Transformer Banking 1.

Delta–Delta
Three-phase voltage transformations can be accomplished by using three phase Delta–delta transformers, as shown in Figure 1, often are used to supply loads that are
transformers, which are single devices with all windings constructed on a single iron core. primarily three phase but may have a small single-phase component.
Easy understanding of 3-phase transformer connections - Delta–Delta, Wye–Wye, Delta–
Wye and Wye–Delta. Three phase voltage transformations also can be accomplished by
using three single-phase transformers that are connected externally to form a three-
phase bank.

Three-phase voltage transformations

While three-phase devices are usually the more cost-effective option, the single-phase
option provides more versatility and can be attractive from a reliability and maintenance
standpoint. If several identical transformers are needed at one location, the single-phase
option can include the purchase of a spare unit to reduce outage time in the event of a
failure. Figure 1 – Delta-Delta Transformer
This practice often is seen with critical autotransformer banks and generator step -up
transformers because loss of the transformer for an extended period has very significant The three-phase load is typically motor load while the single-phase component is often
impacts. lighting and low voltage power. The single-phase load can be fed by grounding a center
The connections discussed in this article will be implemented using single-phase units. tap on one of the legs of the delta secondary, then connecting the single-phase load
between one of the phases on the grounded leg and this grounded neutral.
Note: When connecting single-phase transformers to form a three-phase
bank, the winding polarities must be carefully observed. Polarity is indicated Figure 2 shows a delta–delta transformer connection.
using a dot convention. Current owing into a dot on the primary winding will
induce a current owing out of the dot on the corresponding secondary winding.
Depending on how the windings are connected to the bushings, the polarities
can be additive or subtractive.

The two most commonly used three-phase winding configurations are delta and wye,
named after the Greek and English letter that each resembles. In a delta configuration,
the three windings are connected end-to-end to form a closed path. A phase is connected
to each corner of the delta.
Although delta windings are often operated ungrounded, a leg of the delta can be center
tapped and grounded, or a corner of the delta can be grounded. In a wye configuration,
one end of each of the three windings is connected to form a neutral. A phase is
connected to the other end of the three windings. The neutral is usually grounded. Figure 2 – Delta–Delta Transformer Connections
The connection diagram on the left shows how a delta–delta connection can be
The following paragraphs describe three-phase transformers which utilize the delta and made, either with three single-phase transformers or with one three-phase transformer.
wye connections. The dashed lines indicate the transformer outlines. The three single-phase transformer
1. Delta-Delta implementation can be seen by disregarding the outer dashed outline and the bushing
2. Wye-Wye labels shown at that outline, and concentrating on the three smaller (single-phase
3. Delta-Wye transformer) outlines.
4. Wye-Delta
 Note: The bushings of the single-phase transformers are connected by
external jumpers as shown to accomplish the delta–delta connection. In the case
of the one three-phase transformer implementation, the three inner outlines are
disregarded, and the jumpers between the windings are made inside the
transformer tank. The six bushings on the three-phase transformer outline are
available for connection.

The schematic diagram at the upper right is perhaps easier to analyze, as the delta
connections can clearly be seen.
The phasor diagram at the lower right shows the geometric relationships between the
high voltage circuit and low voltage circuit currents, and the equations at the bottom
center show those relationships mathematically.
As the loading on a delta–delta transformer becomes unbalanced, high currents can
circulate in the delta windings leading to a voltage imbalance. Balanced loading requires
the selection of three transformers with equal voltage ratios and identical impedances.
Also, the amount of single-phase load should be kept low because the center-tapped
transformer must supply most of the single-phase load. As the single-phase load is Figure 4 – Wye–Wye Transformer Connections Diagram
increased, the center-tapped transformer will increase its loading more than the other
two transformers and will eventually overload. One problem inherent to wye–wye transformers is the propagation of third- harmonic
If one of the single-phase transformers in the delta–delta bank fails, the bank can be currents and voltages. These harmonics can cause interference in nearby communication
operated with only two transformers forming an open delta configuration. The kVA rating circuits as well as other assorted power quality problems.
of the bank is reduced, but three-phase power is still supplied to the load.
Note:
2. Wye–Wye Another problem is that the possibility exists for resonance to occur between
Wye–wye transformers, as shown in Figure 3, can serve both three-phase and single- the shunt capacitance of the circuits connected to the transformer and the
phase loads. The single-phase load should be distributed as evenly as possible between magnetizing susceptance of the transformer, especially if the circuits include
each of the three phases and neutral. insulated cable. Because of these problems, wye–wye transformers must be
specified and implemented carefully.

