UNIT(6):WAVES

1.1) BASIC QUANTITIES RELATED TO WAVES

A paralel beam The figure on the left shows a ripple tank used for
of incident light studying the properties of water waves (ripples). The ripple
tank has a glass bottom that makes it possible to project the
images of the water waves onto a screen beneath it.
Straight-
The surface of the screen beneath the glass plate
horizontal
surface of
can be illuminated if a paralel beam of incident light rays is
Water perpendicular to the water surface from the top. The
water
perpendicular incident light rays are transmitted straight on
glass through water and glass plate so that the surfcace of the
plate screen under the glass plate is illuminated.

screen Think about something which can move from one

A Ripple Tank on a place to another place but it is not a matter!
bench

If you drop water droplets to the center of the calm (quite) water surface form a dropper one by
one at a certain time intervals, you observe that periodic circular paterns are formed and move outwards
from the point of impact. We can also generate periodic circular waves in a ripple tank simply by dipping
our finger into the water at a certain time intervals. These periodic disturbances of the particles in a
medium (or in a material) are called as “periodic waves”. These periodic circular waves are observed as
shown in the figure below.Such a disturbance of the particles in a medium (or in a material) is called a
wave. You may also observe the images of these circular patterns on the surface of the screen placed on
the bench. These circular patterns are observed as bright and dark fringes on the screen. These circular
waves are represented as shown in the figure below.

Vw 1 Vw
Vw 1
Impact 1
point of 2
stones 2 3 4
2 3

Vw
Vw
Vw
The first The second The third
produced produced produced crest The fourth
crest crest at the at the impact produced crest at
impact point point when the the impact point
when the first first and when the first,
crest is at its second crests second and third
new position are at their crests are at their
new positions new positions

1
 Vw 1 Vw
Vw 1
Impact 1
point of 2
stones 2 3 4
2 O
R
Di
re
Vw cti
on Vw
of
vi Vw
The first The second The third
br
produced The fourth
produced produced ati crest
crest crest at the at the impact
on produced crest at
impact point of
point when the the impact point
when the first pa
first and when the first,
rti second and third
crest is at its secondclcrests
new position are at their
es crests are at their
λ1
new positions new positions

λ2

λ3 Solid circles in
the figure above
λ3 stand for wave
crests while
dashed circules
λ2
stand for wave
λ1 troughs. The
K first produced
W wave crest is
at
er
assumed to be
A formed at the
Ri point of impact.
pp
le The solid circle
Ta (or line)
nk representing a
gl
as wave crest is
s called wave
pl
at
front. You sould
e notice that the
sc direction of the
re
en propagation
on speed Vw of the
a wave is always
be
nc perpendicular to
h its crest or
3 trough.
We can not assign a certain direction to the whole circular wave, because it moves in all
directions as shown in the figure above.
It is assumed that each wave crest contains imaginary point wave sources producing circular
waves forming next wave crest according to Huygen’s principle which is going to be studied in detail in
the next years.
Vw
Crest Crest
The figure on the left shows a certain
part of a periodic wave when we observe it
Surface perpendicular to its propagation velocity Vw
level of from a side.
pond
water
Trough
2
 The surface level of water is referred as the average equilibrium position for water molecules
vibrating between two fixed points above and below this level. Vibration is not a wave motion. But it is
related to the wave motion.

We may observe periodic water waves in a ripple

tank shown in the figure on the left. The ripple tank has a
OR
Directi
glass bottom that makes it possible to project the images of
on of the periodic waves onto a screen beneath it.
vibratio
OR We can also generate periodic circular waves in a
n of
particle
Direction ripple tank simply by dipping our finger into the water at
of
s
vibration certain time intervals.
λ λ2 OR
OR 1 of
Direction The disturbed particles (water molecules) in the
λ3 of particles
Direction of water in the ripple tank do not travel along the line of
λ
vibration λvibration
λ2
3 of 1
propagation of the waves. They only vibrate (or oscillate)
particles
λ2 ofλ3
λ1 λ λ2 λ3 λparticles
about their average equilibrium positions.
1
λ3 K λ2 λ1 λ3 λ
λ21 λ12 You may observe this fact by placing a cork on the
K Water K3
λ λ3 surface of the water in the ripple tank and producing
Water
A Water λ2 periodic circular waves in it. This fact is valid for all kinds of
A Ripple
RippleTank Aλ1Ripple
glass
Tank Tank
waves.
plate K
glass glass
screen Water
plateon a plate
bench A Ripple
screen screen
Tank
3 on a on a
glass
bench bench
plate
3 3screen on An Incident Beam of Light
a bench
3
Vw
You observed white and dark
circular fringes (or bands) on the
screen at the bottom of the ripple tank
in the previous demonstration. Let’s
discuss their formations.
The crests of the water waves
act as converging lens. Therefore, the
crests appear on the secreen as bright
glass
fringes (bands). The troughs of the bottom
water waves act as diverging lens.
Therefore, the troughs appear on the screen
secreen as dark fringes (bands).
The line joining the points on
the crest of a wave is called wavef bright dark bright
ront. fringes fringes fringes
Straight (plane) waves can be
generated by dipping a straight rod into
Vw
the surface of the water in a ripple tank,
too.
You should notice that the
direction of the propagation speed Vw
of the wave is always perpendicular to crest
trough crest
(wave-
its crest or trough or wave front.
front )
The disturbed particles (water
molecules) in the water in the ripple
tank do not travel along the line of propagation speed of the waves. They only vibrate (or oscillate) up
and down about their average equilibrium positions.

3
 You may observe this fact by placing a cork on the surface of the water in the ripple tank and
producing straight (plane) water waves in it as you did previously. This fact is valid for all kinds of
mechanical waves.

Think about something which can move from one place to another place but it is not a matter!

If we examine the molecules (or atoms) in materials from the

microscopic point of view, we may conclude that they are connected
together by means of elastic bonds (electrostatic force). The solid spheres
in the figure on the left represent molecules. The slinky springs represent
the elastic bonds. These molecules or atoms vibrate (or oscillate) about their average equilibrium
positions, too. This vibration is not a wave motion.

The first figure on the left shows an

k unstretched spring suspending vertically
S from a ceiling. An object of mass m is
Unstretched
position attached from its hook, and allowed
m X
slowly to stretch the spring upto an
Equilibrium equilibrium position as shown in the
position second figure. If the spring is again
m X stretched through a distance of x relative
R to its equilibrium position as shown in the
third figure and then released, the object
m m of mass m oscillates (vibrates) about its
equilibrium position between the levels R
and S as shown in the forth and fifth figures. Vibration (oscillation) is not a wave motion!

