusion of Empathy mapping canvas 9
Prior Art Search/Literature Review 14
3.1 Research Papers 14
3.1.1 Summary of research paper 1 14
3.1.2 Summary of research paper 2 15
3.1.3 Summary of research paper 3 16
3.1.4 Summary of research paper 4 17
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3.1.5 Summary of research paper 5 18

3.3 Books and Websites 19
3.3.1 Summary of Refrence Book 1 19
3.3.2 Summary of Refrence Book 2 20
3.3.3 Summary of Refrence Book 3 21
3.3.4 Summary of Website 1 22
3.3.5 Summary of Website 2 22
Ideation Phase 23
4.1 Mind Mapping 23
4.2 Description of Ideation Canvas 24
4.2.1 People 24
4.2.2 People-wise activities 24
4.2.3 Description of context, situation and location 24
4.2.4 Description of five iteration 24
4.2.5 Props (Problem and solution keyword) 24
4.2.6 Ideation canvas photograph 25
Product Development Canvas /framework 26
5.1 Description of people, purpose and experience of product 26-27
5.2 Description of product function, features and components 26-27
5.3 Description of revalidation with customer 26-27
5.4 Description of reject, redesign and retain components 26-27
5.5 PDC Canvas Photograph 28
Description of final problem, product solution and conclusion 29-32
6 Learning Needs Matrix 33-36
7 Prototype 37-42
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INTRODUCTION OF DESIGN THINKING

Definition of design thinking

Design thinking is an alternative approach to problem solving that intentionally seeks out
people with different perspectives, knowledge, skills and experience and has them work
together to create a practical solution for a real-world problem.

Design thinking uses a process-based approach to solve problems and like any process, it
involves a series of steps that are carried out in a particular order to achieve a goal. In this
case, the goal is to identify a solution that is capable of succeeding, can be carried out in a
timely manner and is likely to be accepted by all stakeholders.

The five steps in design thinking are empathize, define, ideate, prototype and test.

Empathize – This step involves interviewing stakeholders and asking open-ended

questions. The goal is to learn more about the problem from multiple perspectives.

Define – This step involves synthesizing all the information that was gathered during
the previous step and arriving at a group consensus that states what problem needs to
be solved. The goal is to identify the scope and true nature of the problem.

Ideate – This step involves sharing ideas – however wild and impractical -- and using
each other’s ideas as triggers for continuing the ideation process. The goal is to
brainstorm solutions to the problem.

Prototype – This step involves creating a mock-up that conveys the essence of a
proposed solution. An important goal of this step is to help the design team weed out
unworkable or impractical solutions and focus attention on ideas that are likely to be
approved by stakeholders.

Test –This step involves presenting the prototype to stakeholders. The goal is to solicit
feedback that will let the design team know if they have successfully solved the
problem or whether they need to go back to the drawing board and repeat steps.
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Team Building and Role Playing

Based on our class room discussion with our faculty and group members
we decided to select topic based on common interest of members. We discussed
about various domain for design engineering with various classmates Parth,
Dhruv, Yash, Kiran, Bhaskar . After a while we divided based on our common
interest in one particular subject with different ideas. Finally member had
decided to select the domain “Building Construction”. The topic agreed upon
by members was Cracks in building: causes and preventions.

Our team worked hard and co-operate easily with each other in order to
achieve our objective. Our team was divided in to parts for doing a specific
work in the project. So our project can be done easily and speedily. Everybody
took keen interest in carrying out the project work. Each of us helped each other
and completed the allotted work on time. As a team and as individual we gave
out best to work out this project.
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EMPATHY MAPPING
Our topic is cracks in residential building and their solution. Cracks are generated in
RCC work, masonry work plastering etc. crack are not only generated residential
building. it is generated educational, assembly, business, industrial, hazardous, etc
building. It is widely generated in various infrastructure.

The main users which are which widely use cracks solution are civil
engineers. Other users are likes contractors, builder , researchers, customer , students,
executive engineers building engineers etc.

The main activities which are taking place at site are, excavation, planning,
designing, proportioning and mixing of concrete, conveying of material like steel bars,
cement , aggregates, sand, bricks, concrete etc. from ground to upper floor trough lift,
curing, shuttering, centering, brick work, plumbing, electrification, executing,
plastering, checking of qualities of concrete, scaffolding, painting etc.