Adding a third (tertiary) winding connected in delta alleviates many of the concerns
mentioned.

3. Delta–Wye
The delta–wye connection is the most commonly used three-phase transformer
connection. The wye-connected secondary allows single-phase load to be distributed
among the three phases to neutral instead of being placed all on one winding as with a
four-wire delta secondary.

Figure 3 – Wye–Wye Transformer Note: This helps keep the phase loading on the transformer balanced and
is especially important when the amount of single-phase load becomes large.
Figure 4 illustrates the wye–wye connection, either as three single-phase transformers
or as a single three-phase unit. Both bushing labels and polarity dots are shown.
 The stable neutral point also provides a good ground location to allow critical
damping of the system to prevent voltage oscillations.

If one of the single-phase transformers in the delta–wye bank fails, the entire bank
becomes inoperative.
Also, since the delta–wye transformer introduces a 30° phase shift from primary to
secondary as can be seen by the phasing symbols in Figure 5, it cannot be paralleled with
delta–delta and wye–wye transformers that produce no phase shift.

Figure 6 – Delta–Wye Transformer Connections

The currents owing in the windings of a delta–wye transformer are shown in Figure 7.
Note that the arrows indicate instantaneous directions of the AC current and are
consistent with the dot convention.

Figure 5 – Delta–Wye Transformer

Figure 6 illustrates the delta–wye connection, either as three single-phase transformers

or as a single three-phase unit. Both bushing labels and polarity dots are shown.
Analyzing the delta–wye transformer illustrates many important concepts regarding the
operation of polyphase transformers. The analysis can be done on either a voltage or a
current basis. Since voltage (potential difference or the subtraction of two phasor
quantities) is rather abstract and difficult to visualize, current (or the flow of charge) will
be used as the basis for analysis, since current is easy to conceptualize.
Figure 7 – Delta and Wye Windings