Vibration (oscillation) is defined as the motion of a particle about its average equilibrium position
between two different points (positions) at equal
distances relative to its average equilibrium position.
The vibration  (oscillation) of a particle is not a wave
motion for this L
particle.

To produce a vibration in a medium an

external force is needed. When the spring above is
A
stretched by an m external force, the external force does
a work. This means that a certain amount of
C
energy is given to the system. This energy is used by
the object of mass m to vibrate.
B

Equilibriu
m
4
 The figure on the left shows a simple pendulum. A pendulum consists of a piece of rope of length
L suspended from a ceiling and an object of mass m attached to its free end. The pendulum is initially
perpendicular to the ceiling. If the rope with the object is positioned at an angle θ at the position A and
then released from the position A, it oscillates about the equilibrium position B through the curved path
ABC between the positions A and C.

Vibration (oscillation) is defined as the motion of a particle about its average equilibrium position
between two different points (positions) at equal distances relative to its average equilibrium position. The
vibration (oscillation) of a particle is not a wave motion for this particle.

To produce a vibration in a medium an external force is needed. When the pendulum above is
positioned at the position A by an external force, the external force does a work. This means that a
certain amount of energy is given to the system. This energy is used by the object of mass m to vibrate.

Your teacher will demonstrate these oscillations in the classrom or in the laboratory.

The Fig.a on the left shows Newton’s cradle.

We may position one of the spherical metal balls
in Newton’s cradle by applying an external force
as shown in Fig.b. This means that we supplied
energy to the system by doing work. This
Fig.a Fig.b Fig.c supplied energy can be transmitted through the
spherical metal balls in Newton’s cradle by
means of the vibration of the spherical metal balls from one end to the other end. The spherical metal
balls do not travel from one end to the other end of Newton’s cradle. They only vibrate about their
average equilibrium positions. But the supplied energy is transmitted through the medium of Newton’s
cradle from one end to the other end. Therfore, the wave motion is defined as the propagation of
energy through a medium.
Remember that the valance electrons in a conductor transmit the electrical energy by vibrating
like the spherical metal balls in Newton’s cradle shown above. If the ball on the left end of Newton’s
cradle is lifted and released as shown in Fig.b, it collides with its neighbor, this neighbor collides with its
next neighbor, and so on. As a result, the ball on the right end of Newton’s cradle moves up as shown in
Fig.c. The vibrational motion goes on if no energy is lost!
Fex

Vw
Let’s examine the reason why particles (molecules) do not
travel along the line of propagation of a mechanical wave, but
vibrate (oscillate) about their average equilibrium positions.
The figure on the left shows four particles are connectet to
each other by means of elastic bonds (represented by the
slinky springs). Assume the one on the left end is horizontally
pushed by an external force. The external force supplies
energy to the first molecule at the most left side of the system
consisting of four molecules connected by elastic bonds. The
first molecule arrives at the position of the second molecule,

Eq.p. Eq.p. Eq.p. Eq.p.

5
and supplies energy to it. The first molecule bounces off back, and takes its initial position while the
second molecule arrives at the position of the third molecule to supply energy to it. The first molecule
passes and goes on moving through its equilibrium position to arrive at its maximum position to the left of
its average equlibrium position while the second molecule bounces off back, and takes its initial position
while the third molecule releases (emits) some portion of its energy to the fourth molecule. The first
molecule returns back to its equilibrium position while the second molecule bounces off back to the
equilibrium position of the first molecule, and the third molecule bounces back to its equlibrium position,
and the fourth molecule releases (emits) its energy to the space. As a result, the energy is transmitted
through the material. The propagation of the energy in the material is the wave motion. Particles do not
travel. They only vibrate about their own average equilibrium positions while the mechanical wave
propagates. That is, vibrations propagate.

particle Waves (vibrations) also travel along a cord or a spring that is

stretched out if we vibrate (or oscillate) one end back and forth, or
rope up and down. If the left end of a streched spring or rope shown in
or the figure is moved away from its equilibrium position upwards,
spring downwards, and then, back to its equilibrium position as shown in
the figure, a mechanical (wave) pulse is produced.

Vw

Let’s discuss what will happen to the particle from the

microscopic point of view while the produced mechanical
wave passes through its position. The mechanical wave
produced like the one shown in the figure on the left
approaches it from the left.

When the mechanical wave arrives at the position of

the particle, the particle starts moving upwards. It was initiall
at rest.

The particle changes its position, at most, as much

as the distance of the crest of the wave from the equilibrium
position of the slinky spring. The particle stops at its
maximum displacement above the equilibrium position;

and then, returns back towards the equilibrium position

where it has the biggest speed (not the propagation speed
of the wave!).

It passes through the equilibrium position with its

biggest speed, and goes on moving untill it reaches its

6
maximum displacement below the equilibrium position. It stops at its maximum displacement below the
equilibrium position;

and then, returns back to move towards its equlibrium position of the slinky spring where it has its original
conditions.
As a result, the particles do not travel along the line of propagation speed of the mechanical
wave, but vibrate (or oscillate) about their average equilibrium positions between two fixed points. This is
an example for a mechanical wave because a mechanical wave is a disturbance in the positions of
particles in matter. Therefore, mechanical waves need a medium having matter.
If the linear density of a spring is smaller than that of a second one, the propagation speed of the
mechanical wave in the first one is bigger than the propagation speed of the mechanical wave in the
second one. This means that the propagation speed of a mechanical wave depends on the medium in
which it travells. Your teacher may demonstrate this fact by using two springs having the same lengths
when they are streched, but different linear density (mass per length, similar to mass per volume!). We
may call these springs as light spring for the one with less linear density, and heavy spring for the one
with higher linear density.

The equation of the propagation speed of a mechanical wave in a stretched spring or cord is;

F
v


Where F: stretching force (N) or tension in the cord or spring

μ: linear density of the spring or rope (mass per length) (kg m-1)

A B
Let’s examine a pulse produced in a streched slinky
spring.
compressed If a certain part of the streched spring shown in the
part figure is compressed toward its end A, and then is released,
a pulse is produced. While a certain part of the slinky spring
is compressed by an external force, the external force does
a work. That is, a certain amount of energy is given to the
Vw system. This energy is going to be used by the compressed
rings to vibrate about their average equilibrium positions so
that the vibrations propagate. The rings of the spring vibrate
V2 V1
to and fro parallel to the line of the propagation speed of the
compressed wave (pulse). Such a wave is caled a longitudinal wave. In
part
a longitudinal wave particles vibrate (or oscilate) parallel to
the line of the propagation speed of the wave (or pulse).
This is an example for a mechanical wave because a mechanical wave is a disturbance in the positions
of particles in matter.