The objects which are used at site are truck mixers, cranes, pumps,
dampers, trippers, cables, agitator Lorries, chisel, etc

The stakeholders are Engineer, supervisor . The other users are contractor, Labour,
and mason.

The activities are proportioning, batching, mixing, conveying,

transportation of mixed concrete, casting, placing, compacting, curing, shuttering,
centering, plastering, masonry work, applying English bond, brick adjusting in
bond,pointering, etc.

The material like cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, sand,

water etc. which are used to make concrete and also material like brick and cement
which are used to make masonry work are available easily and their cost is less , so
that our construction cost is less and also it give huge compressive strength. And
better quality,good surface and solve the crack problum so here we can feel very
happy.

When not done proper curing, poor suttering work can cause cracks in RCC. If
mistake in mixing design can cause problem in construction work of RCC. And also
not applying proper bond and quality of brick, stone, block, etc. and also leakage
problem arises so maintenance are requirement.
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Empathy mapping canvas

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Summary of AEIOU Framework

Environment
Summer

Winter

Monsoon

Morning

Afternoon

Evening

Activities
Lab testing

Tendering

Monotering

Calculation of load

Interaction with civil engineer

Quality control

Structural design

Estimation

Planning

Interaction
Poor quality control

Lack of workmenship

Variation in testing

Settlement of soil

Defect in testing

Earthquacks
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Users
Labour

Masion

Site supervisor

Builder

Client

Civil engineer

Contractor

Arcitect

Structural engineer

Internal design

Objects
Testing equipments

Autocad

Mixer

Vibrator

Compactor

Elevator

Concrete mixer

Ganting
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AEIOU observation sheet photograph

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PRIOR ART SEARCH/LITERATURE

REVIEW
Research Paper -1
Title - type of Cracks in construction and its controlling
Author - Kazem Reza Kashyzadeh , Neda Aghili Kesheh
Advisor Professor, Young Researchers Club, Semnan branch,
Islamic Azad University, Semnan, Iran
Department of Civil Engineering, Hekmat University, Qom-Iran

Year- August 2012

Abstract: Perform a detailed characteristic of the structural analysis or

distinguishing feature of internal structures such as cracks in the building is very
important for a civil engineer and useful in its careers. Although it seems less
important, but its financial feedback is necessary for the employer. Moreover,
contrary to public perceptions about professional issues and professional work
as possible should be done very professionally.
In present paper, shortly describe about what should know every civil
engineer in the face of the building has been cracking. Mostly, useful life of
many building is lower than strength loading. Despite the weakness of the
skeleton indicate that the Turks are a Sakhnman. Often, the cracking
phenomenon and until that outcome is very important to be left disabled, all the
work that needs to be done include: filling out simple repairs or re Bndkshy. But
quitting can be a first sign of a serious weakness in the building so that the
potential benefit or affect the structural stability. The importance of proper
evaluation is necessary to leave.
Obviously, the evaluation of restorative work done improperly can lead to
costly and unnecessary. In some cases, restorative work can cause more serious
problems and extend the results to be more cracking and more make damage in
buildings.
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Research Paper -2
Title- Development of cracks in concrete, preventive measures and treatment
methods

Author- Rajveer Singh Narwaria, Archana Tiwari

PG Student, Structural Engineering, Madhav Institute of Technology and
science, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Professor and Head of the Civil Engineering Department, Madhav
Institute of Technology and science, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India