The analysis must begin in one of the two electric circuits, either the delta - connected
high voltage circuit or the wye-connected low voltage circuit.
Since current is being used as the basis for analysis, the wye-connected circuit is selected
as the starting point, since in a wye-connected circuit, the line currents (leaving the
transformer) and the phase currents ( owing in the transformer windings) are equal. This
relationship between line and phase currents simplifies the analysis.
The analysis starts by labeling all line and phase currents. This is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 – Delta–Wye Transformer with Currents Labeled
Note that lower-case subscripts indicate line currents in the low voltage circuit, and
upper-case subscripts indicate line currents in the high voltage circuit. In the low voltage
circuit, the phase currents are identical to the corresponding line currents, so they also
are labeled Ia, Ib, and Ic. When the transformer windings are drawn, a particular high
voltage winding corresponds to the low voltage winding drawn parallel to it.
Note:In other words, a high voltage winding and a low voltage winding that are
drawn parallel to each other constitute a single-phase transformer or two
windings on the same leg of the magnetic core of a three-phase transformer.
The high voltage phase current corresponding to Ia is labeled Ia′ . The direction
of Ia′ relative to that of Ia must honor the dot convention. The magnitude of Ia′ relative
to Ia is the inverse of the transformer turns ratio “n”, or
When analyzing a transformer using per-unit, n = 1 so it becomes:
Ia′ = Ia
So,
Ia′ =Ia (per-unit)
Ib′ =Ib (per-unit)
Ic′ =Ic (per-unit)
(Eqs. 1)
Next, Kirchhoff’s current law can be applied to each node of the delta:
IA = Ia′− Ib′ = Ia − Ib
IB = Ib′− Ic′ = Ib − Ic
IC = Ic′− Ia′ = Ic − Ia
(Eqs. 2)
Equations above express the high voltage circuit line currents in terms of the low voltage
circuit line currents. At this point, numerical values can be substituted for Ia, Ib, and
Ic. Keeping in mind that Ia, Ib, and Ic represent a balanced set of phasors, arbitrary per-
unit values are selected to represent a-b-c phase sequencing:
Eqs. 3
Note: A positive phase sequencing (a-b-c) must be used, since the IEEE standards for
power transformers (the IEEE C57 series) are based on positive phase sequencing.
Substituting Eqs. 3 into Eqs. 2:
Eqs. 4
Comparing Ia to to IA, a √3 magnitude difference and a 30° angular difference are
apparent.
IEEE Std. C57.12.00 defines the direction in which the phasor angles shall change from
one electrical circuit to the other. In a standard delta–wye (or wye–delta) transformer,
the positive-sequence currents and voltages on the high voltage side lead the positive-
sequence currents and voltages on the low voltage side by 30°.
Note: When the high voltage phasors lag the low voltage phasors, the
connection is considered to be non-standard. Sometimes nonstandard
connections are necessary to match the phasings on two different systems that
must be electrically tied, but normally, standard connections are Note that the
convention to determine a standard connection requires that the high voltage
phasors lead the low voltage phasors by 30°. No reference is made to primary or
secondary. The primary windings of a transformer are those windings to which
voltage is applied. The secondary windings have an induced voltage impressed
across them.
Usually, the primary windings are the high voltage windings, but this is not always the
case. A good example of an exception is a generator step-up transformer.
specified.
4. Wye–Delta
The wye–delta transformer shown in Figure 9 is sometimes used to provide a neutral on
a three-wire system but also can serve load from its secondary.
Figure 9 – Wye–Delta Transformer
The primary wye windings are typically grounded. If the secondary is a four-wire delta,
the fourth wire originating at a center tap on one of the legs of the delta is grounded.
Figure 10 illustrates the wye–delta connection, either as three single-phase transformers
or as a single three-phase unit. Both bushing labels and polarity dots are shown
Figure 10 – Wye–Delta Transformer Connections (click to expand diagram)
What is an Open Delta Transformer
In three phase systems, the use of transformers with three windings (or legs) per side is
common. These three windings are often connected in delta or star, resulting in common
transformer configurations such as delta-delta or delta-star. An open delta transformer is
a special arrangement which uses only two windings.
Transformer Configuration
The illustration shows how an open delta transformer is connected. On both the primary
and secondary there are only two windings. Even in this configuration, it is still possible to
transform a three phase voltage.
Open Delta Transformer
Open delta transforms are not the commonly used. Typically they would be used for small
loads where cost is important. Alternatively, they could be used as an emergency measure,
should one winding only of a transformer fail.
Sometimes you may hear an open delta transformer referred to as a V-connection
transformer.
Power Delivered
Sometimes the power delivered by an open delta transformer is compared to that of an
equivalent three winding transformer. Typically figures like having 57.7% of the capacity of
an equivalent three winding transformer or 87% of two transformers (same winding size)
are quoted. While you can think of the transformer in this manner, it is more fruitful not to
consider comparisons but to the necessary calculations on the open delta transformer.