Vw : propagation velocity of the wave

V1 : velocity of one of the rings on the right half of the
wave
V2 : velocity of one of the rings on the left half of the
wave

7
 Let’s examine a pulse produced in a stretched
B slinky spring.
Equilibrium
Position If the end A of a stretched slinky spring shown
A
in the figure is vibrated up and down relative to
Vw the equilibrium position of the slinky spring as
V1 shown in the figure, a pulse is produced. The
Equilibrium rings of the spring do not travel with the wave
V2 Position (pulse) but they only move up and down
(vibrate or oscillate about an average
equilibrium position between two fixed points) in a direction perpendicular to the line of the propagation of
the wave (pulse). Such a wave is called a transverse wave. This is an example for a mechanical wave
because a mechanical wave is a disturbance in the positions of particles in matter. Therefore, mechanical
waves need a medium having matter.
The rings on right half side of the wave move up while the ones on the left half side of the wave
move down.
Vw : propagation velocity of the wave
V1 : velocity of one of the rings on the right half of the wave
V2 : velocity of one of the rings on the left half of the wave

A pulse is a wave representing the change in the shape of a medium for a certain time interval
while periodic waves are the waves representing the continuous-repeated change in the shape of a
medium.

propagation of the propagation of the

wave wave
E F F
G E G
D D
C H C H
B I B I
A JKLM
A J KL M
Fig.1 Fig.2

Think about a mechanical wave propagating as shown in Fig.1 above. After a certain time interval
its position changes, and its old position or shape is drawn with a dashed curve as shown in Fig.2 above.
The arrows show the instantanous displacements of the points on the mechanical wave in that time
interval. You should notice that the points do not propagate along the line of the propagation of the
mechanical wave. They only vibrate (oscilate) perpendicular to the line of the propagation speed of the
mechanical wave. By looking the instantanous displacements of the points on the mechanical wave we
may determine the direction of the propagation of the mechanical wave!

propagation of the propagation of the

wave wave
Fig.3 Fig.4

8
 Think about the mechanical wave propagating as shown in Fig.3 above. After a certain time
interval its position changes and becomes as shown in Fig.4 above. The arrows show the instantanous
displacements of the points on the mechanical wave in that time interval.

Example(1):

The direction of the propagation of a transverse mechanical wave is

given as shown in the figure. Its position few seconds later is shown by a
dashed curve. Draw the displacements of the points on the transverse
mechanical wave in the given time interval relative to the equilibrium
position of the wave.

Example(2):
The transverse mechanical waves AB and CD shown in Fig.1 and Fig.2 below have propagation
speeds of 0.20 cm s-1 and 0.40 cm s-1 respectively. The unit squares of the given grid have dimensions
1.0 cm x 1.0 cm. Draw the new position and shape of the transverse mechanical waves 5.0 seconds
later.

C D

B
A

Fig.1 Fig.2

B D
J
Example(3):
E
A

F H

G 9
 The direction of the propagation of a transverse mechanical wave is given as shown in the figure.
The points A, E and J on the wave are at the equilibrium position while the point C is at the crest of the
transverse mechanical wave, and G is at the trough of the transverse mechanical wave.

a) Which point(s) is (are) stationary at the given instant time? (Ans: A, C, G and J)

b) Which point(s) has (have) the biggest speed at the given instant time? (Ans: E)

c) Which point(s) moves (move) upward at the given instant time? (Ans: D, E, and F)

d) Which point(s) moves (move) downward at the given instant time? (Ans: B and H)

If we examine the molecules in materials from the microscopic point

of view, we may conclude that they are connected together by means of
elastic bonds (electrostatic force). The solid spheres in the figure on the
left represent the molecules in a substance. The slinky springs represent
the elastic bonds between the molecules. If a pulse is incident on the material, the molecules of the
material use the energy carried by the pulse to vibrate. The vibrations are transmitted through the
material.

Vw

Incident
wave

Vw

Equilibrium
position

If other incident waves go on arriving

at the material, the processes above
If waves go repeat.
on coming,

10
 As a result we can say that a wave is not a particle but it can travel from one place to another
place in a medium (such as water, spring, cord, air, etc… ).

If a wave source is continuously vibrating or

oscilating, continuous and periodic transverse
waves are produced.

Assume that one end of a cord is continuously vibrated up and down as shown in the figure on
the left.

Displacement
Because of this continuous vibration,
of vibrating
particles along
continuous and periodic waves are
y-axis produced as shown in the figure on the
left.
 crest
Position of : wavelength (the distance between two
the wave successive crests (or troughs), (m)
a
along x-axis
( along a: amplitude (maximum distance, or
a
Equilibrium displacement, of a crest or trough from the
Position ) average equilibrium position), (m)
 trough The amplitude of the mechanical wave
depends on energy carried by it because
we do work by shaking to transmit energy
to it. Experimentally, it is determined that the energy carried by a propagating mechanical wave is directly
proportional to the square of its amplitude. E  a 2 .
The period, T, of a wave is the time elapsed between two successive crests (or troughs) passing
through the same point in space. Its SI unit is second (s). The frequency of a wave is the number of
waves that pass through a given point per unit time. Its SI unit is (per second) s-1 (or hertz; Hz). The
1
relation between the frequency and period of a wave is; T
f
Remember that mega (M) means 106. Therefore, 1.0 M Hz = 1.0x106 Hz.
The propagation speed, v, of a mechanical wave is the speed at which wave crests (or troughs)
move a certain distance per unit time. The distance traveled in one period of the wave is its wavelength,
. Then,

11
 λ 1
v and f 
T T

Then,
v λ.f

The frequency of a mechanical wave depends on the wave source producing it. For example, the
movement of your hand to produce one complete wave like the one above requires a certain time
1 wave
interval, let’s say t seconds. Then, the frequency of the mechanical wave is f  . If you produce
t
3 waves
three waves in t seconds, the frequency of the mechanical wave is f  , and so on. Therfore,
t
we may say that the frequency of a propagating mechanical wave is independent of the medium
in which it travels.