Year- Sep -2016

Abstract:Cracks in the building is the most common problem that occur in any
type of concrete structure such as beams,coloumn, etc... So, it is important to
understand the cause and the measures to be taken for prevention. Though
cracks in concrete cannot be prevented entirely but they can be controlled by
using adequate material and technique of construction and considering design
criteria. But due to some faulty steps taken during construction or due to some
unavoidable reasons different cracks starts to appear on various structural and
non- structural parts of the building with due course of time. There are cracks
which need to be identified at appropriate time, so proper care of such cracks
can be taken .This paper gives information about various causes, prevention of
cracks and treatment methods to such causes.
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Research Paper -3
Title- CAUSES AND EVALUATION OF CRACKS IN
CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Author- Syed Mohd Mehndi Prof. Meraj Ahmad Khan & Prof. Sabih Ahmad
(Guide)
Year-Sep-Oct 2014
Abstract-This research work focused on checking the cause and evaluation of
cracks at every stage in R.C.C structures. This paper will describe how to find
out cracks size and cause of cracks. Cracks generally occur both in plastic and
elastic state of concrete. I have selected this topic because less work is being
done in this area in India. The repair materials and repair technique are different
depending upon forms of cracks according to their positions in structure. Good
crack repair methods depends on knowing the cause of cracks and selecting
appropriate repair method that take these causes into account otherwise the
repair would not last long. This report serves as a tool in process of cracks
evaluation and causes of cracks in concrete structures. So we can say if crack
repair is assumed to be building of structure than this report can be assumed as
foundation of it.
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Research Paper -4
Title- Geotechnical Investigation into the Causes of Cracks in Building: A
Case Study

Author- Gambo Haruna Yunusa, Umar Hamza (Department of Civil

Engineering, Bayero University, Kano)
Year- February 27th, 2009.
ABSTRACT-The formation of cracks in structural elements and other parts of
a building such as walls is often unavoidable; that is why some standard of
practice specify the maximum allowable width of cracks depending on the type
and exposure conditions of a structure. This study investigates the causes of
cracks in a newly completed building in which some detrimental cracks
appeared immediately after the completion of the project. Most of these cracks
appeared in almost all the walls and other structural elements such as columns
and beams, and they are of different patterns. Three basic methods comprising
of reconnaissance survey; building inspection and laboratory testing were used
to investigate the causes of these detrimental cracks. During the reconnaissance
survey, factors that may lead to formation of cracks were checked and analyzed.
The width, pattern and conditions of the cracks were identified during the
building inspection stage and the soil properties related to the formation of
cracks were determined during the laboratory test stage. Based on the outcome
of the study; there is no evidence of factors such as a matured tree that may lead
to the formation of cracks in the building; all the cracks are active cracks with
their width increasing with time and the soils in the entire area of the building
possessed high percentage of fine materials with high moisture content and
plasticity indices. The pore water pressure in this type of soil takes longer time
to dissipate, which can be ascertained by very low value of the coefficient of
permeability (1.93 x 10-7 to 2.16 x 10-7 m/s) obtained from different soil
samples collected from the study area. Therefore, the cracks in this building
were found to be caused by the settlement of the building due to the nature of
the predominant soil type that was found in the study area.
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Research Paper -5
Title- Study on Causes of Cracks & its Preventive Measures in Concrete
Structures
Author- Pooja Nama1, Ankush Jain2, Rajat Srivastava3 and Yash Bhatia4
Head of Civil Department, Career Point University, Kota
Assistant Professor Civil Department, Career Point University, Kota
B.Tech 3rd Year, Career Point University, Kota
B.Tech 3rd Year, Career Point University, Kota

Year- May 2015

Abstract-The problem of cracking in building is becoming a difficult puzzle

for engineers nowadays. Cracking is an unavoidable response of any structure
while designers are trying to eliminate many of the causes of cracking and
design tolerance for other factors. We all want our building structurally safe but
it is not so easy. Some faulty steps during construction and some unavoidable
reasons different type of cracks starts to appear on various structural and non-
structural parts of the building. So, timely identification of such cracks and
adopting preventive measure are essential. The repair materials and repair
technique are different depending upon forms of cracks according to their
positions in structure. Some types of cracks seriously need attention as they are
structurally hazardous. In this paper, we will discuss about the problem
engineers are facing i.e. of cracking after construction and what preventive
measures should be taken along with the techniques to cure cracks.
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Book-1
Title- CRACKS IN BUILDING
Author- GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, MINISTRY OF RAILWAY
Summary- This handbooks deals with the causes and the prevention of
non structural cracks only, i.e. the cracks in the building components which
are not due to structural inadequacy, faulty construction & overloading.

The commonly used building material namely masonry, concrete, mortar etc.
are weak in tension and shear. Therefore the stresses of even small magnitude
causing tension and shear stresses can lead to cracking. Internal stresses are
induced in the building components on account of thermal movements,
moisture change, elastic deformation, chemical reactions etc.. All these
phenomenon causes dimensional changes in the building components, and
whenever this movement is restraint due to interconnectivity of various
member, resistance between the different layers of the components etc.,
stresses are induced and whenever these stresses (tensile or shear) exceed
the strength of material cracking occurs.