How does open delta transformer compare with regular three phase transformers?
kVA transformed by open delta transformer is given by
kVA transformed by regular three-phase transformer (closed delta) is given by
Power Factor is assumed to be unity in both the cases above.
The ratio of kVA between open delta and regular three-phase transformer is
This means an open delta transformer will only be able to deliver 57.7% of the capacity of
an equivalent three phase delta transformer with similar voltage and load current.
Alternate way of stating the same is that if a delta-delta transformer is converted to open-
delta transformer, then the new transformer will only be able to supply 57.7% of the kVA
of the original delta-delta connection.
Note that a common mistake is assuming the new kVA should be 2/3 of the original kVA. As
can be seen that is not the case and the new kVA is 1/√3 while converting from delta-delta
to open delta.
How to size open delta transformer for a given load?
To size an open delta transformer the total kVA of the transformer has to be 115% of the
connected load.
Open Delta Transformer uses two single phase transformers to provide three-phase supply.
A balanced three-phase voltage supply can be obtained by connecting the transformers in
open delta or vee connection. In this connection, currents which would flow in the windings
of the third transformer are shunted in to windings of the two transformers in open delta.
The line voltages are transferred from primary to secondary by ordinary magnetic
induction.
Advantages of open delta transformer
• Can provide power to three wire ungrounded service by using only two single phase
transformers.
• Can provide power to four wire grounded service by having the midtap grounded on
one leg of the transformer.
• Three single phase transformers connected in closed delta connection can be rewired
to open delta in case one transformer is taken out of service for maintenance, though
at reduced kVA capacity.
Disadvantages of open delta transformer
• Even when open delta transformer is load balanced, this connection is prone to voltage
unbalance.
• The combined transformer kVA has to be 115% of the load kVA.
• Not very efficient.
The Scott Connection of Transformer
A Scott-T transformer (also called a Scott connection) is a type of circuit used to derive
two-phase power from a three-phase source or vice-versa. The Scott connection evenly
distributes a balanced load between the phases of the source.
Note: Scott T Transformers require a three phase power input and provide two
equal single phase outputs called Main and Teaser. The Main and Teaser outputs
are 90 degrees out of phase. The MAIN and the Teaser outputs must not be
connected in parallel or in series as it creates a vector current imbalance on the
primary side.
MAIN and Teaser outputs are on separate cores. An external jumper is also required to
connect the primary side of the MAIN and Teaser sections.
The schematic of a typical Scott T Transformer is shown below:
Typical Scott T Transformer schematic diagram
Scott T Transformer is built with two single phase transformers of equal power rating.
The MAIN and Teaser sections can be enclosed in a floor mount enclosure with MAIN on
the bottom and Teaser on top with a connecting jumper cable. They can also be placed
side by side in separate enclosures.
Assuming the desired voltage is the same on the two and three phase sides, the Scott-T
transformer connection consists of a center-tapped 1:1 ratio main transformer, T1, and
an 86.6% (0.5√3) ratio teaser transformer, T2. The center-tapped side of T1 is connected
between two of the phases on the three-phase side. Its center tap then connects to one
end of the lower turn count side of T2, the other end connects to the remaining phase.
The other side of the transformers then connects directly to the two pairs of a two-phase
four-wire system.
Scott-T connection convert 3-phase to 2-phase
The Scott-T transformer connection may be also used in a back to back T to T arrangement
for a three-phase to 3 phase connection. This is a cost saving in the smaller kVA
transformers due to the 2 coil T connected to a secondary 2 coil T in-lieu of the traditional
three-coil primary to three-coil secondary transformer. In this arrangement the Neutral
tap is part way up on the secondary teaser transformer .
The voltage stability of this T to T arrangement as compared to the traditional 3 coil
primary to three-coil secondary transformer is questioned.
Key Points
If the main transformer has a turn’s ratio of 1: 1, then the teaser transformer requires a
turn’s ratio of 0.866: 1 for balanced operation.
The principle of operation of the Scott connection can be most easily seen by first
applying a current to the teaser secondary windings, and then applying a current to the
main secondary winding, calculating the primary currents separately and superimposing
the results.
Load connected between phaseY1 and phase Y2 of the secondary:
• Secondary current from the teaser winding into phase X1 = 1.0 < 90°
• Secondary current from the teaser winding into phase X2 = -1.0 < 90°
• Primary current from H3 phase into the teaser winding = 1.1547 < 90°
• Primary current from H2 phase into the main winding = 0.5774 < 90°
• Primary current from H1 phase into the main winding = -0.5774 < 90°
• The reason that the primary current from H3 phase into the teaser winding
is 1.1547 due to 0.866: 1 turn’s ratio of the teaser, transforming 1/0.866= 1.1547
times the secondary current. This current must split in half at the center tap of
the main primary winding because both halves of the main primary winding are
wound on the same core and the total ampere-turns of the main winding must
equal zero.
Load connected between phase X2 and phase X1 of the secondary:
• Secondary current from the main winding into phase X2 =1.0 < 0°
• Secondary current from the main winding into phase X4 = -1.0 < 0°
• Primary current from H2 phase into the main winding = 1.0 < 0°
• Primary current from H1 phase into the main winding = – 1.0 < 0°
• Primary current from H3 phase into the teaser winding = 0
• Superimpose the two sets of primary currents:
• I H3 = 1.1547 < 90° + 0 = 1.1547 < 90°
• I H2 = 0.5774 < 90° + 1.0 < 0° = 1.1547 < 30°
• I H1 = 0.5774 < 90°+ 1.0 < 0° = 1.1547 < 210°
Notice that the primary three-phase currents are balanced; i.e., the phase currents have
the same magnitude and their phase angles are 120° apart. The apparent power supplied
by the main transformer is greater than the apparent power supplied by the teaser
transformer.
This is easily verified by observing that the primary currents in both transformers have the
same magnitude; however, the primary voltage of the teaser transformer is only 86.6%
as great as the primary voltage of the main transformer.
Therefore, the teaser transforms only 86.6% of the apparent power transformed by the
main.
We also observe that while the total real power delivered to the two phase load is equal
to the total real power supplied from the three-phase system, the total apparent power
transformed by both transformers is greater than the total apparent power delivered to
the two-phase load.
The apparent power transformed by the teaser is 0.866 X IH1= 1.0 and the apparent
power transformed by the main is 1.0X IH2 =1.1547 for a total of 2.1547 of apparent
power transformed.
The additional 0.1547 per unit of apparent power is due to parasitic reactive power owing
between the two halves of the primary winding in the main transformer.
Single-phase transformers used in the Scott connection are specialty items that are
virtually impossible to buy ‘‘off the shelf ’’ nowadays. In an emergency, standard
distribution transformers can be used.
Advantages of the Scott T Connection
If desired, a three phase, two phase, or single phase load may be supplied
simultaneously. The neutral points can be available for grounding or loading purposes
Disadvantages when used for 3 Phase Loading
This type of asymmetrical connection (3 phases, 2 coils), reconstructs three phases from
2 windings. This can cause unequal voltage drops in the windings, resulting in potentially
unbalanced voltages to be applied to the load.
The transformation ratio of the coils and the voltage obtained may be slightly
unbalanced due to manufacturing variances of the interconnected coils.
This design’s neutral has to be solidly grounded. If it is not grounded solidly, the
secondary voltages could become unstable. Since this design will have a low impedance,
special care will have to be taken on the primary protection fault current capacity. This
could be an issue if the system was designed for a Delta-Star connection.
The inherent single phase construction and characteristics of this connection produces a
comparatively bulky and heavier transformer when compared with a normal three phase
transformer of the same rating.
Application
Main application is for For Industrial Furnace Transformer.
For Traction Purpose:
The power is obtained from the 220 kV or 132 kV or 110 kV or 66 kV, three-phase,
effectively earthed transmission network of the State Electricity Board, through single-
phase transformers or Scott connected transformer installed at the Traction Substation.
The primary winding of the single-phase transformer is connected to two phases of the
transmission network or where Scott-connected transformer is used, the primary
windings are connected to the three phases of the transmission network.
The single-phase transformers at a Traction Substation are connected to the same two
phases of the transmission network (referred as single-phase connection), or
alternatively to different pairs of phases- the three single phase transformers forming a
delta-connection on the primary side.[/info_b0x]
Out of three single-phase transformers, one transformer feeds the overhead equipment
(OHE) on one side of the Traction Substation, another feeds the OHE on the other side of
the Traction Substation, and the third remains as standby. Thus the two single-phase
transformers which feed the OHE constitute an open-delta connection (alternatively,
referred as V-connection) on the three-phase transformers network.
The Scott-connected transformer and V-connected single-phase transformers are
effective in reducing voltage imbalance on the transmission network. The spacing
between adjacent substations is normally between 70 and 100 km.
Autotransformer
An autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only one winding. The "auto" (Greek
for "self") prefix refers to the single coil acting alone, not to any kind of automatic
mechanism. In an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both
the primary and secondary sides of the transformer. In contrast, an ordinary transformer
has separate primary and secondary windings which are not electrically connected.
The winding has at least three taps where electrical connections are made. Since part of
the winding does "double duty", autotransformers have the advantages of often being
smaller, lighter, and cheaper than typical dual-winding transformers, but the disadvantage
of not providing electrical isolation between primary and secondary circuits. Other
advantages of autotransformers include lower leakage reactance, lower losses, lower
excitation current, and increased VA rating for a given size and mass.
An example of an application of an autotransformer is one style of traveller's voltage
converter, that allows 230 volt devices to be used on 120 volt supply circuits, or the reverse.
An autotransformer with multiple taps may be applied to adjust voltage at the end of a long
distribution circuit to correct for excess voltage drop; when automatically controlled, this is
one example of a voltage regulator.