Experimentally, it is determined that the energy carried by a propagating mechanical wave is also
directly proportional to the square of its frequency f. E  f .
2

The shape, frequency, period, wavelength and amplitude of a mechanical wave depend on the
source producing the wave.

A B If the end A of a streched spring shown in the

figure is continuously vibrated (or oscillated) to
Vibration and fro (back and forward) about its equilibrium
(Oscillation) Compressions
position at the point A as shown in the figure, a
Vw
mechanical wave (periodical mechanical wave)
is produced. The rings of the spring do not
move forward with the mechanical wave but
they only vibrate or oscillate about their
rarefactions equilibrium positions between two fixed points
m parallel to the line of the propagation velocity of
the mechanical wave. Such a wave is caled a
longitudinal mechanical wave. This is also an
example for a mechanical wave because a
Wavelength,  mechanical wave is a disturbance in the
positions of particles in matter. Therefore,
mechanical waves need a medium having
matter.
The compressed rings form massive
compressions. The rings away from each other
compared to the compressed ones form
Compressions
rarefactions rarefactions (stretches or extensions). The
3 distance between two successive
compressions or the distance between two
successive rarefactions is called the wavelength of the longitudinal wave. The number of compressions
of rarefactions passing through a fixed point per secon is called the frequency of the longitudinal wave.
A sound wave is an example for a longitudinal mechanical wave. When we speak a word, the air
we breathe out vibrates or oscillates air molecules in air. Compressions and rarefactions vibrate or
oscillate parallel to the line of the propagation velocity of the sound wave.

12

Surface of
water
The types of waves according to the line of
vibration
Transverse waves
*some waves in springs
*Some of the
Earthquake waves (S)
*electromagnetic
waves (for example,
light )
Water waves (surface water waves) are the
combination of transverse and longitudinal waves!
Water waves, in fact, are surface waves because
they make a circular motion in a vertical plane while they
oscillate perpendicular and parallel to the line of
propagation speed of water waves.
The number of water molecules making circular
motion decreases as shown in the figure on the left as the
depth of water increases. This is the reason why
submarines are not affected by water waves while they
travel under the water surface compared to ships floating.
The propagation speed of water waves in deep water
regions is more than the shallow water regions. If the depth
of water is not changed, the propagation speed of the
water waves remains at a constant value, no mater
whether the frequency of the water wave source is
changed or not. So, what changes?
Longitudinal waves
*some waves in springs
*Some of the
Earthquake waves (P)
*sound waves
13
 The types of waves according to the
energy carried by them All electromagnetic (EMW) waves in
free space (vacuum) propagate at the speed
of light (visible). (almost 3.0x108 m s-1)

All electromagnetic waves (EMW) can

Mechanical waves Electromagnetic (EM) propagate through solids, liquids and gases.
*waves in insprings waves
*Earthquake waves *radio waves All electromagnetic (EMW) waves can
*water waves *microwaves propagate through a vacuum space. They
*sound waves *infrared waves do not need a material medium like
*visible light mechanical waves.
*ultraviolet waves
*x-rays All electromagnetic (EMW) waves are
*gamma (  ) rays transverse wave.

The propagation speed of all (EMW) waves depends on the refractive index of the medium, in
which they travel.

The propagation speed of sound

waves in solids, liquids and gases are
Vs>VL> VG because the particles (molecules
or atoms) are closely packed in solids
compared to the particles in liquids and
Particles in Particles in Particles in gases so that the particles in solids only
gaseous state liquid state solid state vibrate about their average equilibrium
positions. They are not free to flow over
each other like the particles in liquids and
gases. This is the reason why solids have fixed volume and fixed shape. As a result, vibrations in solids
can be transmitted faster than those in liquids and gases.

The particles (molecules or atoms) in liquids are free to flow over each other in all directions.
Therefore, liquids have a fixed volume, but they do not have a fixed shape. Liquids take the shape of
their containers.

14
 The particles (molecules or atoms) in gases are free to flow fast over each other in all directions.
Therefore, gases do not have a fixed volume and a fixed shape. Gases take the shape of their containers
and they occupy the inner volume of their containers so that their volume is equal to the inner volume of
their container.

The propagation speed of sound waves in solids, liquids and gasses are Vs>VL> VG because of
their densities. (ds>dL>dG)

Sound waves travel faster in solids having higher density. EXPLAIN WHY! ☺ (You may use the
microscopic point of view!)

Vsound=330 m s-1 in air

Vsound=1450 m s-1 in water
Vsound=5000 m s-1 in granite

Vw
Assume that the depth of water in a ripple tank changes as shown in
the figure on left. If a wave source produces straight plane water waves
from the left side of the ripple tank, you observe that wavelength of
water waves increases as the depth of water increases, and then, the
wavelength of water waves decreases as the depth of water
decreases. This is the effect of depthness of water on the propagation
speed of water waves.

15
Let’s study some of the properties of Earthquake waves.

16
 Earthquake (Seismic) Waves

Body waves Surface waves

*They travell through the interior of *They are slower than body waves.
the Earth. *They are more destructive than body
*They are faster than surface waves because they shake the Earth
waves. more and longer than body waves.

P waves (Primary S waves Love waves Rayleigh waves

waves or Pressure (Secondary waves *They travel near *They travel near
waves or Push- or Shear waves) the surface of the the surface of the
Pull waves) Earth as a Earth as a
*They travel transverse wave. combination of
*They travel through the Earth transverse wave
through the Earth as a transverse *The vibrations of and longitudinal
as a longitudinal wave. the particles near wave.
wave. the surface are
*The vibrations of perpendicular to *The vibrations of
*The vibrations of the particles in the the propagation of the particles in the
the particles in the ground are the wave. ground are
ground are perpendicular or perpendicular and
parallel to the diagonal relative *They travel faster parallel to the
propagation of the to the propagation than Rayleigh propagation of the
wave. of the wave. waves. wave.
*They travel at a *They travel at a *They do not *They do not
speed between speed between travel through travel through
1.5 and 8.0 km s-1. 0.9 and 5.6 km s-1. water! but they water! but they
*Slower than P can affect surface can affect surface
*They arrive firstly waves. water when they water when they
at seismology reach the sides of reach the sides of
station. *They arrive lakes and ocean lakes and ocean
secondly at bays. bays.
*They can seismology
propagate in station.
massive rocks,
liquids and air. *They can only
propagate in
massive rocks.
*They are more
destructive than P
waves.