Depending upon the cause and certain physical properties of building material
these cracks may be wide but further apart or may be thin but more closely
space. As a general rule, thin cracks even though closely spaced and greater
in number, are less damaging to the structures and are not so objectionable
from aesthetic and other considerations as fewer number of wider cracks.

Keeping above in view, in the subsequent chapters the various precautions

and the preventive measures for mitigating the non-structural cracks, or
containing them in less damaging fine cracks has been enumerated in detail.
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Book-2
Title-Solution to cracking in house
Author- Leigh Wilson
Summary- It includes:
 detailed step-by-step procedures to enable you to readily
investigate and diagnose the cracking and other forms of structural
damage in your house or other small building

 a guide as to how you can analyse and interpret the material gathered in
your investigations

 guidance on ways to consider the influence of trees, drainage and

other buildings on your property and on your neighbour’s
properties on the problem

 a simple description of various of forms of low-rise construction and a

discussion of the influence of different foundation materials such as
sand, clay etc on the performance of a building built upon them

 careful explanations of typical building defects illustrated by clear

simple diagrams, making it easy for you to understand the actual
root causes of your problem

 guidance as to simple remedial site works that will rectify problems in

many cases

 an outline of forms of monitoring and maintenance that you can

carry out to ensure that the problems do not recur

 a flowchart and outline as to how best to proceed through the publication

 an overview of other sources of help and what to expect from

experts and other specialists

 chapters describing issues peculiar to historic buildings, apartments and

flats
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Book-3
Title- Study on control of cracks in a Structure through Visual
Identification & Inspection
Author- Kishor Kunal, Namesh Killemsetty
Summary- Cracks in buildings are of common occurrence. A building
component develops cracks whenever stress in the component exceeds its
strength. Stress in a building component could be caused by externally
applied forces, such as dead, live, wind or seismic loads, or foundation
settlement or it could be induced internally due to thermal variations,
moisture changes, chemical action, etc.

Cracks could be broadly classified as Structural and Non-Structural.

Structural cracks which are due to incorrect design, faulty construction or
overloading and Non-structural cracks are mostly due to internally induced
stresses in building materials and these generally do not directly result in
structural weakening. These are due to penetration of moisture or thermal
variation. Cracks may appreciably vary in width from very thin hair cracks
barely visible to naked eye (about 0.01 mm in width) to gaping cracks 5 mm or
more in width. A commonly known classification of cracks, based on their
width is:

1. Thin— less than 1 mm in width,

2. Medium — 1 to 2 mm in width, and
3. Wide — more than 2 mm in width.
Cracks may be of uniform width throughout or may be narrow at one end,
gradually widening at the other. Cracks may be straight, toothed, stepped, map
pattern or random and may be vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Cracks may be
only at the surface or may extend to more than one layer of materials.
(Gambhir, 2005)
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Website;-
www.ijera.com
www.ijetae.com
www.irjet.net
www.humboldtmfg.com
https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S03/is.sp.25.1984.pdf

w. www.humboldtmfg.com/pdf/cracks-low-rise-buildings.pdf ijera.com www.ijera.c

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Ideation Phase
Mind mapping
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Description of Ideation Canvas

People:-

-civil engineer
-Contractor

-site engineer

-Supervisor

Situation/context/location:-
Here proportion of beams, foundations, columns is 1:2:4 and of slab is 1:1.5:3. If
large amount of Reinforced concrete is there then proportion may changed.

Hand mixing is used when the quantity of concrete is small and the concrete mixer is
not available. But here the quantity of concrete is large so machine mixing method will use.

If we place concrete in slabs and flooring then remaining of air voids will caused.

The masonry work, better quality is equired so apply English bond and Flemish bond.

Props/possible solution:-
Concrete should be sufficiently compacted to achieve higher density.

minimum grade of concrete for RCC shall not be M 20 and PCC shall be M15

for masonry work should be apply English bond and Flemish bond

plastering thickness should be 10 to 18 mm.

For easy and faster transportation of concrete from one place to another place, cranes
and cable-ways are used.