Single-phase tapped autotransformer with output voltage range of 40%–115% of input
An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals, and one or more terminals
at intermediate tap points. It is a transformer in which the primary and secondary coils have
part of their turns in common. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals,
and the secondary voltage taken from two terminals, almost always having one terminal in
common with the primary voltage. Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings,
each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. In an autotransformer part of
the current flows directly from the input to the output, and only part is transferred
inductively, allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper core to be used as well as requiring only a
single winding.[3] However the voltage and current ratio of autotransformers can be
formulated the same as other two-winding transformers:
One end of the winding is usually connected in common to both the voltage source and
the electrical load. The other end of the source and load are connected to taps along the
winding. Different taps on the winding correspond to different voltages, measured from
the common end. In a step-down transformer the source is usually connected across the
entire winding while the load is connected by a tap across only a portion of the winding. In
a step-up transformer, conversely, the load is attached across the full winding while the
source is connected to a tap across a portion of the winding.
As in a two-winding transformer, the ratio of secondary to primary voltages is equal to the
ratio of the number of turns of the winding they connect to. For example, connecting the
load between the middle and bottom of the autotransformer will reduce the voltage by
50%. Depending on the application, that portion of the winding used solely in the higher-
voltage (lower current) portion may be wound with wire of a smaller gauge, though the
entire winding is directly connected.
If one of the center-taps is used for the ground, then the autotransformer can be used as
a balun to convert a balanced line (connected to the two end taps) to an unbalanced
line(the side with the ground).
Limitations
An autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation between its windings as an
ordinary transformer does; if the neutral side of the input is not at ground voltage, the
neutral side of the output will not be either. A failure of the isolation of the windings of an
autotransformer can result in full input voltage applied to the output. Also, a break in the
part of the winding that is used as both primary and secondary will result in the transformer
acting as an inductor in series with the load (which under light load conditions may result
in near full input voltage being applied to the output). These are important safety
considerations when deciding to use an autotransformer in a given application.
Because it requires both fewer windings and a smaller core, an autotransformer for power
applications is typically lighter and less costly than a two-winding transformer, up to a
voltage ratio of about 3:1; beyond that range, a two-winding transformer is usually more
economical.
In three phase power transmission applications, autotransformers have the limitations of
not suppressing harmonic currents and as acting as another source of ground
fault currents. A large three-phase autotransformer may have a "buried" delta winding, not
connected to the outside of the tank, to absorb some harmonic currents.
In practice, losses mean that both standard transformers and autotransformers are not
perfectly reversible; one designed for stepping down a voltage will deliver slightly less
voltage than required if it is used to step up. The difference is usually slight enough to allow
reversal where the actual voltage level is not critical.
Like multiple-winding transformers, autotransformers use time-varying magnetic fields to
transfer power. They require alternating currents to operate properly and will not function
on direct current.
Applications: Power transmission and distribution