The vibrations (oscillations) of the particles in the ground look like the ones below if Earthquake
waves are body waves (P and S waves).

17
 OR
Direction of
y Direction of vibration of
propagation y
particles
of wave λ1 λ2 λ3 Direction of
propagation
λ3 λ2 of wave
x-axis λ1
x-axis
Parallel to the K Parallel to the
Earth’s surface Water Earth’s surface
A Ripple
z z Tank
glass
Direction of plate
Directionscreen
of on a
vibration of vibrationbench
of
particles particles3

P Wave S Wave

The vibrations (oscillations) of the particles in the ground look like the ones below if Earthquake
waves are surface waves (Love and Rayleigh waves).

y Direction of
y Direction of propagation
Vw
propagation of wave
of wave
x-axis
x-axis Parallel to the
Parallel to the Earth’s
Earth’s z
z surface
surface

Direction of Directions of
vibration of vibration of
particles particles
Rayleigh Wave
Love Wave

On xy-plane
y Direction of
propagation
of wave Vw.
Vw.
x-axis
Parallel to the
Earth’s surface
z
The resultant motion The resultant motion
of the particles in the of the water
Directions of ground while molecules near the
vibration of Rayleigh waves surface while water
particles travelling. Their paths waves travelling.
Motion of water molecules look like an ellips. Their paths look like
Motion is in counter- a circle. Motion is in
clockwise direction. clockwise direction.

18
 Think about a transverse mechanical wave propagating left to right on a rope or a slinky spring as
shown in the figure. Its horizontal position can be represented by (x) measured in meter. The vertical
displacement, with respect to the average equilibrium position, of a particle (solid spherical object) on the
rope can be represented by (y) measured in meter.
The position versus time graph, x-t graph, of the mechanical wave looks like;

x( t )  v . t

x(m)

v t (s)
0

The displacement versus position graph, y-x graph, of the vibrating particle looks like;

y( x )  a . Sin( x )

Y(m)
λ
a

0
x(m)
-a

The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs is called “wavelength, λ”.
The graph gives the displacement of the particle as a function of the position of the mechanical wave.
The displacent versus time graph, y-t graph, of the vibrating particle looks like;

Y(m) The distance between two successive crests or two successive

throughs in this graph is not wavelength, λ, because the horizontal axis is
the time axis scaled in seconds. It gives the displacement of the particle as
a a function of time.
t (s)
0 y( t )  a . Sin( v.t )
-a
The y-x and y-t graphs for transverse waves and longitudinal waves
are the same in appearance. This means that the y-x and y-t graphs for transverse waves and
longitudinal waves do not show the shape of the waves. The displacement y of the vibrating particle and
the position x of the mechanical wave are both the functions of time.

Example(4):

Y(cm)
The graph of the displacement of a particle in a mechanical
wave versus the position of the mechanical wave, (y-x), is shown
4 in the figure on the left. The mechanical wave covers the
X (cm) distance of 15 cm in 0.50 seconds.
0 15
-4
19
 a) Calculate the wavelength of the mechanical wave. (Ans:12 cm)

b) Calculate the period of the wave. (Ans: 0.40 s)

c) Calculate the frequency of the wave. (Ans: 2.5 s-1)

d) Calculate the propagation speed of the wave. (Ans: 0.30 m s-1)

e) Calculate the amplitude of the wave. (Ans: 0.040 m)

Example(5):

Y(cm) The graph of the displacement of a particle in a wave versus

the position of the wave, (y-x), is shown in the figure on the left.
8 The wave covers the distance of 21.0 cm in 1.40 seconds.
21 X (cm) a) Calculate the wavelength of the wave. (Ans: 12.0 cm)
0
-8
20
 b) Calculate the period of the wave. (Ans: 0.800 s)

c) Calculate the frequency of the wave. (Ans: 1.25 s-1)

d) Calculate the propagation speed of the wave. (Ans: 15.0 cm s-1)

e) Calculate the amplitude of the wave. (Ans: 8.00 cm)

Example(6):
Y(cm)

The graph of the displacement versus time of a

7.0 particle in a wave , (y-t), is shown in the figure on the left.
The wave covers the distance of 21.0 cm in 1.40
t (s)
seconds.
0 44
7.0

21
 a) Calculate the amplitude of the wave. (Ans: 7.00 cm)

b) Calculate the period of the wave. (Ans: 16.0 s)

c) Calculate the frequency of the wave. (Ans: 6.25x10-2 s-1)

d) Calculate the propagation speed of the wave. (Ans: 15.0 cm s-1)

e) Calculate the wavelength of the wave. (Ans: 2.40x102 cm)

Example(7):
Y(cm)

The graph of the displacement versus time of a

5.0 particle in a wave, (y-t), is shown in the figure on the left.
The wave covers the distance of 21.0 cm in 1.40 seconds.
t (s)
0 16 a) Calculate the amplitude of the wave. (Ans: 5.00cm)
5.0

22
 b) Calculate the period of the wave. (Ans: 8.00 s)

c) Calculate the frequency of the wave. (Ans: 0.125 s-1)

d) Calculate the propagation speed of the wave. (Ans: 15.0 cm s-1)

e) Calculate the wavelength of the wave. (Ans: 1.20x102 cm)

Example(8):

The frequency of a wave source is 5.0 s-1. The distance between the first and third successive
crests is 40.0 cm. What is the propagation speed of the waves produced by this source? (Ans: 1.0 m s-1)

23
Example(9):

The frequency of a wave source is 4.00 s-1. The distance between the first and third successive
troughs of the produced waves is 21.0 cm.

a) Calculate the propagation speed of the waves produced by the wave source. (Ans: 42.0 cm s-1)

b) Calculate the propagation speed of the waves produced by the same wave source in the same
medium be if the frequency of the wave source is doubled. (Ans: 42.0 cm s-1 )

c) Calculate the wavelength of the waves produced by the same wave source in the same medium
be if the frequency of the wave source is doubled. (Ans: 5.25 cm)

Example(10):
TRT-FM radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 95.0 MHz. Calculate the wavelength of the
electromagnetic waves broadcasted by TRT-FM radio station. Remember that all electromagnetc waves
in air propagate about at a speed of light, c=3.00x108 m s-1. (Ans: 3.16 m)

Example(11):
II

The propagations and straight wavefronts of water waves in four media are
III
shown in the figure below. Which medium ( ,  or V ) is the deepest? (Ans:
IV III)

24
Example(12):

K
A wave source produces periodic straight water waves at point K, as
shown in the figure. How is the shape of the wave propagation?