When compacting is used in foundation, advanced vibrators are used for removing of
air voids.

In dam constructions and multi-storey buildings placing of concrete is done by the

method of placing from pipes.

We should use of advance equipment, best material, adopted best curing method, use
admixture and also uses of pre cast concrete.
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Ideation canvas photograph

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Product Development Canvas /framework

After the completion of the Ideation Canvas it is the PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
CANVAS, which can be very helpful in knowing the details of the final product which is
obtained after all challenges faced and cleared.

The problem which were finally to be cleared after the product as out, were
the following purposes of the product which were to be fulfilled. The durability, strength and
its satisfying application.

Here are the explanations of the various components of the product

development canvas with their snapshots.

Purpose:-
The purpose of this section of the canvas was to make vision of the need of the canvas clear.
Here we have described four purposes which we sorted out as our former need. The
application of crack solution in various structures which gives high strength to the structure,
has durability, long term serviceability and low maintenance.

People:-
The civil engineers, contractors, masons, ladour are the first people who are going to use the
our product.

These people are sorted as the main components in the People section
which are the most users of repair of cracks.

Product component:-

After people are the components of the products with which the product was not possible to
be made. These components are mostly used relevantly or irrelevantly used to cracks repair

The agitator Lorries are used to convey various method used to repair
cracks, cracks repair by expoxy – injection grouting, crack repair by routing and sealing,
crack repair by stitching, crack repair by prestressing steel, crack repair by grouting. Use
Admixture in Concrete. Use of Advance Equipment. Good Formwork For Better Surface.

Then comes the mix design of concrete which decides the design of the
concrete or the proportions of various materials used to make concrete. Then all the materials
 27

are mixed inside the Dumpers and Truck Mixers. Proper mixing of materials is also as
important as to decide the proportion.

Product features:-

Then comes the features of the product which gives basic idea of the
features of the product. There are various things to do such as Proper Curing, Compaction,
Batching, Quality Of Material, Experience Of Labour and Scaffolding. These are the
procedures used during the execution of the concrete placing. Use of low heat cement using
in masonry and concrete work.

Product functions:-

The next thing in the sequence of the development canvas is only one function of the product.
Here we have sorted out one of the most relevant functions. less development of cracks in
residential building.

Product experience:-

This section of the development canvas is the outcome of the people’s benefit thinking area.
civil engineer gives best quality work, and to solve cracks problem, so that builder get
satisfied with that.
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PDC Canvas Photograph

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Description of final problem, product solution

and conclusion
Cracking in reinforced concrete structures of various types can be divided into
two main groups:
1 - Non-structural cracks
2 – Structural cracks

Masonry is a heterogeneous material that consists of units and joints. Units

can be bricks, blocks, ashlars, adobes, irregular stones, and others. Mortar can
be clay, bitumen, chalk, lime or cement-based, glue, or others. The huge
number of possible combinations generated by the geometry, nature, and
arrangement of units as well as the characteristics of mortars raises doubts
about the accuracy of the term “masonry”. still, much information can be
gained from thuctuy structures, in which a periodic repetition of the
microstructure occurs due to a constant arrangement of the units.

Elastic Deformation
When the walls are unevenly loaded, due to variation in stresses in different parts of wall the
cracks are formed in walls. When two materials having wide different elastic properties are built
together under the effect of load, different shear stresses in these materials create cracks at the
junction. Dead and live loads cause elastic deformation in structural components of a building.

Prevention
Create slip joints under the support of RCC slab on walls. Masonry work on RCC slabs and
beams should not be started before drying RCC slab and beam. Provide horizontal movement
joints between the top of brick panel and RCC beam/slab.

Thermal Movement
All materials expand on heat and contract on cool. Thermal movement in components of
structure creates cracks due to tensile of shear stresses. It is one of the most potent causes of
cracking in buildings and needs attention.

Prevention
Construct joints such as construction joints, expansion joints, control joints and slip joints. The
joints should be planned at the time of design and be constructed carefully.
 30

Chemical Reaction
Chemical reactions in building materials increase their volume and internal stress causes cracks.
The components of structure also weaken due to chemical reactions. Some common instances
of chemical reactions are following.