Autotransformers are frequently used in power applications to interconnect systems

operating at different voltage classes, for example 132 kV to 66 kV for transmission.
Another application in industry is to adapt machinery built (for example) for 480 V supplies
to operate on a 600 V supply. They are also often used for providing conversions between
the two common domestic mains voltage bands in the world (100 V–130 V and 200 V–
250 V). The links between the UK 400 kV and 275 kV 'Super Grid' networks are normally
three phase autotransformers with taps at the common neutral end.
On long rural power distribution lines, special autotransformers with automatic tap-
changing equipment are inserted as voltage regulators, so that customers at the far end of
the line receive the same average voltage as those closer to the source. The variable ratio
of the autotransformer compensates for the voltage drop along the line.
A special form of autotransformer called a zig zag is used to provide grounding on three-
phase systems that otherwise have no connection to ground. A zig-zag
transformer provides a path for current that is common to all three phases (so-called zero
sequence current).

Audio system

In audio applications, tapped autotransformers are used to adapt speakers to constant-

voltage audio distribution systems, and for impedance matching such as between a low-
impedance microphone and a high-impedance amplifier input.

Railways

In railway applications, it is common to power the trains at 25 kV AC. To increase the

distance between electricity Grid feeder points, they can be arranged to supply a split-
phase 25-0-25 kV feed with the third wire (opposite phase) out of reach of the train's
overhead collector pantograph. The 0 V point of the supply is connected to the rail while
one 25 kV point is connected to the overhead contact wire. At frequent (about 10 km)
intervals, an autotransformer links the contact wire to rail and to the second (antiphase)
supply conductor. This system increases usable transmission distance, reduces induced
interference into external equipment and reduces cost. A variant is occasionally seen where
the supply conductor is at a different voltage to the contact wire with the autotransformer
ratio modified to suit.[5]