QUESTIONS(1.1)
Q.1) In what ways may energy be transferred?
Q.2) Deffine the words; pulse, crest, trough,
frequency, period, wavelength and amplitude.
Q.3) Can you think of an experiment to detect that
waves transport energy?
Q.4) What are two requirements for the production
of mechanical waves?

25
Q.5) Does the wave transmit the mass from one
place to another?
Q.6) In a transverse wave, in which direction do
the particles of the medium vibrate?
Q.7) How do transverse waves differ from
longitudinal waves?
Q.8) In what direction does a straight (plane) pulse
travel with respect to its crest?
Q.22) If a rope is hung from a ceiling and waves
are sent up the rope from its lower end, the waves
do not ascend with constant speed. Why?
Q.28) How could you prove experimentally that
energy is associated with a wave?
Q.32) Some kinds of waves in the ocean have a
very large amplitude as they approach the shore.
What can you say about the energy of these
waves?

Q.9) You toss a pebble into a still pond, and
observe a succession of waves moving outward
from the point where the pebble struck the water.
What is the source of the energy being carried by
the waves?
Q.33) Can you think of any man-made objects
which are designed so that they are free to vibrate
at their natural frequency? If so, what are they?

Q.11) How is the frequency of a wave related to

the frequency of the vibrating source?

Q.12) How does the speed of waves in a stretched

spring depend upon the tension in the spring?

Q.13) A pulse sent down along the string

eventually dies away and disappears. What
happens to its energy?

Q.14) The amplitude of a wave is doubled. If

nothing else is changed, how is the flow of energy
affected?

Q.15) What type of mechanical wave propagates

in a solid and in a fluid?

Q.16) How would you make a longitudinal wave in

a stretched spring? Would it be possible to make a
transverse wave in a spring?

Q.17) What factor would you have to increase in a

stretched string in order to double the average
speed?

Q.21) What happens to the wavelength and

velocity of a wave on a string when the frequency
is doubled? Suppose the tension in the string
remains the same.

PROBLEMS(1.1)
Q.2) The distance between first and fifth wave
crests is 20.0 cm. If the period of these waves is
0.05 s, calculate the speed of the wave.

26
 Q.7) A man on an inflatable boat observes four
waves pass in 0.50 s. The distance between crests
Q.3) A light wave whose frequency is 5.6 x1014 Hz is 0.50 m. How fast are the waves moving?
is passed through a liquid. Within the liquid the
wavelength is measured and found to be 2.8 x 10-7
m. Calculate the speed of light in this liquid.

Q.4) A machine gun fires 30 bullets per second.

The speed of the bullets is 6.00x102 ms-1. Q.8) Calculate the wavelength of the broadcast
wave from an AM radio station broadcasting on a
a) Calculate the distance in the air between frequency of 8.0x102 KHz.
the flying bullets.

b) What happens to the distance between the

bullets if you step down the rate of fire?

Q.10) In a ripple tank, a pulse is produced in 0.25 s

and it propagates at a speed of 20.0 cms-1.
Calculate the distance between four crests.

Q.5) Calculate the wavelength of water waves

which have frequency of 0.50 Hz and speed of 4.0
m s-1.
Q.11) Determine the direction of propagation in
each case for the figure shown below.

Q.6) The speed of waves at the coast is 36 ms-1

and the wavelength is 4.0 m. Calculate the
frequency with which the waves hit the beach. (a)

(b)

(c)

27
Q.12) In a river, the distance between two wave
crests is 0.30 m. If these waves cover 1.0 m
distance in 2.0 s, calculate the frequency of the
waves.

Q.18) A radar operating at a frequency of 9.0xI09

Hz emits groups of radio waves in 1.0x10-8 s.
Calculate:

Q.13) A periodic longitudinal wave, frequency of (a) the wavelength of these waves,
30.0 Hz, travels along a coil spring. If the distance
between successive compressions is 0.50 m,
calculate the speed of the wave.

(b) the length of each wave group,

Q.14) The speed of transverse waves in a string is

20 m s-1. If a source produces a disturbance at a (c) the number of waves in the group.
frequency of 5.0 Hz, calculate the wave length of
the waves.

Q.19) A wave has an amplitude of 2.0 cm and a

Q.15) A violin string is set in vibration at a
frequency of 4.40x102 Hz. How many vibrations
does it make while its sound travels 2.00x102 m in
air? (Vsound=340ms-1)
wavelength of 6.0 cm. Calculate the shortest
distance between a point on a crest and a point on
the next trough.

Q.16) Water waves are observed approaching a
light house at a speed of 6.0 ms-1. There is a
distance of 7.0 m between adjacent crests.
a) Calculate the frequency of the waves.
Q.20) Two identical water wave generators dipping
the same point of the water produce 10 pulses in
5.0 seconds. The second generator dips into water
0.20 s later than the first one. Calculate the
distance between the crests of waves produced by
the generators. The wavelength of the waves is 4.0
cm.

b) Calculate the period of the waves.

Q.21) A source is dipped into water and 20 waves
are produced per minute. If the wave velocity is

28
50.0 m per minute, calculate the wavelength of the
waves.

Q.22) A pulse travels in a ripple tank of 40.0 cm

length and is reflected back, meeting a second
pulse midway in the tank 1.0 s later.

a) Calculate the velocity of the pulses.

b) What is the period of the pulses?

Q.23) In a ripple tank, a pulse is produced in every

0.20 s and the velocity of the waves is 20.0 cm s-1.
Calculate;
1- 13 cm 15- 258
a) the wavelength of the waves 2- 1.0 m s-1 16- a)0.86 Hz b)1.2 s
3- 1.6x108 m s-1 17-
4- a) 20 m ; b) incr. 18- a) 3.3x10-2 m b) 3.0 m c)
90
5- 8.0 m 19- 5.0 cm
6- 9.0 Hz 20- 1.6 cm
7- 4m s-1 21- 2.5 m
b) the distance between pulses which are 8- 3.8x102 m 22- a)60 cm s-1 b) 0.67 s
produced every 1.0 second. 9- inv.; upr.; inv. 23- a)4.0 cm b)20 cm
10- 15 cm 24- 0.5 m s-1; 0.5 m s-1;
2.0 m s-1
11- R-R; L-R; R-L
12- 1.7 Hz
13- 15 m s-1
14- 4.0 m

TEST (1.1)
4 cm 4 cm
Q.4) Two pulses in Fig.1 propagate at speed of 2.0
cms-1 toward each other. How many seconds later 2 cm 2 cm
are the pulses represented by Fig.2?
I II
Fig.1. Fig.2.
29
a) 0.5s b) 1.0s c) 1.5 s The figure shown below shows the
d) 2.0s e) 2.5 s longitudinal section of a water container. Which
one of the following is the appearance of water
waves from above?