 Sulphate attack on cement products

 Carbonation in cement based materials
 Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete
 Alkali aggregate reaction

Prevention
Use dense and good quality concrete i.e. richer mix of cement concrete 1:1.5:3 to prevent
cracks. Repair corrosive cement concrete surface by ‘guniting’/ injecting technique after
removing all loose and damaged concrete and cleaning reinforcement from all rust also.

Shrinkage
Most building materials expend when they absorb moisture from atmosphere and shrink when
they are dry. Cement made materials shrink due to drying up of the moisture used in their
construction. The factors causing shrinkage in cement concrete and cement mortar and their
preventions are following.

1. Excessive Water
The quantity of water used in the mortar mix can cause shrinkage. Vibrated concrete has
less quantity of water and lesser shrinkage than manually compacted concrete .

Prevention
Use minimum quantity of water required for mixing cement concrete or cements mortar
according to water cement ratio. Never allow cement concrete work without mechanical
mix and vibrator .

Quantity of Cement;-
As a general rule, the richer the mix is, the greater the shrinkage/drying will be.

Prevention
Do not use excessive cement in the mortar mix.
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Un-graded Aggregate
Aggregate can cause shrinkage also. If un-graded and fine material/aggregate is used in
cement concrete and cement mortar which requires more water and can cause greater
shrinkage.

Prevention
Use largest possible aggregate and ensure good grading of materials. The use of water
according to required workability has less shrinkage because of reduction in the porosity of
hardened concrete.

Curing
After laying cement concrete mix, the hardening of cement takes place, causes reduction in
moisture and creates shrinkage. This causes cracks in concrete work.

Prevention
Proper curing should be started as soon as initial setting has taken place and be continued for
at least seven to ten days. When hardening of concrete takes place under moist environment,
the shrinkage due to drying is comparatively less.

Excessive Fine materials

Fine materials take more surface area and require more water for mix. The use of excessive
fine materials i.e. silts; clay and dust in aggregate create more shrinkage.

Prevention
Do not use fine materials containing silt, clay and dust. Use coarse sand/fine aggregate in
cement concrete and cement mortar mix which has silt and clay less than 4%. Use coarse
aggregate and fine aggregate after washing to reduce silt contents.

Foundation Movement and Settlement of Soil

Shear cracks occur in buildings when there is large differential settlement of foundation due
to any of following causes.

 Unequal bearing pressure under different parts of the structure

 Bearing pressure being in excess of safe bearing strength of the soil
 Low factor of safety in the design of foundations
 Local variation in the nature of supporting soil
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Prevention
The design of foundation must be based on sound engineering principles and good practice.

Earth Quake
Crack may occur due to sudden shift in lower layer of the earth. The voids in the earth might
have suddenly collapsed and be filled with soil from the above. Many geological events can
trigger earth movements but is continuous movement. This results in cracks.

Prevention
Construct the foundation of buildings on firm ground while doing construction. Tie up the building
with connecting beams at foundation level, door level and roof level.

Vegetation
The roots of trees located in the vicinity of a wall can create cracks in walls due to growth of roots
under foundation. The cracks occur in clay soil due to moisture contained by roots.

Prevention
Do not let trees grow too close to the buildings, compound walls etc. Remove any saplings of
trees as soon as possible if they start growing in or near of walls etc.
 33

Learning needs Matrix

Structural Cracks : These occur due to incorrect design, faulty construction or

overloading and these may endanger the safety of a building. e.g. Extensive
cracking of an RCC beam.

Non structural Cracks: These are mostly due to internally induced stresses in
buildings materials and do not endanger safety of a building but may look
unsightly, or may create an impression of faulty work or may give a feeling of
instability. In some situations due to penetration of moisture through them non
structural cracks may spoil the internal finishes thus adding to the cost of
maintenance, or corrode the reinforcement, thereby adversely affecting the
stability of the Structure in long run. e.g. Vertical crack in a long compound
wall due to shrinkage or thermal movement.
Cracks may appreciably vary in width from very thin hair crack barely visible
to naked eye to gaping crack. Depending upon the crack width cracks are
classified as :
(a) Thin Crack - less than 1 mm in width,
(b) Medium Crack - 1 to 2 mm in width,
(c) Wide Crack - more than 2 mm in width.
(d) Crazing - Occurrence of closely spaced fine cracks at the surface of a
material is called crazing.