Q.5) Waves with wavelength of 5.0 cm move at a

speed of 2.0 cms-1 in a medium. After entering
another medium its speed increases to 4.0 cms-1.
Calculate the wavelength in the second medium.

a) 20cm b) 10 cm c) 7.5 cm
d) 5.0cm e) 2.5 cm

Q.7 The frequency of a wave is doubled. If the

velocity remains the same, its wavelength is;

a) unchanged b) halved c) doubled

d) tripled e) quartered

Q.11) What do waves transmit from one place to

another?

a) mass b) wavelength c) frequency

d) period e) energy

Q.8)

Q.13) Which one of the following is not a

mechanical wave?

a) sound wave b) water wave

c) waves on a spring d) radio wave
(a) (b)
e) waves on the flag

Q.14) Two waves have the amplitudes in the ratio

(c) (d) 2/7. The energies of the waves are in the ratio;

a) 2/7 b) 7/2 c) 49/4

d) 4/49 e) none of them

(e)
30
 a) Cand G b) A and I c) B, C, G and H

d) A, B, H and I e) C, D, E, G and K
Q.15) A periodic wave that has a frequency of 5.0
Hz and a speed of 10 m s-1 has wavelength of;

a) 50 m b) 5.0 m c) 2.0 m Q.20) Which of the following points will move down
d) 0.5 m e) 0.2 m later?

a) C and G b) A and I c) B, C, G and H

d) A, B, F, H, I and J e) A and G

Q.16) The water wave shown in the figure below is

moving toward the right. In which direction are the Q.21) Assuming a wavelength of 12 cm, amplitude
particles A and B moving? of 2.0 cm and period of 4.0 s, how long time will
elapse until a point B on the crest reaches
equilibrium position?
B
a) 2.5 s b) 2.0 s c) 1.5 s
A
d) 1.0 s e) 0.5 s

a) Both A and B are moving upward.

b) Both A and B are moving downward.
c) A is moving upward and B is moving downward.
d) A is moving downward and B is moving upward.
e) Both of them are stationary. Q.22) In the ripple tank 180 water waves per
minute are periodically produced. What is the
Base your answers to questions 18 through wavelength of these waves if they travel 9.0 cm
21 on the figure below. Wave I is moving to the per second?
right and wave II is moving to the left at the same
speed. They are identical in all other respects. a) 12 cm b) 9.0 cm c) 6.0cm
d) 3.0 cm e) 2.0 cm
I II
B H
A C G I
F L
D J

E K

Q.18) Which of the following points are stationary

at that instant?
ANSWERS;
a) D andJ b)F and L c) B, E, H and K
1-B; 2-B; 3-C; 4-C; 5-B; 6-A; 7-B; 8-C; 9-C; 10-A;
d) D, F, J and L e) B, E, F, H, K and L, 11-E;
12-C; 13-D; 14-D; 15-C; 16-C; 17-D; 18-E; 19-E;
20-D; 21-D; 22-D
Q.19) Which of the following points will move up
later?

31
 ÖSS QUESTIONS (1.1)
Q.4) Bir dalga hareketinde sadece a ve b Q.8) UzunIukIarı ve kalınlıkları eşit olan üç sarmaI
uzunlukları biliniyor ise, aşağıdakilerden hangisi yay ucu ucuna eklenererk bir doğrultuda gerilmiştir.
veya hangileri bulunabilir? I. yayda oIuşturulan şekiIdeki

I. Dalganın periyodu
II. Dalganın boyu III
Ill. Herhangi bir noktanın düşey maksimum L M
K I II N
yerdeğiştirmesi

Y(cm)
atmanın II. ve Ill. yaylara geçişi şekiIde gösterildiği
gibidir.
a

X(cm)
b
K L N
I II M
III

a) yalnız I b) II-III c) I , II ve III Yayların yapıldığı maddelerin yoğunlukları (öz

d) yalnız III E) yalnız II kütleleri) sıra ile d1, d2, ve d3 olduğuna göre
aşağıdakilerden hangisi doğrudur?

a) d1 < d2 < d3
b) d2 < d1 < d3
c) d3 < d1 < d2
d) d1 < d3 < d2
e) d2 < d3 < d1

Q.9) Periyotlu bir dalga kaynağıdan yayılan

dalgalar şekilde gösterilmiştir. K ve M noktaları
arasındaki L uzunluğu ile t = t2 – t1 bilindiğine
göre, aşağıdakilerden hangisi bulunamaz?

K M
t1 t2 t (s)

a Dalganın frekansı
b) Dalganın yayılma hızı
c) Dalganın dalga boyu
d) Dalganın genliği
e) Dalganın genişliği

Q.11)

32
I-Madde I- dalganın genliğine
II- Enerji Il- dalganın frekansına
Ill- Dalganın biçimi III- dalganın biçimine

Esnek bir ortamda yayılan dalga ile Yukarıdakilerden hangisine veya hangilerine
yukardakilerden hangisi veya hangileri taşınır? bağlı değildir?

a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız Il c) Yalnız III a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız Il c) Yalnız III

d) I ve Il e) Il ve III d) I ile Il e) II ile III

Q.16) Homojen sarmal bir yayın K ve L

Q.12) Dalgalar ulaştıkları yerlere enerji taşırlar. noktalarındaki iki kaynak tarafından oluşturulan iki
Dalganın taşıdığı enerji genliğinin karesi ile dalga şekiIde gösterilmiştir.
orantılıdır. Su yüzeyinde yayılan dairesel bir
atmanın genliği, merkezden uzaklaştıkca azalır.
Bunun nedeni aşağıdakilerden hangisi veya
hangileri olabilir? K L

I- Merkezden uzaklaştıkca, enerjinin daha

büyük bir alana yayılmasıdır.
II- Suda, iç sürtünmeye karşı yapılan iştir.
III- Dalga enerjisinin zamana bağlı Bu iki dalga için;
oluşudur.
I-Frekansları aynıdır.
a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız II c) Yalnız III II- Hızları eşit büyüklüktedir.
d) I ile Il e) II ile III III- Dalga boyları aynıdır.

Yukarıdakilerden hangiIeri doğrudur?

a) Yalnız III b) I ve II c) I ve III

Q.13) Derinliği her yerde aynı olan dalga d) II ve III E) I, II ve III
leğeninde, kaynaktan üretilen periyodik dalgaların
hızı V 'dir. Başka bir değişiklik yapılmadan
kaynağın frekansı yarıya indirilirse, dalgalanın
yayılma hızı ne olur? Q.17)

a) 4V b) 3V c) 2V t1 = 0 t2= 1s
d) V e) V/2

K K L
L

Fig.1 Fig.2

Periyotlu bir dalganın t1 = 0 anındaki görünümü

Q.14) ilerleyen bir dalgaya özgü hangi nicelik, şekil-1'de, t2 = 1 saniye anındaki görünümü şekil-
ortamdan bağımsızdır? 2'deki gibi oluyor. Buna göre dalganın periyodu en
fazla kaç saniye olabilir?
A) Yayılma hızı b) Dalgaboyu c) Genişlik
d) Genlik e) Frekans a)4 b) 2 c) 1 d) 1/2 e) 1/4

Q.15) Dalgalar ulaştıkları yere enerji taşırlar. Bir Q.18)

dalganın taşıdığı enerji;

33
 Esnek, gergin bir ipte, özdeş atmalar
oluşturuluyor.
Aynı gerginlikte, aynı türden daha kalın bir 1
ip kullanılsa, kesin olarak aşağıdakilerden hangisi
gözlenir? 2

L
I. Atmaların yayılma hızı artar. K
Şekil.1
II. Atmaların yayılma hızı azalır.
Ill.Atmaların genişlikleri azalır.

a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız Il c) Yalnız III

Şekil.2
d) I ile III e) II ile III

Şekil-I deki esnek, sarmal yay L ucundan

Q.19)
I- Gerilmiş bir sarmal yayda, oluşturulan bir sarsıntı
II- Bacadan çıkan dumanın hava da yayılması
Ill- Akıntıya kapılan bir tahta parçsının hareketi
Yukarıdakilerden hangisi veya hangileri bir dalga
yayılmasıdır?
bağlı olarak gerilmiştir. Yay K ucundan düzgün
zaman aralıkları ile çekilmektedir.
Yatay bir çubuğa, şekil-2 de görüldüğü gibi
çelik bilyeler asılmıştır. Bir uçtaki bilye, aynı
düzlemde yana alınıp serbest bırakılırsa, öteki
uçtaki bilye harekete geçer. Bu olayda ortadaki
bilyeler, hareketi dalga hareketi ile iletirler.
I. Şekil-l deki yay 1 yönünde çekildiğinde
yayda oluşan dalgalar enine dalgadır.
II. Şekil-l deki yay 2 yönünde çekildiğinde
yayda oluşan dalgalar boyuna dalgadır.
III. Şekil-2 de ortadaki bilyelerin hareketi enine
dalgadır.
Yukarıdakilerden hangisi veya hangileri doğrudur?

a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız III c) I ve II a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız III c) I ve II

d) I ve III e) II ve III d) I ve III e) II ve III

Q.21) !!!!!

I. Işık dalgaları
II. Ses dalgaları
III. Su dalgaları

Yukarıdakilerden hangisi veya hangileri enine

dalgadır?

a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız II c) Yalnız III

d) I ve III e) II ve III

Q.20)

34
Q.23) Altdaki şekilde, gergin, ideal esnek bir Q.26) Havada ses dalgalarının yayılma hızını
yaydan iki atma veriliyor. Atmalarda, birer noktanın bulmak için:
hareketi oklarla gösterilmştir. Atmaların yayılma
yönleri için ne söylenebilir? I-Hava basıncı (p)
II-Havanın özkütlesi (d)
( 1) ( 2) Ill- Havanın y =Cp/Cv (sabit basınçtaki özısı / sabit
hacimdeki özısısı )

değerlerinden hangisi ya da hangilerini kullanmak

gerekir?
a) 1sağa; 2 sola b) 1 sola; 2 sağa
c) İkisi de sola d) İkisi de sağa
e) İkisi de oklar yönünde a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız II c) Yalnız III
d) Yalnız I ve II e) I , II ve III

Q.24) Bir atmanın gergin bir ipteki yayılma hızı;

I. İpin uzunluğuna
II. İpin gerginliğine Q.27) Şekildeki atmalardan hangisi veya hangileri
III. İpin birim uzunluğunun kütlesine aynı yönde ilerlemektedir?

Yukarıdakilerden hangisine bağlı değildir?

I II
a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız II c) Yalnız III
d) I ve II e) I ve III III IV

a) I ve II b) II ve III c) I ve IV
d) I , II ve IV e) I , II ve III
Q.25) Bir katı maddenin;

I. EsnekIik modülü
II. Özkütlesi
III. Biçimi

veriliyor. Bu katıda, hacimsel (üç boyutlu

yayılabilen) dalgalanın yayılma hızı, yukarıdaki
verilerden hangisi ya da hangilerine bağlıdır?

a) Yalnız I b) Yalnız II c) Yalnız III

d) I ve II e) II ve III

35
Q.35)

L
K L K

Şekil.1 Şekil.2

Şekil-I'de görünümü verilen T periyotlu bir dalga,

bu durumdan ne kadar süre sonra, ilk kez şekil-
II'deki durumu alır?

a) 2T b) 3T/2 c) T/2
d) T/4 e) T/8

http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html

ANSWERS:

1-D; 2-B; 3-D; 4-B; 5-B; 6-D; 7-E; 8-B; 9-D; 10-D:
11-E; 12-B; 13-D; 14-E; 15-C; 16-E; 17-B; 18-E;
19- A; 20-C; 21-D; 22-B; 23-C; 24-A; 25-D; 26-E;
27-E; 28-C; 29-E; 30-E; 31-D; 32-B; 33-E; 34-E;
35-D; 36-B; 37-A; 38-B; 39-B; 40-B

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/waves/l
tm.html

http://paws.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/waves/
wavemotion.html
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/Phys/mmedi
a/waves/lw.html
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/Phys/mmedi
a/waves/em.html

http://www.masteringphysics.com

http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/wave-on-a-
string/wave-on-a-string_en.html

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