Cracks may of uniform width through out or may be narrow at one end
gradually widening at the other. Crack may be straight, toothed, stepped, map
pattern or of random type and may be vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Cracks
may be only at surface or may extend to more than one layer of material. Cracks
due to different causes have varying characteristics and by the careful
observations of these characteristics, one can diagnose the cause of cracking for
adopting the appropriate remedial measures.
 34

Methods of Groting:-

1. Drilled holes--fittings inserted

Historically, this method was the first to be used, and is often used in
conjunction with V-grooving of the cracks. The method entails drilling a
hole into the crack, approximately 3/4 in. in diameter and 1/2 to I in.
below the apex of the V-grooved section, into which a fitting such as a
pipe nipple or tire valve stem is bonded. A vacuum chuck and bit are
useful in preventing the cracks from being plugged with drilling dust.

2. Bonded flush fitting

When the cracks are not V-grooved, a method frequently used to provide
an entry port is to bond a fitting flush with the concrete face over the
crack. This flush fitting has a hat-like cross section with an opening at the
top for the grout to enter.

3. Interruption in seal

Another means of providing entry is to omit the seal from a portion of the
crack. This method can be used when special gasket devices are available
that cover the unsealed portion of the crack and allow injection of the
grout directly into the crack without leaking.

Equipment, Tools Required:-

A concrete drill, a grout injection system, a means of cleaning holes and

cracks (usually a water flush), and normal hand tools are required. A two-
or three-man crew is normally required. Grouting requires personnel with
a high degree of skill and expertise.

Material:-

Mix the grout. Portland-cement grout mixtures may vary in volumetric

proportion from one part cement and five parts water to one part cement and
one part water. The water-cement ratio should be kept as low as practical to
maximize strength and minimize shrinkage. Chemical grouts consist of
solutions of two or more chemicals that react to form a gel or a solid precipitate.
A variety of mechanical mixers are available for mixing grout.
Other Chemicals such as Polyurethane, Sodiun Silicate, Acrylamide, etc.
 35

Step by Step Procedure:-

a. Clean the concrete along the crack.

b. Seal the surface. Surface cracks should be sealed to keep the grout
from leaking out before it has set. Where the crack face cannot be
reached, but where there is backfill, or where as labon grade is
being repaired, the backfill material or sub base material is often an
adequate seal. Numerous materials and techniques may be used to
seal surface cracks depending on crack size and the grouting
pressure to be used. For low grouting pressures, a good strong
water-resistant tape may be sufficient, whereas for high pressures,
an epoxy seal using the routing and sealing method may be
appropriate. Normally a cement paint or grout seal is used.
c. Install the entry ports.

d. Flush the crack. When the crack has been sealed, it is flushed with
water to clean it and test the seal for leaks.

e. Mix the grout. Portland-cement grout mixtures may vary in

volumetric proportion from one part cement and five parts water to one
part cement and one part water. The water-cement ratio
should be kept as low as practical to maximize strength and minimize
shrinkage. Chemical grouts consist of solutions of two or more chemicals
that react to form a gel or a solid precipitate. A variety of mechanical
mixers are available for mixing grout.

Application Standards:-
1. For small volumes, a manual injection gun may be used; for larger
volumes, a pump should be used. The pressure used for injection
must be carefully selected based on grout properties, crack
characteristics, and structural integrity of the medium to be
grouted.
2. If the crack is vertical, the injection process should begin with
pumping grout into the entry port at the lowest elevation until the
grout level reaches the entry port above. The lower injection port is
then capped, and the process is repeated at successively higher
ports until the crack has been completely filled and all ports have
been capped.
3. For horizontal cracks, injection should proceed from one end of the
crack to the other in the same manner. The crack is full if the
pressure can be maintained. If the pressure cannot be maintained,
the grout is still flowing into unfilled portions or leaking out of the
crack.
 36

Environment Considerations:-

 Reasonable caution should guide the preparation, repair, and

cleanup phases of any crack repair activities involving potentially
hazardous and toxic chemical substances.
 Manufacturer's recommendations to protect occupational health
and environmental quality should be carefully followed.
 In instances where the effects of a chemical substance on
occupational health or environmental quality are unknown,
chemical substances should be treated as potentially hazardous and
toxic materials.

Conclusion:-
This research work concludes that though it is to guarantee against cracking yet
attempts can be made to minimize development of crack. And also, not all type
of crack requires same level of attention. The potential causes of crack can be
controlled if proper consideration is given to construction material and
technique to be used. In case of existing cracks, after detail study and analysis
of crack parameters, most appropriate method of correction should be adopted
for effective and efficient repair of crack.
 37

Prototype

 Suitable methods of concrete crack repair : -

1. Epoxy injection
2. Routing and Sealing
3. Stitching
4. Additional Reinforcement
5. Pre-stressing Steel
6. Drilling and Plugging
7. Gravity Filling
8. Grouting

1. Epoxy injection- Cracks as narrow as 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) can be

bonded by the injection of epoxy. The technique generally consists of
establishing entry and venting ports at close intervals along the cracks,
sealing the crack on exposed surfaces, and injecting the epoxy under
pressure.

This technique is not applicable if the cracks are actively leaking and
cannot be dried out. Wet cracks can be injected using moisture tolerant
materials, but contaminants in the cracks (including silt and water) can
reduce the effectiveness of the epoxy to structurally repair the cracks.
 38

2. Routing and Sealing- Routing and sealing is used to treat both fine
pattern cracks and larger, isolated cracks. A common and effective use is
for waterproofing by sealing cracks on the concrete surface where water
stands, or where hydrostatic pressure is applied. This treatment reduces
the ability of moisture to reach the reinforcing steel or pass through the
concrete, causing surface stains or other problems.

This method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and
filling and sealing it with a suitable joint sealant. The sealants may be
any of several materials, including epoxies, urethanes, silicones,
polysulfides, asphaltic materials, or polymer mortars.

The procedure consists of preparing a groove at the surface ranging in

depth, typically, from 1/4 to 1 in. (6 to 25 mm). A concrete saw, hand
tools or pneumatic tools may be used. The groove is then cleaned by air
blasting, sandblasting, or water blasting, and dried. A sealant is placed
into the dry groove and allowed to cure. A bond breaker may be
provided at the bottom of the groove to allow the sealant to change
shape, without a concentration of stress on the bottom.
 39

3. Stitching- Stitching involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack

and grouting in U-shaped metal units with short legs (staples or stitching
dogs) that span the crack. Stitching may be used when tensile strength
must be reestablished across major cracks. The stitching procedure
consists of drilling holes on both sides of the crack, cleaning the holes,
and anchoring the legs of the staples in the holes, with either a non shrink
grout or an epoxy resin-based bonding system.
 40

4. Additional Reinforcement- This technique consists of sealing the

crack, drilling holes that intersect the crack plane at approximately 90
deg. filling the hole and crack with injected epoxy and placing a
reinforcing bar into the drilled hole. Typically, No. 4 or 5 (10 M or 15
M) bars are used, extending at least 18 in. (0.5 m) each side of the crack.
The reinforcing bars can be spaced to suit the needs of the repair. They
can be placed in any desired pattern, depending on the design criteria and
the location of the in-place reinforcement.

5. Pre-stressing steel-Post-tensioning is often the desirable solution

when a major portion of a member must be strengthened or when the
cracks that have formed must be closed (Fig. 3.5). This technique uses
pre stressing strands or bars to apply a compressive force. Adequate
anchorage must be provided for the pre stressing steel, and care is needed
so that the problem will not merely migrate to another part of the
structure.
 41

6. Drilling and Pumping-Drilling and plugging a crack consists of

drilling down the length of the crack and grouting it to form a key. This
technique is only applicable when cracks run in reasonable straight lines
and are accessible at one end. This method is most often used to repair
vertical cracks in retaining walls. A hole [typically 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75
mm) in diameter] should be drilled, centered on and following the crack.
 42

7. Gravity Filling- Low viscosity monomers and resins can be used to

seal cracks with surface widths of 0.001 to 0.08 in. (0.03 to 2 mm) by
gravity filling. High-molecular- weight methacrylates, urethanes, and
some low viscosity epoxies have been used successfully. The lower the
viscosity, the finer the cracks that can be filled. The typical procedure is
to clean the surface by air blasting and/or water blasting. Wet surfaces
should be permitted to dry several days to obtain the best crack filling.